this is a list of mycologists.doc

8/13/2019 This is a list of mycologists.doc

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This is a list of mycologists, orscientistswith a specialisation in mycology, with their authorabbreviations.

A Erik Acharius (175711!" # Ach.

$ichel A%anson (17&71'" #Adans.

)eo**rey +lough Ainsworth (1!'51!!" # Ainsw.

)eorge rancis Atkinson (15-1!1"# G.F.Atk.

A%am A*elius (175'1/7" # Afzel.

+arl A%olph Agar%h (17515!" #

C.Agardh

0acob )eorg Agar%h (11/1!'1" #J.Agardh

+onstantine 0ohn Aleopolous (1!'71!" # Alexop.

2avi% Arora (1!5/" # D.Arora

3 +hurchill 3abington (1&11!" #

C.Bab. +harles 2avi% 3a%ham (1'5157"

# Badham

)iuseppe )abriel 3alsamo4+rivelli(1''17-" # Bals.Cri!.

Anton %e 3ary (1/11" # deBary

August 0ohann )eorg arl 3atsch

(1711'&" # Batsch

)aspar% 3auhin (15'1&-" #C.Ba"hin

0ohann 3auhin (15-111/" #J.Ba"hin

6enry +urtis 3ear%slee (151!-"# Beardslee

$aurice 3eeli (17!1!57" # Beeli

$iles 0oseph 3erkeley (1'/1!"

0akob Emanuel ange# J.#.$ange

+harles %e l89cluse (15&1'!" #Cl"s.

)ustav in%au (11!&/" # $inda"

0ohann 6einrich rie%rich ink (17715'" # $ink

+arolus innaeus (17'7177" # $.

$ :u%olph Arnol% $aas )eesteranus

(1!11&''/" # %aas Geest. +harles $c;lvaine (1-'1!'!" #

%c&l!.

:en< +harles 0oseph Ernest $aire(171!-!" # %aire

)eorge =. $artin (11!71" #G.'.%artin

)eorge E%war% $assee (15'1!17" #

%assee 0ohn $acoun (1/11!&'" # %aco"n

>estor


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# Berk.

+hristine $arie 3erkhout (1!/1!/&" # Berkh.

6owar% E. 3igelow (1!&/1!7" #).#.Bigelow

+arl u%wig 3lume (17!1&" #Bl"me

0ames 3olton (17517!!" # Bolton

$arcel 3on (1!&5 " # Bon

0ean ouis 9mile 3ou%ier (1&1!&'" # Bo"d.

6ubert 3our%ot (111!/7" #Bo"rdot

)iacomo 3resa%ola (1-71!&!" #Bres.

>athaniel or% 3ritton (15!1!/-"# Britton

$a 3ritelmayr (1/!1!'!" #Britzelm.

+hristopher E%mun% 3roome (11&1" # Broome

Arthur 6enry :eginal% 3uller (17-1!--" # B"ller

0ean 3aptiste ran@ois ?ierre 3ulliar%(17-&17!/" # B"ll.

)ertru%e immons 3urlingham(17&1!5&" # B"rl.

E%win 0ohn 3utler (17-1!-/" ##.J.B"tler

+ A. ?. %e +an%olle (1771-1" #

DC. )eorge =ashington +arver (1-

1!-/" # Car!er

;gnacio +hapela# Chapela

0ohn 3urton +lelan% (171!71" #

er%inan% von $ueller (1&51!" #F.%"ell.

=illiam $urrill (1!1!57" # %"rrill

> arl =ilhelm von >Bgeli (1171!1"

# *+geli +hristian )ott*rie% 2aniel >ees von

Esenbeck(17715" # *ees

rank >ewhook

$achiel >oor%eloos (1!-! " #*oordel.

C ?. 2. Crton (1!1&''5" # ,.D.-rton

? re%erick ?arker4:ho%es (1!1-41!7" #

,ark.hodes A.A. ?earson (17-1!5-" #

A.,earson

+harles 6orton ?eck (1//1!17" #,eck

+hristiaan 6en%rik ?ersoon (1711/"# ,ers.

Thomas ?etch (17'1!-" # ,etch

E%uar% rie%rich ?oeppig (17!11"# ,oepp.

;llty% 3uller ?ole4Evans (17!1!" #,ole#!ans

?atricio ?once %e eDn (1!1!&'1'" #,.,once de $e/n

arel ?resl (17!-15&" # C.,resl.

>athanael ?ringsheim (1&/1!-" #,ringsh.

ucien u


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Cleland

$elville Thurston +ook (1!1!5&"# %.(.Cook

Crator uller +ook (171!-!" #-.F.Cook

$or%ecai +ubitt +ooke (1&51!1-"# Cooke

=illiam 3ri%ge +ooke (1!'1!!1"# '.B.Cooke

August +arl 0oseph +or%a (1'!1-!" # Corda

E%re% 0ohn 6enry +orner (1!'1!!" # Corner

+arl ran 0oseph Erich +orrens(1-1!//" # Correns

A.2. +otton (17!1!&" # Cotton

+harles +rosslan% (1--1!1" #Crossl.

)or%on 6erriott +unningham (1!&

1!&" # G.C"nn.

=illiam +urtis (17-17!!" # C"rtis

2 :.=.). 2ennis (1!1'&''/" #

Dennis )uiseppe 2e >otaris (1'5177" #

De *ot.

:en< ouiche 2es*ontaines (175'

1//" # Desf. >icaise Auguste 2esvau (17-

15" # Des!.

0ames 2ickson (17/1&&" # Dicks.

0ohann 0acob 2illenius (1717-7"# Dill.

0oan 2ingley# Dingley

Ethel $ary 2oi%ge (171!5" #Doidge

0Grg 6. :aithelhuber# aithelh.

0ohn :amsbottom (151!7-" #amsb.

+arleton :ea (111!-" # ea

6einrich :ehm (1&1!1" # ehm

u%wig :eichenbach (17!/17!" #chb.

2erek :ei% (1!&7&''" # D.A.eid

6enry >icholas :i%ley (1551!5" #idl.

6enri :omagnesi (1!1&1!!!" #omagn.

Emil :ostrup (1/11!'7" # ostr.

)eorg Eberhar% :umphius (1&17'&"# "mph.

?ier An%rea accar%o (1-51!&'" #

2acc. Augustin aint46ilaire (17!!15/" #

A.2t.)il.

0acob +hristian chB**er (17117!'" #2chaeff.

2ie%erich ran eonhar% vonchlechten%al(17!-1" # 2chltdl.

ran ?aula von chrank (17-71/5"# 2chrank.

0oseph chrGter (1/71!-" #J.2chr3t.

ewis 2avi% von chweinit (17'1/-" # 2chwein.

)iovanni Antonio copoli (17&/17"# 2cop.

re% 0ay eaver (1771!7'" # 2ea!er

ouis ecretan (1751/!" # 2ecr.

0ohn ibthorp (17517!" # 2ibth.

3
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Melville_Thurston_Cook&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orator_Fuller_Cookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordecai_Cubitt_Cookehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Bridge_Cooke&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Carl_Joseph_Cordahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edred_John_Henry_Cornerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Franz_Joseph_Erich_Correns&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Disbrowe_Cottonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Crosslandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gordon_Herriott_Cunningham&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Curtishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.W.G._Dennishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guiseppe_De_Notaris&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louiche_Desfontaineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaise_Auguste_Desvauxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dickson_(biologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Jacob_Dilleniushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Dingleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethel_Mary_Doidge&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C3%B6rg_H._Raithelhuber&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ramsbottom_(mycologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carleton_Reahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Rehmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Reichenbachhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Reidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Nicholas_Ridleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Romagnesihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Rostruphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Eberhard_Rumphiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pier_Andrea_Saccardohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Saint-Hilairehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Christian_Sch%C3%A4fferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diederich_Franz_Leonhard_von_Schlechtendalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diederich_Franz_Leonhard_von_Schlechtendalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diederich_Franz_Leonhard_von_Schlechtendalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Paula_von_Schrankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Schr%C3%B6terhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_David_von_Schweinitzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Antonio_Scopolihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Jay_Seaverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Secretanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Sibthorphttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Melville_Thurston_Cook&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orator_Fuller_Cookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordecai_Cubitt_Cookehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Bridge_Cooke&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Carl_Joseph_Cordahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edred_John_Henry_Cornerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Carl_Franz_Joseph_Erich_Correns&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Disbrowe_Cottonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Crosslandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gordon_Herriott_Cunningham&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Curtishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.W.G._Dennishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guiseppe_De_Notaris&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Louiche_Desfontaineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaise_Auguste_Desvauxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Dickson_(biologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Jacob_Dilleniushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Dingleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethel_Mary_Doidge&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C3%B6rg_H._Raithelhuber&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ramsbottom_(mycologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carleton_Reahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Rehmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Reichenbachhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Reidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Nicholas_Ridleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Romagnesihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Rostruphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg_Eberhard_Rumphiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pier_Andrea_Saccardohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Saint-Hilairehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Christian_Sch%C3%A4fferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diederich_Franz_Leonhard_von_Schlechtendalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diederich_Franz_Leonhard_von_Schlechtendalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Paula_von_Schrankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Schr%C3%B6terhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_David_von_Schweinitzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Antonio_Scopolihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Jay_Seaverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Secretanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Sibthorp


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$arinus Anton 2onk (1!'41!7&" #Donk

3arth


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) 0oseph )aertner (17/&17!1" #

Gaertn. :ichar% H. )aines

+harles )au%ichau%43eaupr< (17!15-" # Ga"dich.


6/55

)olmsk.

0oseph 2alton 6ooker (1171!11" #)ook.f.

0ohn =. 6otson (17' N" # )otson

Anna $aria 6ussey (ca. 1&' 177"# )"ssey

; Emil 0. ;mbach (1!71!7'" #

&mbach

0 >ikolaus 0oseph von 0acFuin (17&7

117" # Jac6. Abraham O. 0o**e (1!'!&'''" #Joffe

Iroly alchbrenner (1'71" #

7alchbr. )ustav arl =ilhelm 6ermann

arsten(1171!'" # ).7arst.

?etter A%ol* arsten (1/-1!17" #

,.7arst +alvin 6enry au**man (1!1!/1"

# 7a"ffman

3ryce en%rick (1!//" #'.B.7endr.

rantiPek otlaba (1!&7 " # 7otl.

0ulius Hincen von rombhol (17&1-/" #

0ulius )otthel* Qhn (1&51!1'" #J.G.78hn

:obert Qhner (1!'/1!!" #78hner

?aul ummer (1/-1!1&" #,.7"mm.

'elw.

+arl u%wig =ill%enow (17511&" #'illd.

=illiam =ithering (17-117!!" #'ith.

Alec =oo% (1!// " # A.#.'ood

0ohn $e%ley =oo% (1&71!15" #J.%.'ood

ran Javier von =ul*en (17&1'5"# '"lfen

R Anthony $. Roung# A.%.9o"ng

O =an%a OabSocka (1!''1!7" #

6
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hookerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_W._Hotson&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Maria_Husseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emil_J._Imbach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaus_Joseph_von_Jacquinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Z._Joffehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Kalchbrennerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Karl_Wilhelm_Hermann_Karstenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Karl_Wilhelm_Hermann_Karstenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Karl_Wilhelm_Hermann_Karstenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petter_Adolf_Karstenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Calvin_Henry_Kauffman&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryce_Kendrickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_Kotlabahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Vincenz_von_Krombholzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julius_Gotthelf_K%C3%BChn&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_K%C3%BChnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Kummerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Ludwig_Willdenowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Witheringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alec_Wood_(mycologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Medley_Woodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Xavier_von_Wulfenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_M._Younghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wanda_Zab%C5%82ockahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hookerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_W._Hotson&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Maria_Husseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emil_J._Imbach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaus_Joseph_von_Jacquinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Z._Joffehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A1roly_Kalchbrennerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Karl_Wilhelm_Hermann_Karstenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Karl_Wilhelm_Hermann_Karstenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petter_Adolf_Karstenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Calvin_Henry_Kauffman&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryce_Kendrickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franti%C5%A1ek_Kotlabahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Vincenz_von_Krombholzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julius_Gotthelf_K%C3%BChn&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_K%C3%BChnerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Kummerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Ludwig_Willdenowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Witheringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alec_Wood_(mycologist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Medley_Woodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Xavier_von_Wulfenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_M._Younghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wanda_Zab%C5%82ocka


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The *ollowing is a list o*Kournalsan% magaines in the *iel% o* mycology

Title Location/Publisher Years

Acta Mycologia Polish Botanical Society; Cracow 1965

Acta Mycologia SinicaThe Institute of Microbiology TheChinese !ca"e#y of Sciences; Bei$ing

19%&1996'1(

African Journal of Mycology andBiotechnology

Cairo )gy*t199+&,,1

Agarica -orges So**. og nytte/e0stforbun"

L'Amateur de Champignons Paris rance19,%19&2

Anais da Associao Micolgica "AA!#$$A"

&,,1

Annales Mycologici Berlin 3er#any19,+1922'&(

Atas do %nstituto de Micologia&ni(ersidade do $ecife

4ecife Brail196,196

Australasian MycologistThe !ustralasian Mycological Society;7tago -ew 8ealan"

1996

Beihefte )ur *eitschrift furMy+ologie

3er#an Mycological Society

Belarra Socie"a" Micologica Bara0al"o 195

he Bi,liography of SystematicMycology

C!BI.Bioscience :aturalis historia.The $i%%le Ages saw little a%vancement in the bo%y o* knowle%ge about *ungi. :ather, theinvention o* the printing press allowe% some authors to %isseminate superstitions an%misconceptions about the *ungi that ha% been perpetuate% by the classical authors. \&]The starto* the mo%ern age o* mycology begins with ?ier Antonio $icheli8s 17/7 publication o*Nova

plantarum genera.\-] ?ublishe% in lorence, this seminal work lai% the *oun%ations *or thesystematic classi*ication o* grasses, mosses an% *ungi. The term mycology an% thecomplimentary mycologistwere *irst use% in 1/ by $.0. 3erkeley.\5]

Medicinal mycologyMain article Medicinal mushrooms

or centuries, certain mushrooms have been %ocumente% as a *olk me%icine in +hina, 0apan,an%:ussia.\]Although the use o* mushrooms in *olk me%icine is largely centere% on the Asiancontinent, people in other parts o* the worl% like the $i%%le East, ?olan% an% 3elarushave

been %ocumente% using mushrooms *or me%icinal purposes.\7]\]+ertain mushrooms, especiallypolypores like :eishiwere thought to be able to bene*it a wi%e variety o* health ailments.$e%icinal mushroom research in the Lnite% tates is currently active, with stu%ies taking placeat +ity o* 6ope >ational $e%ical +enter,\!]\1']as well as the $emorial loanettering +ancer+enter.\11]+urrent research *ocuses on mushrooms that may have hypoglycemicactivity, anti4cancer activity, anti4pathogenic activity, an% immune system enhancing activity. :ecentresearch has *oun% that the oyster mushroomnaturally contains the cholesterol4lowering %ruglovastatin,\1&]mushrooms pro%uce large amounts o* vitamin 2when epose% to LH light,\1/]

an% that certain *ungi may be a *uture source o* taol.\1-] To %ate, penicillin, lovastatin,ciclosporin, griseo*ulvin, cephalosporin, ergometrine, an% statins are the most *amous

pharmaceuticals which have been isolate% *rom the *ungiking%om.

A f"ng"s (pronounce% fQRs^ pl. *ungi\/]or *unguses\-]" is a member o* a large group o*eukaryoticorganisms that inclu%es microorganisms such as yeastsan% mol%s(3ritish English

moul%s", as well as the more *amiliar mushrooms. These organisms are classi*ie% as aking%om, F"ngi, which is separate *romplants,animals, an%bacteria. Cne maKor %i**erence is

13
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Joffehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycorrhizaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomoleculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oomyceteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oomyceteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slime_moldshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoplasmosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_elm_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnaporthe_griseahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolhope_Naturalists'_Field_Clubhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenic_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenic_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenic_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenic_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-SanBlasCalderone-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistorichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_elderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truffle_(fungi)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pier_Antonio_Michelihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pier_Antonio_Michelihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinal_mushroomshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyporeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reishihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Hope_National_Medical_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-cohPage-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-COHshiitake-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorial_Sloan%E2%80%93Kettering_Cancer_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorial_Sloan%E2%80%93Kettering_Cancer_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-PMID:_19253021-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-PMID:_19253021-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oyster_mushroomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovastatinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-pmid7614366-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-pmid7614366-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UV_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UV_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-vitD-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-pmid16572833-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-pmid16572833-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovastatinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciclosporinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciclosporinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griseofulvinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griseofulvinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalosporinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergometrinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelling_differenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroomshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Joffehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycorrhizaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomoleculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oomyceteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slime_moldshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoplasmosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_elm_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnaporthe_griseahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolhope_Naturalists'_Field_Clubhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenic_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenic_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-SanBlasCalderone-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistorichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_elderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truffle_(fungi)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pier_Antonio_Michelihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinal_mushroomshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyporeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reishihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Hope_National_Medical_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-cohPage-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-COHshiitake-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorial_Sloan%E2%80%93Kettering_Cancer_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memorial_Sloan%E2%80%93Kettering_Cancer_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-PMID:_19253021-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oyster_mushroomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovastatinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-pmid7614366-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Dhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UV_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-vitD-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology#cite_note-pmid16572833-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovastatinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciclosporinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griseofulvinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalosporinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergometrinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryotehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelling_differenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroomshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria


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that *ungal cells have cell walls that contain chitin, unlike the cell walls o* plants, whichcontain cellulose. These an% other %i**erences show that the *ungi *orm a single group o*relate% organisms, name% the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes", that share a commonancestor (a monophyletic group". This *ungal group is %istinct *rom the structurally similarmyomycetes(slime mol%s" an% oomycetes(water mol%s". The %iscipline o* biology%evote%

to the stu%y o* *ungi is known as mycology, which is o*ten regar%e% as a branch o* botany,even though genetic stu%ies have shown that *ungi are more closely relate% to animals than to

plants. Abun%ant worl%wi%e, most *ungi are inconspicuous because o* the small sie o* theirstructures, an% theircryptic li*estyles in soil, on %ea% matter, an% as symbionts o* plants,animals, or other *ungi. They may become noticeable when *ruiting, either as mushrooms ormol%s. ungi per*orm an essential role in the %ecomposition o* organic matter an% have*un%amental roles in nutrient cyclingan% echange. They have long been use% as a %irectsource o* *oo%, such as mushrooms an% tru**les, as a leavening agent *or brea%, an% in*ermentation o* various *oo% pro%ucts, such as wine, beer, an% soy sauce. ince the 1!-'s,*ungi have been use% *or the pro%uction o* antibiotics, an%, more recently, various enymes

pro%uce% by *ungi are use% in%ustriallyan% in %etergents.ungi are also use% asbiological

pestici%es to control wee%s, plant %iseases an% insect pests. $any species pro%uce bioactivecompoun%s calle% mycotoins,such as alkaloi%s an%polyketi%es, that are toic to animalsinclu%ing humans. The *ruiting structures o* a *ew species containpsychotropic compoun%san% are consume% recreationallyor in tra%itional spiritual ceremonies. ungi can break %ownmanu*acture% materials an% buil%ings, an% become signi*icantpathogenso* humans an% otheranimals. osses o* crops %ue to *ungal %iseases (e.g. rice blast %isease" or *oo% spoilagecanhave a large impact on human *oo% suppliesan% local economies.

The *ungus king%om encompasses an enormous %iversity o* taawith varie% ecologies, li*ecycle strategies, an% morphologies ranging *rom single4celle% aFuatic chytri%s to largemushrooms. 6owever, little is known o* the true bio%iversityo* ing%om ungi, which has

been estimate% at aroun% 1.5 million species, with about 5_ o* these having been *ormallyclassi*ie%. Ever since the pioneering 1th an% 1!th century taonomical works o* +arlinnaeus, +hristian 6en%rik ?ersoon, an% Elias $agnus ries, *ungi have been classi*ie%accor%ing to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic*eatures" or physiology. A%vances in molecular genetics have opene% the way *or 2>Aanalysis to be incorporate% into taonomy, which has sometimes challenge% the historicalgroupings base% on morphology an% other traits. ?hylogeneticstu%ies publishe% in the last%eca%e have helpe% reshape the classi*ication o* ing%om ungi, which is %ivi%e% into onesubking%om, sevenphyla,an% ten subphyla.

14
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_wallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ancestorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ancestorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophyletichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myxomyceteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oomyceteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crypsishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crypsishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporocarp_(fungi)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeochemical_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuber_(genus)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread#Leaveninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread#Leaveninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread#Leaveninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_(food)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_(food)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy_saucehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme#Industrial_applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protease#Occurrencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protease#Occurrencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_pesticidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_pesticidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_pesticidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioactivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycotoxinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycotoxinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyketidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotropichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreational_drug_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenic_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice_blast_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoilagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Hendrik_Persoonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elias_Magnus_Frieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_rankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_wallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ancestorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ancestorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophyletichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myxomyceteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oomyceteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crypsishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporocarp_(fungi)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeochemical_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuber_(genus)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread#Leaveninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_(food)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy_saucehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzymehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme#Industrial_applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protease#Occurrencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_pesticidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_pesticidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioactivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycotoxinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaloidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyketidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotropichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreational_drug_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entheogenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogenic_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rice_blast_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoilagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_securityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Hendrik_Persoonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elias_Magnus_Frieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_classificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomic_rankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylum


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Contents'hi"e(

1 )ty#ology

& Characteristics + Ei/ersity

2 Mor*hology

o 2K1 Microsco*ic structures

o 2K& Macrosco*ic structures

5 3rowth an" *hysiology

6 4e*ro"uction

o 6K1 !seLual re*ro"uction

o 6K& SeLual re*ro"uction

o 6K+ S*ore "is*ersal

o 6K2 7ther seLual *rocesses

)/olution

% TaLono#y

o %K1 TaLono#ic grou*s

o %K& ungus.li0e organis#s

9 )cology

o 9K1 Sy#biosis

9K1K1 Gith *lants

9K1K& Gith algae an" cyanobacteria

9K1K+ Gith insects

9K1K2 !s *athogens an" *arasites

1, Fu#an use

o 1,K1 Erugs

o 1,K& Culture" foo"s

o 1,K+ Me"icinal use

o 1,K2 )"ible an" *oisonous s*ecies

o 1,K5 Pest control

o 1,K6 Biore#e"iation

15
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Etymologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Characteristicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Morphologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Microscopic_structureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Macroscopic_structureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Growth_and_physiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Asexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Sexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Spore_dispersalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Spore_dispersalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Other_sexual_processeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Taxonomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Taxonomic_groupshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Fungus-like_organismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Symbiosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#With_plantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#With_algae_and_cyanobacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#With_insectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#As_pathogens_and_parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Human_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Drugshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Cultured_foodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Medicinal_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Edible_and_poisonous_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Pest_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Pest_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Bioremediationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Etymologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Characteristicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Morphologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Microscopic_structureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Macroscopic_structureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Growth_and_physiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Asexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Sexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Spore_dispersalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Other_sexual_processeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Taxonomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Taxonomic_groupshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Fungus-like_organismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Symbiosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#With_plantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#With_algae_and_cyanobacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#With_insectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#As_pathogens_and_parasiteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Human_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Drugshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Cultured_foodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Medicinal_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Edible_and_poisonous_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Pest_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Bioremediationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Model_organismshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Othershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Mycotoxins


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Etymology

The English wor%fungus is %irectly a%opte% *rom the atinfungus (mushroom", use% in thewritings o* 6oracean% ?liny.\5]This in turn is %erive% *rom the )reekwor%sphongos`ddY([sponge[", which re*ers to the macroscopicstructures an% morphology o* mushrooms an%

mol%s^ the root is also use% in other languages, such as the )erman Schwamm ([sponge[",Schimmel([mol%[", an% the rench champignonan% the panish champion(which both mean[mushroom[".\]The use o* the wor% mycology, which is %erive% *rom the )reek mykes`UVWXY(mushroom" an% logos`fdY (%iscourse",\7]to %enote the scienti*ic stu%y o* *ungi is thought tohave originate% in 1/ with English naturalist $iles 0oseph 3erkeley8s publication The

English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith !ol" #"\]

Characteristics

3e*ore the intro%uction o* molecular metho%s *or phylogenetic analysis, taonomists

consi%ere% *ungi to be members o* the ?lant ing%ombecause o* similarities in li*estyle both*ungi an% plants are mainly immobile, an% have similarities in general morphology an% growthhabitat. ike plants, *ungi o*ten grow in soil, an% in the case o* mushrooms*orm conspicuous*ruiting bo%ies, which sometimes bear resemblance to plants such as mosses.The *ungi arenow consi%ere% a separate king%om, %istinct *rom both plants an% animals, *rom which theyappear to have %iverge% aroun% one billion years ago.\]\!]ome morphological, biochemical,an% genetic *eatures are share% with other organisms, while others are uniFue to the *ungi,clearly separating them *rom the other king%oms

hare% *eatures

Gith other eu0aryotesO !s other eu0aryotes fungal cells contain#e#brane.boun" nuclei with chro#oso#es that contain E-! withnonco"ing regions calle" introns an" co"ing regions calle" eLonsK Ina""ition fungi *ossess #e#brane.boun" cyto*las#ic organelles such as#itochon"ria sterol.containing #e#branes an" riboso#esof the %,Sty*eK'1,(They ha/e a characteristic range of soluble carbohy"rates an" storageco#*oun"s inclu"ing sugar alcohols eKgK #annitol


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fila#entous hy*hal cellsK'19(In contrast si#ilar.loo0ing organis#s such asfila#entous green algae grow by re*eate" cell "i/ision within a chain ofcellsK'11(

In co##on with so#e *lant an" ani#al s*ecies #ore than 6, fungals*ecies "is*lay the *heno#enon of biolu#inescenceK'&,(

LniFue *eatures

So#e s*ecies grow as single.celle" yeasts that re*ro"uce by bu""ing orbinary fissionK Ei#or*hic fungican switch between a yeast *hase an" ahy*hal *hase in res*onse to en/iron#ental con"itionsK'&1(The fungal cellwall is co#*ose" of glucans an" chitin; while the for#er co#*oun"s arealso foun" in *lants an" the latter in the eLos0eleton of arthro*o"s'&&('&+(

fungi are the only organis#s that co#bine these two structural #olecules intheir cell wallK In contrast to *lants an" the oo#ycetes fungal cell walls "onot contain celluloseK'&2(

#mphalotus nidiformis a biolu#inescent #ushroo#

$ost *ungi lack an e**icient system *or long4%istance transport o* water an% nutrients, such asthe ylem an% phloemin many plants. To overcome these limitations, some *ungi, such as

$rmillaria, *orm rhiomorphs,\&5] that resemble an% per*orm *unctions similar to the rootso*plants. Another characteristic share% with plants inclu%es abiosynthetic pathway*or pro%ucingterpenesthat uses mevalonic aci%an%pyrophosphateas chemical buil%ing blocks.\&]6owever,

plants have an a%%itional terpene pathway in their chloroplasts, a structure *ungi %o notpossess.\&7] ungi pro%uce several secon%ary metabolites that are similar or i%entical instructure to those ma%e by plants.\&]$any o* the plant an% *ungal enymes that make thesecompoun%s %i**er *rom each other in seFuence an% other characteristics, which in%icatesseparate origins an% evolution o* these enymes in the *ungi an% plants.\&]\&]

i!ersity

ungi have a worl%wi%e %istribution, an% grow in a wi%e range o* habitats, inclu%ing etremeenvironments such as %esertsor areas with high salt concentrations\&!]orioniing ra%iation,\/']

as well as in %eep sease%iments.\/1] ome can survive the intense LH an% cosmic ra%iation

encountere% %uring space travel.\/&] $ost grow in terrestrial environments, though severalspecies live partly or solely in aFuatic habitats, such as the chytri%*ungus%atrachochytrium

17
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_algaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Deacon4-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioluminescencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Desjardins_et_al-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorphic_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Alexopoulos_et_al..2C_p._30-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Bowman_and_Free-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omphalotus_nidiformishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phloemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phloemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycelial_cordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Mikhail-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Mikhail-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Mikhail-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_pathwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mevalonic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrophosphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrophosphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrophosphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precursor_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Keller-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Wu-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_metabolitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_metabolitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Keller-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide_sequencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Keller-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Tudzynski-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-pmid18343697-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizing_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizing_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Dadachova-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Dadachova-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Raghukumar_.26_Raghukumar-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Raghukumar_.26_Raghukumar-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Raghukumar_.26_Raghukumar-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-pmid17630840-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batrachochytrium_dendrobatidishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batrachochytrium_dendrobatidishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omphalotus_nidiformis_Binnamittalong_2_email.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Omphalotus_nidiformis_Binnamittalong_2_email.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_algaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Deacon4-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioluminescencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Desjardins_et_al-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimorphic_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Alexopoulos_et_al..2C_p._30-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exoskeletonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthropodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Bowman_and_Free-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omphalotus_nidiformishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phloemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycelial_cordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Mikhail-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_pathwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terpenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mevalonic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrophosphatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precursor_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Keller-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Wu-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_metabolitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Keller-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide_sequencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Keller-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Tudzynski-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desert_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-pmid18343697-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionizing_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Dadachova-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Raghukumar_.26_Raghukumar-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-pmid17630840-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytridhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batrachochytrium_dendrobatidis


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dendrobatidis, a parasite that has been responsible *or a worl%wi%e %ecline in amphibianpopulations. This organism spen%s part o* its li*e cycle as a motile oospore, enabling it topropel itsel* through water an% enter its amphibian host.\//]Cther eamples o* aFuatic *ungiinclu%e those living in hy%rothermalareas o* the ocean.\/-] Aroun% 1'',''' species o* *ungihave been *ormally %escribe% by taonomists,\/5]but the global bio%iversity o* the *ungus

king%om is not *ully un%erstoo%.\/]Cn the basis o* observations o* the ratio o* the number o**ungal species to the number o* plant species in selecte% environments, the *ungal king%om has

been estimate% to contain about 1.5 million species.\/7];n mycology, specieshave historicallybeen %istinguishe% by a variety o* metho%s an% concepts. +lassi*ication base% onmorphologicalcharacteristics, such as the sie an% shape o* spores or *ruiting structures, hastra%itionally %ominate% *ungal taonomy.\/] pecies may also be %istinguishe% by their

biochemical an% physiological characteristics, such as their ability to metabolie certainbiochemicals, or their reaction to chemical tests. Thebiological species concept%iscriminatesspecies base% on their ability to mate. The application o* molecular tools, such as 2>AseFuencing an% phylogenetic analysis, to stu%y %iversity has greatly enhance% the resolutionan% a%%e% robustness to estimates o*genetic %iversitywithin various taonomic groups.\/!]

Mor"hology

%icroscopic str"ct"res

!n en/iron#ental isolate of enicillium1K hy*ha&K coni"io*hore+K *hiali"e2K coni"ia5K se*ta

$ost *ungi grow as hyphae, which are cylin%rical, threa%4like structures &1' min %iameteran% up to several centimeters in length. 6yphae grow at their tips (apices"^ new hyphae aretypically *orme% by emergence o* new tips along eisting hyphae by a process calle%branching, or occasionally growing hyphal tips bi*urcate (*ork" giving rise to two parallel4growing hyphae.\-'] The combination o* apical growth an% branching`*orking lea%s to the%evelopment o* a mycelium, an interconnecte% network o* hyphae.\&1] 6yphae can be eitherseptate or coenocyticseptate hyphae are %ivi%e% into compartments separate% by cross walls(internal cell walls, calle% septa, that are *orme% at right anglesto the cell wall giving thehypha its shape", with each compartment containing one or more nuclei^ coenocytic hyphae arenot compartmentalie%.\-1]epta havepores that allow cytoplasm, organelles, an% sometimesnuclei to pass through^ an eample is the %olipore septum in the *ungi o* the phylum3asi%iomycota.\-&]+oenocytic hyphae are essentially multinucleatesupercells.\-/]$any specieshave %evelope% specialie% hyphal structures *or nutrient uptake *rom living hosts^ eamples

18
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batrachochytrium_dendrobatidishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoosporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-pmid18998584-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Le_Calvez_et_al_2009-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Le_Calvez_et_al_2009-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Mueller.26Schmit-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Hawksworth-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Kirk_et_al..2C_p._489-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_tests_in_mushroom_identificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_tests_in_mushroom_identificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species#The_isolation_species_concept_in_more_detailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating_in_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Hibbett-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Hibbett-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicilliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conidiophorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phialidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conidiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrometreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrometreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Harris2008-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Harris2008-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Harris2008-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myceliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Alexopoulos_et_al..2C_p._30-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Alexopoulos_et_al..2C_p._30-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenocytichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenocytichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_anglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pit_connection#Characteristicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoplasmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organellehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinucleatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinucleatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Chang2004-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Chang2004-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Penicillium_labeled_cropped.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Penicillium_labeled_cropped.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batrachochytrium_dendrobatidishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoosporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-pmid18998584-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrothermalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Le_Calvez_et_al_2009-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Mueller.26Schmit-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Hawksworth-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Kirk_et_al..2C_p._489-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_tests_in_mushroom_identificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species#The_isolation_species_concept_in_more_detailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating_in_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Hibbett-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicilliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conidiophorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phialidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conidiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrometreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Harris2008-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myceliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Alexopoulos_et_al..2C_p._30-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenocytichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_anglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pit_connection#Characteristicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoplasmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organellehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinucleatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Chang2004-42


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inclu%e haustoria in plant4parasitic species o* most *ungal phyla, an% arbusculeso* severalmycorrhial*ungi, which penetrate into the host cells to consume nutrients. \--]Although *ungiare opisthokonts#a grouping o* evolutionarily relate% organisms broa%ly characterie% by asingle posterior*lagellum#all phyla ecept *or thechytri%shave lost their posterior *lagella.\-5]

ungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, in a%%ition to glucans(e.g.,

41,/4glucan" an% other typical components, also contains thebiopolymerchitin.\-]

%acroscopic str"ct"res

Armillaria solidipes

ungal mycelia can become visible to the nake% eye, *or eample, on various sur*aces an%substrates, such as %amp walls an% on spoile% *oo%, where they are commonly calle% mol%s.

$ycelia grown on soli% agar me%ia in laboratory petri %ishes are usually re*erre% to ascolonies. These colonies can ehibit growth shapes an% colors (%ue to spores orpigmentation"that can be use% as %iagnostic *eatures in the i%enti*ication o* species or groups. \-7] omein%ivi%ual *ungal colonies can reach etraor%inary %imensions an% ages as in the case o* aclonal colony o*$rmillaria solidipes, which eten%s over an area o* more than !'' ha (/.5sFuare miles", with an estimate% age o* nearly !,''' years. \-]The apothecium#a specialie%structure important in seual repro%uctionin the ascomycetes#is a cup4shape% *ruiting bo%ythat hol%s the hymenium, a layer o* tissue containing the spore4bearing cells. \-!]The *ruiting

bo%ies o* the basi%iomycetes (basi%iocarps" an% some ascomycetes can sometimes grow verylarge, an% many are well4known as mushrooms.

#ro$th and "hysiology

The growth o* *ungi as hyphae on or in soli% substrates or as single cells in aFuaticenvironments is a%apte% *or the e**icient etraction o* nutrients, because these growth *ormshave highsur*ace area to volume ratios.\5']6yphae are speci*ically a%apte% *or growth on soli%sur*aces, an% to inva%e substratesan% tissues.\51]They can eert large penetrative mechanical*orces^ *or eample, the plant pathogen&agnaporthe grisea *orms a structure calle% anappressorium which evolve% to puncture plant tissues.\5&] The pressure generate% by theappressorium, %irecte% against the plant epi%ermis, can ecee% megapascals (1,&'' psi".\5&]

The *ilamentous *ungus'aecilomyces lilacinususes a similar structure to penetrate the eggs o*

nemato%es.\5/]

19
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haustoriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbuscular_mycorrhizahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycorrhizahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-pmid18794914-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-pmid18794914-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opisthokonthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytridshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytridshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytridshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Steenkamp2006-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopolymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Stevens-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillaria_solidipeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petri_dishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clone_(cell_biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clone_(cell_biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillaria_solidipeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hectarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hectarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Ferguson_et_al.-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Ferguson_et_al.-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apotheciumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruiting_bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymeniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiocarphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_area_to_volume_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_area_to_volume_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_area_to_volume_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-isbn0-521-30899-2-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Pe.C3.B1alva1_and_Arst-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_pathogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnaporthe_griseahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appressoriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Howard_et_al.-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Howard_et_al.-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paecilomyces_lilacinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Money-52http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armillaria_ostoyae_MO.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Armillaria_ostoyae_MO.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haustoriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbuscular_mycorrhizahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycorrhizahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-pmid18794914-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opisthokonthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytridshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Steenkamp2006-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopolymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Stevens-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillaria_solidipeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petri_dishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-46http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clone_(cell_biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armillaria_solidipeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hectarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Ferguson_et_al.-47http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apotheciumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruiting_bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymeniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-48http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiocarphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_area_to_volume_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-isbn0-521-30899-2-49http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Pe.C3.B1alva1_and_Arst-50http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_pathogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnaporthe_griseahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appressoriumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Howard_et_al.-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Howard_et_al.-51http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paecilomyces_lilacinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Money-52


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Mol" co/ering a "ecaying *eachK The fra#es were ta0en a**roLi#ately 1& hoursa*art o/er a *erio" of siL "aysK

The mechanical pressure eerte% by the appressorium is generate% *rom physiological

processes that increase intracellular turgor by pro%ucing osmolytes such as glycerol.

\5-]

$orphological a%aptations such as these are complemente% by hy%rolytic enymessecrete%into the environment to %igest large organic molecules#such as polysacchari%es, proteins,lipi%s, an% other organic substrates#into smaller molecules that may then be absorbe% asnutrients.\55]\5]\57]The vast maKority o* *ilamentous *ungi grow in a polar *ashion#i.e., byetension into one %irection#by elongation at the tip (ape" o* the hypha.\5]Alternative *ormso* *ungal growth inclu%e intercalary etension (i.e., by longitu%inal epansion o* hyphalcompartments that are below the ape" as in the case o* some en%ophytic*ungi,\5!]or growth byvolume epansion %uring the %evelopment o* mushroom stipes an% other large organs.\']

)rowth o* *ungi as multicellular structures consisting o* somatic an% repro%uctive cells#a*eature in%epen%ently evolve% in animals an% plants\1]#has several *unctions, inclu%ing the

%evelopment o* *ruiting bo%ies *or %issemination o* seual spores (see above" an% bio*ilms*orsubstrate coloniation an% intercellular communication.\&] Tra%itionally, the *ungi areconsi%ere% heterotrophs, organisms that rely solely on carbon *ie%by other organisms *ormetabolism. ungi have evolve%a high %egree o* metabolic versatility that allows them to usea %iverse range o* organic substrates *or growth, inclu%ing simple compoun%s such as nitrate,ammonia, acetate, or ethanol.\/]\-] or some species it has been shown that the pigmentmelaninmay play a role in etracting energy *rom ioniing ra%iation,such asgamma ra%iation^however, this *orm o* [ra%iotrophic[ growth has only been %escribe% *or a *ew species, thee**ects on growth rates are small, an% the un%erlyingbiophysicalan% biochemical processesare not known.\/']The authors speculate that this process might bear similarity to +C &*iationvia visible light, but instea% utiliing ioniing ra%iation as a source o* energy.\5]

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%e"roduction

olyporus s0uamosus

ungal repro%uction is comple, re*lecting the %i**erences in li*estyles an% genetic makeup

within this king%om o* organisms.\]

;t is estimate% that a thir% o* all *ungi repro%uce by%i**erent mo%es o* propagation^ *or eample, repro%uction may occur in two well4%i**erentiate% stages within the li*e cycle o* a species, the teleomorphan% the anamorph.\7]

Environmental con%itions trigger genetically %etermine% %evelopmental states that lea% to thecreation o* specialie% structures *or seual or aseual repro%uction. These structures ai%repro%uction by e**iciently %ispersing spores or spore4containingpropagules.

Asex"al reprod"ction

Aseual repro%uction via vegetative spores (coni%ia" or through mycelial *ragmentation iscommon^ it maintains clonalpopulations a%apte% to a speci*ic niche, an% allows more rapi%

%ispersal than seual repro%uction.\]The [ungi imper*ecti[ (*ungi lacking the per*ect orseual stage" or 2euteromycota comprise all the species which lack an observable seualcycle.\!]

2ex"al reprod"ction

eual repro%uction with meiosis eists in all *ungal phyla (with the eception o* the)lomeromycota".\7'] ;t %i**ers in many aspects *rom seual repro%uction in animals or plants.2i**erences also eist between *ungal groups an% can be use% to %iscriminate species bymorphological %i**erences in seual structures an% repro%uctive strategies.\71]\7&] $ating

eperiments between *ungal isolates may i%enti*y species on the basis o* biological speciesconcepts.\7&] The maKor *ungal groupings have initially been %elineate% base% on themorphology o* their seual structures an% spores^ *or eample, the spore4containing structures,asci an% basi%ia, can be use% in the i%enti*ication o* ascomycetes an% basi%iomycetes,respectively. ome species may allow mating only between in%ivi%uals o* opposite matingtype, while others can mate an% seually repro%uce with any other in%ivi%ual or itsel*. pecieso* the *ormer mating system are calle% heterothallic, an% o* the latter homothallic.\7/] $ost*ungi have both an haploi%an% %iploi%stage in their li*e cycles. ;n seually repro%ucing *ungi,compatible in%ivi%uals may combine by *using their hyphae together into an interconnecte%network^ this process, anastomosis, is reFuire% *or the initiation o* the seual cycle.Ascomycetes an% basi%iomycetes go through a %ikaryoticstage, in which the nuclei inherite%

*rom the two parents %o not combine imme%iately a*ter cell *usion, but remain separate in thehyphal cells (see heterokaryosis".\7-]

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyporus_squamosushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-65http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleomorphhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anamorphhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conidiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clone_(genetics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_nichehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Heitman-67http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuteromycotahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-isbn0-7637-0067-3-68http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeromycotahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-pmid17486965-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Guarro_et_al_1999-70http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Taylor_et_al_2000-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Taylor_et_al_2000-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating_in_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Taylor_et_al_2000-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating_typehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating_typehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterothallichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homothallichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Metzenberg-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Metzenberg-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haploidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diploidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anastomosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dikaryotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dikaryotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterokaryosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-73http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polyporus_squamosus_Molter.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polyporus_squamosus_Molter.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyporus_squamosushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-65http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cyclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleomorphhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anamorphhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conidiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clone_(genetics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_nichehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Heitman-67http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuteromycotahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-isbn0-7637-0067-3-68http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeromycotahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-pmid17486965-69http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Guarro_et_al_1999-70http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Taylor_et_al_2000-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating_in_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Taylor_et_al_2000-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating_typehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating_typehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterothallichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homothallichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Metzenberg-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haploidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diploidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anastomosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dikaryotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterokaryosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-73


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The %.s*ore" asci of Morchella elata /iewe" with *hase contrast #icrosco*y

;n ascomycetes, %ikaryotic hyphae o* the hymenium(the spore4bearing tissue layer" *orm acharacteristic hookat the hyphal septum. 2uring cell %ivision, *ormation o* the hook ensures

proper %istribution o* the newly %ivi%e% nuclei into the apical an% basal hyphal compartments.An ascus (plural asci" is then *orme%, in which karyogamy(nuclear *usion" occurs. Asci areembe%%e% in anascocarp, or *ruiting bo%y. aryogamy in the asci is *ollowe% imme%iately bymeiosis an% the pro%uction o* ascospores. A*ter %ispersal, the ascospores may germinate an%*orm a new haploi% mycelium.\75]eual repro%uction in basi%iomycetes is similar to that o* theascomycetes. +ompatible haploi% hyphae *use to pro%uce a %ikaryotic mycelium. 6owever, the%ikaryotic phase is more etensive in the basi%iomycetes, o*ten also present in the vegetativelygrowing mycelium. A specialie% anatomical structure, calle% a clamp connection,is *orme% ateach hyphal septum. As with the structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, the clampconnection in the basi%iomycetes is reFuire% *or controlle% trans*er o* nuclei %uring cell%ivision, to maintain the %ikaryotic stage with two genetically %i**erent nuclei in each hyphal

compartment.\7]

A basi%iocarp is *orme% in which club4like structures known as basi%iagenerate haploi%basi%iospores a*ter karyogamy an% meiosis.\77]The most commonly knownbasi%iocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take other *orms (see $orphologysection". ;nglomeromycetes (*ormerly ygomycetes", haploi% hyphae o* two in%ivi%uals *use, *orming agametangium,a specialie% cell structure that becomes a *ertile gamete4pro%ucing cell. Thegametangium %evelops into a ygospore,a thick4walle% spore *orme% by the union o* gametes.=hen the ygospore germinates, it un%ergoes meiosis, generating new haploi% hyphae, whichmay then *orm aseual sporangiospores. These sporangiospores allow the *ungus to rapi%ly%isperse an% germinate into new genetically i%entical haploi% *ungal mycelia.\7]

2pore dispersal

3oth aseual an% seual spores or sporangiospores are o*ten actively %isperse% by *orcibleeKection *rom their repro%uctive structures. This eKection ensures eit o* the spores *rom therepro%uctive structures as well as travelling through the air over long %istances.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morchella_elatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_contrast_microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymeniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_divisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karyogamyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascocarphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascocarphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascosporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-74http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-74http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clamp_connectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clamp_connectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-75http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiocarphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiosporeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiosporeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus#Morphologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gametangiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gametangiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gametehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygosporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygosporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporangiosporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-77http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Morelasci.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Morelasci.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morchella_elatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_contrast_microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymeniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_divisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karyogamyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascocarphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascosporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-74http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clamp_connectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-75http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiocarphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiosporeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-76http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus#Morphologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gametangiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gametehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygosporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporangiosporehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-77


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The bir"Xs nest fungus Cyathus stercoreus

pecialie% mechanical an% physiological mechanisms, as well as spore sur*ace structures(such as hy%rophobins", enable e**icient spore eKection.\7!]or eample, the structure o* the

spore4bearing cellsin some ascomycete species is such that the buil%up o* substancesa**ectingcell volume an% *lui% balance enables the eplosive %ischarge o* spores into the air. \'] The*orcible %ischarge o* single spores terme% ballistosporesinvolves *ormation o* a small %rop o*water (3uller8s %rop", which upon contact with the spore lea%s to its proKectile release with aninitial acceleration o* more than 1',''' g^\1] the net result is that the spore is eKecte% '.'1'.'& cm, su**icient %istance *or it to *all through the gills or pores into the air below. \&]Cther*ungi, like thepu**balls, rely on alternative mechanisms *or spore release, such as eternalmechanical *orces. The bir%8s nest *ungiuse the *orce o* *alling water %rops to liberate thespores *rom cup4shape% *ruiting bo%ies.\/]Another strategy is seen in the stinkhorns, a groupo* *ungi with lively colors an% putri% o%or that attract insects to %isperse their spores.\-]

-ther sex"al processes

3esi%es regular seual repro%uction with meiosis, certain *ungi, such as those in the genera'enicilliuman%$spergillus,may echange genetic material viaparaseualprocesses, initiate%by anastomosis between hyphae an%plasmogamyo* *ungal cells.\5]The *reFuency an% relativeimportance o* paraseual events is unclear an% may be lower than other seual processes. ;t isknown to play a role in intraspeci*ic hybri%iation \]an% is likely reFuire% *or hybri%iation

between species, which has been associate% with maKor events in *ungal evolution.\7]

E!olutionMain article 4(olution of fungi

;n contrast to plantsan% animals, the early *ossil recor% o* the *ungi is meager. actors thatlikely contribute to the un%er4representation o* *ungal species among *ossils inclu%e the natureo* *ungal *ruiting bo%ies, which are so*t, *leshy, an% easily %egra%able tissues an% themicroscopic %imensions o* most *ungal structures, which there*ore are not rea%ily evi%ent.ungal *ossils are %i**icult to %istinguish *rom those o* other microbes, an% are most easilyi%enti*ie% when they resemble etant*ungi.\]C*ten recovere% *rom apermineralie%plant oranimal host, these samples are typically stu%ie% by making thin4section preparations that can

be eamine% with light microscopy or transmission electron microscopy.\!] +ompression*ossils are stu%ie% by %issolving the surroun%ing matri with aci% an% then using light or

scanning electron microscopy to eamine sur*ace %etails.\!']

The earliest *ossils possessing*eatures typical o* *ungi %ate to the ?roterooiceon, some 1,-/'million years ago ($a"^ these

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyathus_stercoreushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-pmid16219510-78http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmolytehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Trail-79http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Pringle_et_al.-80http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Pringle_et_al.-80http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-81http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puffballshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nidulariaceaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Brodie1975-82http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stinkhornshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-83http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicilliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicilliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasexualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasexualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmogamyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-84http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Furlaneto-85http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Schardl-86http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporocarp_(fungi)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extant_taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-isbn0-19-517234-5-87http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permineralizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permineralizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-88http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-88http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-88http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_fossilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_fossilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-89http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proterozoichttp://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=1,430http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cyathus_stercoreus_Fruchtk%C3%B6rper.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cyathus_stercoreus_Fruchtk%C3%B6rper.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyathus_stercoreushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-pmid16219510-78http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmolytehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Trail-79http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Pringle_et_al.-80http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-81http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puffballshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nidulariaceaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Brodie1975-82http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stinkhornshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-83http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicilliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasexualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmogamyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-84http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Furlaneto-85http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-Schardl-86http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_fungihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plantshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporocarp_(fungi)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extant_taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-isbn0-19-517234-5-87http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permineralizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_microscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-88http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_fossilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_fossilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#cite_note-89http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proterozoichttp://toolserver.org/~verisimilus/Timeline/Timeline.php?Ma=1,430http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annum


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multicellular benthicorganisms ha% *ilamentous structures with septa, an% were capable o*anastomosis.\!1]$ore recent stu%ies (&''!" estimate the arrival o* *ungal organisms at about7'1'' $a on the basis o* comparisons o* the rate o* evolution in closely relate% groups. \!&]

or much o* the ?aleooicEra (5-&&51 $a", the *ungi appear to have been aFuatic an%consiste% o* organisms similar to the etant +hytri%s in having *lagellum4bearing spores.\!/]

The evolutionary a%aptation *rom an aFuatic to a terrestrial li*estyle necessitate% a%iversi*ication o* ecological strategies *or obtaining nutrients, inclu%ingparasitism,saprobism,an% the %evelopment o* mutualistic relationships such as mycorrhia an% licheniation.\!-]

:ecent (&''!" stu%ies suggest that the ancestral ecological state o* the Ascomycota wassaprobism, an% that in%epen%ent licheniation events have occurre% multiple times.\!5] The*ungi probably colonie% the lan% %uring the +ambrian(5-&-./ $a", long be*ore lan%

plants.\!]ossilie% hyphae an% spores recovere% *rom the Cr%oviciano* =isconsin (-' $a"resemble mo%ern4%ay )lomerales,an% eiste% at a time when the lan% *lora likely consiste% o*only non4vascular bryophyte4like plants.\!7] ?rototaites, which was probably a *ungus orlichen, woul% have been the tallest organism o* the late ilurian. ungal *ossils %o not becomecommon an% uncontroversial until the early 2evonian (-1/5!.& $a", when they are

abun%ant in the :hynie chert, mostly as Oygomycotaan% +hytri%iomycota.\!]\!]\!!]At aboutthis same time, approimately -'' $a, the Ascomycota an% 3asi%iomycota %iverge%, \1''] an%all mo%ern classeso* *ungi were present by the ate +arboni*erous (?ennsylvanian,/1.1&!! $a".\1'1] ichen4like *ossils have been *oun% in the 2oushantuo ormation in southern+hina %ating back to /5551 $a.\1'&] ichens were a component o* the early terrestrialecosystems, an% the estimate% age o* the ol%est terrestrial lichen *ossil is -'' $a^ \1'/]this %atecorrespon%s to the age o* the ol%est known sporocarp *ossil, a 'aleopyrenomycit

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