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Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
Undoing a person’s aloneness in the face of overwhelming emotions1
1 A phrase used by Fosha (2003, p.245), which, I believe, captures the essence of much of the literature reviewed here.
Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
Abstract
This literature review aims to provide an overview of the current literature in the field of trauma therapy,
examining theory and treatment recommendations in the general field and concluding with an emphasis
on Gestalt specific writings. For a more current and comprehensive overview of Gestalt trauma therapy
literature, German language publications have been included. Gestalt concepts are reviewed against, and
links are made with, concepts and recommendations from the wider field. Based on the literature
reviewed, Gestalt therapy’s field-sensitive, dialogic, phenomenological and experiential practice is found
to be a highly suitable approach to working with traumatised individuals, especially when grounded in a
solid understanding of the figure-ground relationship between contact and support.
Introduction
The inspiration for this literature review has grown out of my desire to further integrate and translate into
practice my current understanding of psychotherapeutic approaches to working with adults who have
experienced early interpersonal trauma. My particular interest was to review Gestalt literature on trauma
to better understand the interface between the abundant contemporary trauma literature and Gestalt’s
theoretical and practical base. In my work with women who experience eating issues, trauma is often part
of my client’s early history and commonly becomes a relevant part of our work. At times the eating/not-
eating, purging or over-exercising begin to make more sense when seen in light of the benefits of
drowning out or numbing intense and overwhelming feelings, as an attempt to regulate overwhelming
affect (Van der Kolk, Perry & Herman, 1991). Whilst eating issues are not the focus of this review, they
provide the background for my personal interest in the topic as one of many potential secondary
manifestations of trauma.
Many authors and clinicians recommend a phase-oriented trauma therapy approach highlighting the
importance of stabilisation and building resources prior to addressing traumatic memories (Kepner, 2003;
Ogden, Minton & Pain, 2006; Steele, Van der Hart & Nijenhuis, 2005). I have recently witnessed the
immense impact and the extent of retraumatisation that can occur when the recommendations of creating
stabilisation, safety and support before processing traumatic memories are not followed. A particular
Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
interest therefore was to identify the recommendations in the literature for providing safe trauma therapy,
which avoids retraumatisation and improves a person’s quality of life rather than leading to disintegration.
My hope is that beyond my own learning this literature review may provide a useful overview for other
practitioners in the field.
This literature review will be presented in three parts. Part one will provide some background to the
therapeutic focus of the latter sections by defining trauma and describing its potential consequences in a
person’s life. Part two will provide an overview of the recommendations for treatment in the wider field
of trauma therapy, whilst part three is devoted to examining literature on trauma therapy within the field
of Gestalt therapy.
Trauma – Definitions and Consequences
The word trauma originates from a Greek word, meaning wound (Gordon, 2007). People become
traumatised when their immediate ability to cope with and respond to a perceived threat is overwhelmed
(Bassuk et al., 2006; Hermann, 1992; Levine, 2008). Traumatic events generally involve threats to life or
bodily integrity, or a close personal encounter with violence and death (Hermann, 1992). A traumatic
event confronts a person with the extremes of helplessness, terror and loss of control and leads to
responses of catastrophe (Hermann, 1992). Traumatisation can occur from any event a person consciously
or unconsciously perceives as life threatening (Levine, 2008). The perception of the event is influenced
by a number of factors, including age (Levine, 2008), previous exposure to trauma, the duration and
severity of the exposure to trauma (Bassuk, Konnath & Volk, 2006), as well as early attachment patterns
(Briere & Spinazolla, 2005), and a person’s resources for resilience (Rothschild, 2003). Commonly
identified traumatic events include sexual or physical assault, terrorism, torture, domestic violence,
accidents, neglect in childhood, being diagnosed with a life-threatening illness, man-made and natural
disasters, being held hostage and sexual molestation of children (American Psychiatric Association, 2000;
Bassuk et al., 2006; Emerson & Hopper, 2011).
Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
Many clinicians and researchers in the traumatic stress field distinguish between simple and complex
trauma (Becker-Weidman, n.d.; Hermann, 1992; Paivio & Pascual-Leone, 2010). The term complex
trauma is used to refer to complex adaptations to early onset, ongoing interpersonal abuse and/or neglect
that occur within a care-giving relationship (Van der Kolk, Roth, Pelcovitz, Sunday & Spinazzola, 2005).
Complex trauma leads to a loss of a coherent sense of self and therefore significantly disrupts a person’s
capacity to function in the world (McFarlane & De Girolamo, 1996). This can result in significant mental
health issues, which may be diagnosed as separation anxiety disorder, oppositional defiant disorder,
phobic disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children (Van der Kolk, 2005), or later, as
depression, anxiety, borderline, antisocial or multiple personality disorder, bipolar disorder, agoraphobia,
panic disorder and/or posttraumatic stress disorder (Hodges, 2003; Lubin, Johnson & Southwick, 1996;
Panova, 2009; Wiley, 2010). When treated in isolation and with medication alone the underlying
traumatic events may remain unacknowledged and treatment may (at best) lead to symptom management
rather than healing (Ogden et al., 2006).
To acknowledge the severe impact of early prolonged interpersonal trauma a number of diagnostic
constructs have been proposed and researched over the years, including Complex Post Traumatic Stress
Disorder (C-PTSD), Disorders of Extreme Stress Not Otherwise Specified (DESNOS) (Jongedijk,
Carlier, Schreuder & Gersons, 1996; Wiley, 2010) and Developmental Trauma Disorder (Van der Kolk,
2005). None of these have as yet been accepted as official diagnostic criteria. Whilst some desire to keep
diagnoses neatly separated in non-overlapping categories, which can be medically treated (Kilpatrick, as
cited in Wiley, 2010), proponents of the complex trauma diagnosis point to the necessity to recognise the
underlying unity of the vast collection of supposedly unrelated diagnoses of complex trauma survivors
(Wiley, 2010). Van der Kolk (2005) argues that “approaching each of these problems [multiple
diagnoses] piecemeal, rather than as expressions of a vast system of internal disorganization runs the risk
of losing sight of the forest in favor of one tree” (p.2).
The consequences of trauma, apart from the above-mentioned potential array of psychiatric diagnoses, are
manifold and may extend into all areas of a person’s life. Often the initial effects lead to secondary and
Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
tertiary effects as the person attempts to adapt to the initial impact (Lubin & Johnson, 2010). Primary
effects include significant changes in physiological arousal, sensory processing, affect regulation,
cognitive functions, memory and interpersonal relating (Hermann, 1992; Lubin & Johnson, 2010). Each
of these effects can impact people’s lives significantly in the following ways:
Hyperarousal is the body’s natural response to threat. Ideally this energy is utilised and
discharged in successful and vigorous fight or flight, which then restores the body’s equilibrium.
When this is not possible physiological arousal may remain altered moving between states of
hyper- and hypoarousal, both of which over time disrupt cognitive, affective and sensory
processing (Emerson & Hopper, 2011; Ogden & Minton, 2000).
Dysregulated sensory processing interferes with the perception of internal body states, leading to
either highly sensitised internal experiences of chronic pain and somatisation or desensitisation
and bodily numbing. It also interferes with the capacity to perceive external stimuli and leads to
reexperiencing (intrusive memories, flashbacks) or dissociative symptoms (Lubin & Johnson,
2010).
Emotionally the person may experience flat affect, numbness and/or anger and rage mixed with
feelings of helplessness, hopelessness, panic, confusion or despair (Bassuk et al., 2006; Van der
Kolk, 2005).
Cognitive functioning is impaired through dissociation, depersonalisation and confusion/thoughts
that the traumatic event is happening again (Van der Kolk, 2005). Cognitions become less
differentiated leading to exaggerating or minimising and overgeneralising thought processes often
referred to as black-and-white thinking (Lubin & Johnson, 2010).
During hyper- or hypoarousal state-dependent memory retrieval leads to either increased access to
traumatic memories leading to further hyperarousal or amnesia leading to further numbing and
hypoarousal (Ogden & Minton, 2000).
Boundary violations and neglect lead to ongoing alterations in interpersonal relationships and
attachment style, especially if experienced chronically and within a care-giving relationship. This
may find expression in clinging, compliant, oppositional or distrustful attachment behaviors
(Becker-Weidman, 2009; Van der Kolk, 2005).
Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
Not only does trauma affect and change the above areas of functioning, it severs these otherwise
integrated functions from each other (Herman, 1992). Without support, a vicious cycle is created
described as a “biopsychosocial trap, in which one level of impairment prevents self-regulatory healing
mechanisms from occurring on other levels” (Shalev, 1996, p. 95).
Secondary effects develop as the person attempts to manage the above primary effects in an unsupportive
interpersonal environment where disclosure seems too dangerous or has been met with ridicule, disbelief
or further abuse (Lubin & Johnson, 2008). A variety of coping mechanisms may be employed in an
attempt to dampen, avoid or contain the distressing experience. These include amongst others: social
withdrawal, risk-taking behaviors, self-harm and eating disorders, drug and alcohol abuse or perpetrating
violence against others, some of which will inevitably increase the risk for retraumatisation (Farber, 2002;
Lubin & Johnson, 2008). Over time the environment may align further with the traumatic schemas (e.g.
social withdrawal leading to reduction in friendships; difficulty concentrating or acting out behavior in
school leading to being sent to a school for ‘difficult’ children) and the person becomes further
encapsulated in a life structure dominated by the effects of the traumatic past (Lubin & Johnson, 2008).
Tertiary effects are the resulting disturbances in the systems of meaning and the constriction of the
person’s sense of self, leading to cynicism, hopelessness, loss of vitality and dreams, existential fatigue,
suicidal ideation (Levine, 2008; Lubin, Johnson & Southwick, 1996) and posttraumatic decline
(Titchener, as cited in Lubin & Johnson, 2008). It becomes clear that over time trauma can have a
detrimental impact on a person’s health and wellbeing (Wiley, 2010), education, work, family and peer
relationships and can lead to involvement with the legal system (Van der Kolk, 2005).
Trauma Therapy – Recommendations from the Wider Field
“Traumatic events overwhelm the ordinary systems of care that give people a sense of control, connection
and meaning” (Herman, 1992, p.33). Trauma therapy therefore aims to reestablish a sense of control and
safety (Herman, 1992), to undo a person’s “aloneness in the face of overwhelming emotions” (Fosha,
2003, p.245) and to facilitate integration and meaning making (Herman, 1992). Trauma therapy aims to
Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
support people to locate the traumatic events in the past, to integrate implicit and explicit memories, and
to learn to regulate arousal (Rothschild, 2000). Successful treatment therefore may be seen as “the
resolution of the effects of the traumatic past on the client’s current organisation of experience” (Ogden et
al., 2006, p.235).
Many trauma therapy approaches promote a phase-oriented treatment model beginning with establishing
safety and support, followed by processing traumatic memories and closing with integration (Herman,
1992; Kepner, 2003; Ogden et al., 2006). The severity of trauma, the age of onset and duration, single
versus multiple traumas, the person’s current resources and support, and pre-trauma functioning all
influence the direction of treatment and determine the amount of time spent in each phase (Kepner, 2003;
Rothschild, 2000). Assessing these factors is an important step in planning for treatment. Figure 1 outlines
a way of conceptualising different client types and implications for treatment.
Figure 1:Trauma Types and Implications for Practice (based on Rothschild, 2003; Rothschild, 2000)
Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
Type I and IIA have a stable background and sufficient resources to be able to engage more quickly with
the traumatic event(s) that led them to seek therapy. With Type IIB clients, rebuilding resources through
the therapeutic relationship is essential before moving into second phase work of addressing traumatic
memories. Type IIB(R) clients’ access to previously held resources is temporarily overwhelmed and
sufficient time needs to be spent with phase one work of rebuilding safety, grounding and support. Type
IIB(nR) have had limited opportunities to build resources for resilience due to ongoing abuse, violence
and/or neglect and therefore commonly present with complex adaptations to trauma. They may present
with borderline personality features or, in the extreme, with dissociative identity disorder. In such
instances phase one work remains the most important part, if not all, of therapy, providing a slow,
continuous process of stabilisation and building safety and trust within the therapeutic relationship
(Ogden et al., 2006; Rothschild, 2000). Not all clients benefit from working directly with traumatic
memories and some can become significantly worse (Rothschild, 2010). It is therefore important to take a
thorough case history before engaging in trauma work and to continuously reassess the level of
functioning throughout the therapeutic work to avoid regression and retraumatisation (Rothschild, 2003).
Pierre Janet may have been the first clinician formulating a phase-oriented approach to working with
traumatised clients more than a century ago (Van der Hart, Brown & Van der Kolk, 1989). He proposed
the following three stages as a heuristic approach, recognising the need for continuous adaptation to each
individual case:
1. Stabilisation and symptom reduction
2. Modification of traumatic memories
3. Personality reintegration and rehabilitation (Van der Hart et al., 1989).
Since then many other clinicians have proposed similar models. Table 1 compares and contrasts the
different stages of various methods highlighting the emphasis across models of ensuring stabilisation prior
to memory work. Although some approaches propose four or five stages, thematically the extra stages can
be seen as sub-stages of either phase 1 or phase 3; for the sake of comparison they have therefore been
named phase 1a/b and phase 3a/b respectively.
Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
Table 1: Comparison of Phase-Oriented Trauma Treatment Approaches
Authors Phase 1: Stabilisation
Phase 2: Processing of Trauma Memories
Phase 3: Integration Comments
Hermann (1992) a) A Healing Relationship
b) Safety
Rememberance & Mourning
a) Reconnection
b) Commonality
Classic text in the field of trauma
Steele et al. (2005) Stabilisation & Symptom Reduction
Treatment of Traumatic Memories
Personality Reintegration and Rehabilitation
Based directly on Janet’s model
Ogden et al. (2006) Developing Somatic Resources for Stabilisation
Processing Traumatic Memory and Restoring Acts of Triumph
Integration and Success in Normal Life
A sensorimotor approach to psychotherapy
Trauma-focused CBT (TF-CBT)(Feather Ronan, 2010; Kliethermes, 2007)
a) Strengthening Psychosocial Context
b) Enhancing Coping Skills
Processing Trauma Through Gradual Exposure
Addressing Special Issues/ Preventing Relapse
Promoted for use with children & adolescents, presented here only to highlight similarity of stages proposed2
Kepner (2003) a) Developing Support
b) Developing Self-Functions
Undoing, Redoing & Mourning
Reconsolidation A Gestalt approach, discussed further in part 3
Butollo, Kruesmann & Hagl (1998)
a) Safetyb) Stabilisat
ion
Confrontation Integration A Gestalt approach, see part 3
Each approach moves through similar stages although the specific strategies and interventions vary based
on overarching principles. It is beyond the scope of this literature review to provide detailed descriptions
of each approach other than Gestalt (see part 3), yet it becomes obvious that across modalities
establishing safety, stability and support is paramount before processing traumatic memories. Depending
on the level of functioning and the severity of the trauma this may take from one initial assessment
session to forming the entire therapy (see Figure 1).
The need to pay attention to body process in trauma therapy has become more widely recognised
(Rothschild, 2000; Rubin, 2006; Van der Kolk, 2009). As neuroscience advances and continues to provide
2 Whilst CBT trauma therapy approaches for adults do not specifically recommend a phase-oriented approach, treatment guidelines specify that prior to implementing exposure therapy it may be useful to provide training in affect and interpersonal regulation for people who find it hard to tolerate trauma focused interventions, e.g. after chronic trauma (International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 2012).
Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
further insights into brain responses to trauma, the importance of therapists noticing body process and
acting “as an auxiliary cortex, interactively modulating clients’ levels of arousal” (Ogden & Minton,
2000, p.11) becomes clearer. Working with the body also gives access to implicit memory, which talking
therapy on its own cannot, and provides a vehicle for the mobilisation and expression of incomplete
action tendencies (Burley & Freier, 2004; Ogden et al., 2006) seen as essential for effective treatment
(Van der Kolk, 2006a). Tracking of body process provides relevant information for supporting clients to
remain within an optimal arousal zone for integration (Wallin, 2007). Figure 2 outlines a model to
understand the regulation of nervous system arousal.
Figure 2. Window of Tolerance (adapted from Ogden & Minton, 2000; Siegel, 1999 cited in Ogden & Minton, 2000; Wallin, 2007)
Hyper- and hypoarousal are protective strategies activated by the amygdala as a survival response to
fight/flight or, if this is impossible, freeze (Wallin, 2007). After experiences of trauma these defensive
responses commonly become activated more quickly; the tolerance levels for experiences that can be
assimilated and integrated without triggering a survival response decrease (Ogden et al., 2006). As the
prefrontal cortex3 and hippocampus4 shut down during survival responses, both hyper- and hypoarousal
3 The prefrontal cortex is responsible for “body regulation, attuned communication, emotional balance, response flexibility and fear modulation” (Costin, 2012, slide 30). During normal functioning it can regulate emotional impulses generated by the amygdala, the body’s alarm system. However, neuroimaging studies have shown traumatised individuals to have less active higher cortical brain areas and a perpetually activated amygdala interfering with the above functions (Beauregard, n.d.).4 The hippocampus, which transmits information to the cerebral cortex, is suppressed during traumatic experiences. This prevents processing of the traumatic event to become a memory located in time and space (explicit memory). Remaining in implicit memory only, unresolved traumatic memories can provoke images, sensations and emotions, perceived by the body as the event occurring again. Without engaging the explicit memory system, the experience cannot be cohesively understood or retold (Rothschild, 2003).
10
Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
interfere with a person’s capacity to integrate experience and make meaning (Ogden & Minton, 2000),
both of which are key tasks of trauma therapy that aims to relocate traumatic experience in time and place
as separate from current reality (Van der Kolk, 1994). The therapist’s task therefore is “to hold the
client’s arousal at the optimal levels of the Modulation Model, accessing enough traumatic material to
process but not so much that clients become too dissociated for processing to occur” (Ogden et al., 2006,
p.11). Over time, as integrative capacity increases, tolerance levels expand leading in turn to further
integration (Ogden et al., 2006). Paying close attention to the bodily signs of arousal (see Figure 2) helps
the therapist to know when to co-regulate arousal as clients may initially lack awareness and capacity to
communicate signs of flooding or dissociation (Wallin, 2007).
Gestalt Trauma Therapy (GTT)
The final part of this literature review is concerned with reviewing Gestalt literature on working with
trauma. Both Cohen (2002) and Hardie (2004) point towards the scarcity of such literature and Fodor
(2002) comments “while many of us in the Gestalt field work with trauma, we do not have a Gestalt
literature on trauma as such” (p. 85). It comes as a surprise that none mention Kepner’s (2003)5 classic
text Healing Tasks, which provides an in depth description and to date the most developed Gestalt
approach to working with adult survivors of childhood abuse (Wirth, 2008). Kepner presents a trauma
treatment model whose phase-oriented approach clearly aligns with many of the contemporary
recommendations from the wider trauma field (see Table 1). He presents in depth descriptions and
examples on how to work in each of the phases (developing support; developing self functions; undoing,
redoing and mourning; reconsolidation) using an approach firmly based in Gestalt therapy practice
(Kepner, 2003). He also provides a valuable assessment instrument with direct implications for his
treatment model (Wirth, 2008).
Nonetheless, apart from Kepner’s detailed account only limited English material could be sourced, which
included: Serok (1985), who presents experiential, phenomenologically based reenactment work adapted
5 First published in 1996
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Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
to each individual, stating that “most important is for the individual to reach maximum expression” (p.88)
to complete unfinished events. In contrast to more recent publications, which emphasise a resource-
oriented approach prior to expressive work (Hartmann-Kottek, 2004), little attention is given to the
establishment of safety and resourcing prior to exposure, though this may simply reflect the focus of
writing rather than the entirety of the therapeutic work. Melnick and Nevis (1997) describe PTSD as an
interruption at the demobilisation phase as part of a comprehensive paper proposing formal diagnosis
from a Gestalt perspective. Tobin (2004) encourages the integration of EMDR (eye movement
desensitisation and reprocessing) and relational Gestalt therapy. Finding EMDR to be an “excellent
adjunct” (p.16), he highlights the importance of the therapeutic relationship as the container/ground,
especially when working with complex trauma. Haarburger (2006) presents his work with male survivors
of sexual abuse, exploring gender and shame as part of the field, promoting a dialogic and
phenomenological approach influenced by Kepner. Sapriel (2012) emphasises mindfulness and body
awareness “embedded in a safe and secure therapeutic relationship” (p.107) as tools to facilitate the
development of a “sense of agency, contain previously uncontainable affect, and become capable of
nourishing contact” (p.107). All highlight Gestalt’s usefulness as an approach to working with trauma,
specifically naming the dialogic stance/therapeutic relationship (Haarburger, 2006; Sapriel, 2012; Tobin,
2004), experimentation (Kepner, 2003; Serok, 1985), field sensitive practice (Haarburger, 2006; Kepner,
2003) and phenomenological exploration/awareness of body processes (Haarburger, 2006; Sapriel, 2012;
Serok, 1985) as important trauma-specific competencies, which will be elaborated on further.
Sapriel (2012) explains: “Gestalt therapy has always emphasised field theory, but historically, the
technology of awareness was more figural, field theory more ground” (p.111). This historical shift is
apparent also in the above collection of articles with Serok’s (1985) focus on reaching “maximum
expression” (p. 88) to complete unfinished events, whereas later articles emphasise field sensitive
practice, highlighting the importance of support and the therapeutic relationship whilst sensitively
facilitating awareness of contact modifications.
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Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
The German speaking Gestalt community has a significant collection of recent publications on GTT and
for a more comprehensive and up-to-date review, these are now included alongside the above-mentioned
material. Trauma publications from other experiential approaches influenced by Gestalt therapy could have
been considered to identify relevant GTT principles; e.g. Paivio and Pascual-Leone’s (2010) Emotion
Focused Therapy for Complex Trauma6 or Ogden, Minton and Pain’s (2006) Trauma and the Body7.
Alternatively, Gestalt literature on working with secondary manifestations of trauma8 may also have been
included. Both alternatives promise a rich exploration and could form an entire literature review of their
own. Even though not chosen as the main focus here, they have provided some background to the overall
text.
Gestalt therapy views traumatic experience as being confronted with a situation in which one’s current
level of integrative capacity and support are overwhelmed (Wirth, 2008). Dissociation is a self-protective
survival mechanism that interrupts contact with an experience of terror (Schoen, 2008; Wirth, 2008). The
splitting off, whilst aiding survival, interferes with integration, and an unfinished situation remains
(Votsmeier-Roehr, 2005). The person is unable to disengage from the experience, and even though the
moment has passed, the traumatised person has become fixed at this point in time (Melnick & Nevis,
1997; Schoen, 2008). Over time contact modifying strategies become habitual, fixed responses aimed at
avoiding further danger. If required over long periods of time, as in experiences of complex trauma, these
strategies can become part of personality structure (Votsmeier-Roehr, 2005). The many secondary
manifestations of trauma (see part 1) are understood as, “creative adaptations to inhospitable situations in
a person’s life” (Crocker, 1999, p.134) and the best possible response available at the time based on a
person’s prior life experiences and levels of support (Burley & Freier, 2004).
6 The development of the extensively researched Emotion-focused therapy (Paivio & Pascual-Leone, 2010) has been significantly influenced by Gestalt methodology (Votsmeier-Röhr, 2011). Contributions named include “explicit emphases on the role of emotional arousal, on bodily experience, and on the adaptive, organismic wants and needs associated with emotional experience as motivators of action” (Paivio & Pascual-Leone, 2010, p.85), which becomes apparent in the therapeutic stance and working with inner dialogues/parts (Votsmeier-Röhr, 2011).7 Ogden’s sensorimotor approach is strongly influenced by Hakomi (Beauregard, n.d.), a body-centered mindfulness based psychotherapy, which in turn was influenced by Gestalt principles (Hakomi Institute, n.d.). Her book is acclaimed as an outstanding contribution to trauma therapy by many of the current experts in the field (eg. van der Hart, 2006; Van der Kolk, 2006b; Schore, 2006) and uses an experiential here-and-now, phenomenological, relational approach supporting awareness and completion of unfinished ‘fixed’ patterns through a holistic body-inclusive approach.8 e.g.: addictions (Brownell, 2011; Leung, 2010), personality disorders (Greenberg, 2005; Greenberg, 2002), bipolar (Van Baalen, 2010), self harm (Williams, 2010), eating disorders (Gillie, 2000; Kappeler, 2004)
13
Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
“Contact is the life blood of growth, the means for changing oneself and one’s experience of growth”
(Polster & Polster, 1973, p.101). However, experiences of trauma significantly alter a person’s capacity
for contact; without sufficient resources to complete the gestalt of the traumatic event, a person uses all
their energy to ward off danger and therefore is unable to notice their own sensations (Kepner, 1996;
Wirth, 2008). No clear figures can be formed, as a disturbance at the sensation stage of the cycle of
experience will affect all remaining stages (Melnick & Nevis, 1997). The person moves continually
between extreme arousal and numbness, from over involvement to avoidance (Cohen, 2002) with
insufficient ground/support to assimilate the experience into a meaningful whole (Schoen, 2008).
Being a humanistic-existential approach, Gestalt theory understands humans as constantly striving to
realise their creative potential. This occurs as a continuous process of integration and differentiation at the
contact boundary between organism and environment within the organism-environment-field (Schoen,
2008). Even though at times challenging, with sufficient support these contact episodes can be
experienced as exciting and as opportunities for growth. With insufficient support these experiences lead
to varying degrees of existential fear, contact is modified and, when confronted with extreme situations
(or reminders thereof), split off completely to maintain an intact sense of self (Kerner, 2008; Votsmeier-
Roehr, 2005).
The window of tolerance (Figure 2) is a theoretical construct defining a person’s tolerance level of arousal
(Ogden et al., 2006). Similarly, the Gestalt concept of the I-boundary9, which consists of a collection of
contact boundaries (Polster & Polster, 1973), is defined as the currently permissible contact processes a
person can engage in without dissociating to self-preserve (Kerner, 2008). The window of tolerance
expands as internal and external resources grow (Wallin, 2007). Likewise, the range of permissible 9 “For each of us there is a point at which fear crosses the line into trauma, causing severe disturbances in the integration of cognitive,
sensory, and emotional processing” (Cozolino, p.262). The I-boundary defines this point; contact within the boundary is experienced as safe,
routine and strengthens one’s sense of safety, at the boundary it is experienced as uncertain/new, but also as exciting/differentiating, growth
promoting. Contact outside the I-boundary is felt as existential fear that threatens one’s identity, as overwhelming or catastrophic (Schoen,
2008; Votsmeier-Roehr, 2005)
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Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
contact processes and a person’s “experiential range” (Zinker, 1977, p.118) expands, as self- and field-
support increase throughout the therapeutic work (Kepner, 2003; Votsmeier, 2005). For integration to
occur it is important that therapeutic work remains within a therapeutically useful level of arousal, enough
for relevant material to be brought to the fore but not so much that dissociation occurs (Kepner, 2003;
Ogden et al., 2006). Through dialogue and experimentation Gestalt therapy creates opportunities for “safe
emergencies” (Perls, Hefferline & Goodman (PHG), 1951, p.336ff), experienced as emergency because,
“the patient [feels] the behavior in its very emergency use” (p.65), but “felt as safe because the patient is
at a stage adequate to invent the required adjustment” (p.338)10, i.e. has sufficient self skills and field
support to risk change within the safety and support of the therapeutic relationship (Joyce & Sills, 2010).
Phenomenological tracking allows for noticing signs of hyper- or hypoarousal (see Figure 2), indicating
the risk of retraumatisation and the need for co-regulation (Haarburger, 2006). When experiencing
flooding or numbing, the client’s prefrontal cortex and hippocampus have shut down and integration
cannot occur (Ogden et al., 2006). Such dissociation can be understood as “right figure [before] wrong
ground” (Kepner, 2003, p.94). Consequently it is important to reconnect the client with the safety in the
here-and-now, to strengthen the here-and-now ground of the therapeutic relationship rather than
heightening contact with the traumatic figure (Kerner, 2008). In the early phases of treatment grounding
strategies, which support current here-and-now relational processes, are used to regulate arousal and bring
the cortex back ‘online’ (Beauregard, n.d.; Wolf, 2001). If the relationship itself is experienced as
activating, bringing attention to and naming sensory impressions of the environment can help to ground
clients prior to attending to the relationship (McIndoe, 2007). Once sufficient relational and
self-support/ground has been built, memories can become more figural in the work (Kepner, 2003).
10 It is important to highlight here that PHG’s text was written for work with neurosis rather than specifically working with trauma or the often ensuing fragile self process (Wirth, 2008). PHG thus continue “felt as safe because the patient is at a stage adequate to invent the required adjustment, and not deliberately ward it off” (p. 338, italics added). Philippson (2012) highlights the impact of early trauma and neglect on a person’s “neurological capacity to move flexibly into new perceptions and relations to the environment”, which as a consequence becomes very limited and “can only be remedied by slow accretion from a caring relationship” (p.90). In other words, the warding off may not be very deliberate, but rather a neurologically wired response, which fortunately we now know can be healed in “a safe and empathic relationship [that] establishes an emotional and neurobiological context conducive to neural plasticity” (Cozolino, 2010, p.342).
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Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
“Most trauma occurs within the context of interpersonal relationships” (Van der Kolk, 2006, p.xxiii) and
leaves behind experiences of isolation and shame. In situations of complex trauma where a child’s needs
have been consistently neglected or met with abuse, a child learns early on to dissociate or remain
unaware of their inner experience/sensations and attunes to the caregiver’s needs instead. This results in
the loss of a sense of agency leading to hopelessness and despair and internalisation of the negative affect
from caregivers as an expression of one’s intrinsic defectiveness and unlovability (Sapriel, 2012). As
stated earlier, without awareness of sensation no clear figures can be formed (Melnick & Nevis, 1997),
which means, “without an authentic self, there can be no nourishing contact with another. One never
learns to be authentically oneself and with another at the same time” (Sapriel, 2012,p. 109, emphasis in
original). Furthermore, Schore (cited in Philippson, 2012) has shown that in cases of severe early trauma
“the neurological capacity to move flexibly into new perceptions and relations in the environment” is
disrupted and healing needs to occur “by slow accretion from a caring relationship” (p.90). This may be
facilitated through Gestalt therapy’s dialogic approach, which strives for “an attitude of genuinely
feeling/sensing/experiencing the other person as a person (not an object or part-object), and a willingness
to deeply ‘hear’ the other person’s experience without prejudgement” (Hycner & Jacobs, 1995, p.xi,
emphasis in original). GTT aims to mobilise client’s resources, which enable entry into dialogic
relationships through the consistent offer of authentic meeting alongside the strengthening of self-
functions necessary for a mutually authentic exchange (Butollo, Kruesmann & Hagl, 1998). This requires
close attendance to repairing therapeutic ruptures (Sapriel, 2012) as clients’ neural functioning and
implicit memory may initially distort the perception of the interactions with the therapist (Philippson,
2012). It is in the slow, continuous process of noticing and naming ruptures and attending to the repair,
that new implicit memories are created and authentic contact becomes a possibility (Burley & Freier,
2004; Mann, 2010). To sustain the capacity to initiate repair, the capacity for contact, even when faced
with projected rage or complete withdrawal, requires adequate levels of self- and field support for the
therapist as well. Regular supervision and self-care practices therefore are essential when working with
complex trauma survivors (Butollo, Kruesmann & Hagl, 1998).
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Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
Looking at the phase approach, the beginning phase(s) aim(s) to stabilise clients to be able to regulate
arousal sufficiently to remain in contact with their own experience and their environment more often
(Butollo, Kruesmann & Hagl, 1998; Kepner, 2003; Wolf, 2001). When contact is habitually interrupted at
the sensation stage, levels of sensation may initially need to be lowered and containing strategies are used
rather than expressive or confrontational, sensation increasing techniques (Hartmann-Kottek, 2004;
Melnick & Nevis, 1997). Kepner provides detailed descriptions of the stabilising work of the first, or in
his case first and second, phase. Therapeutic interventions after establishing support aim to reinstate self-
functions (pacing, grounding, boundary, self-support and self-soothing, mindfulness and affect tolerance
skills).
This preparatory work lays the ground for second phase work in which the traumatic material is
confronted in small doses, just enough so the client can remain in contact with the images, sensations,
feelings and thoughts alongside the support of the therapist and integrate these (Wolf, 2001). As self- and
field-support have increased due to the work of phase one, the traumatic material can now be revisited
(Wolf, 2001; Kepner, 2003). Not for the sake of cathartic expression of feeling per se, but to enable
“experiencing oneself differently” (Kepner, 2003, p.109) in relation to the trauma, to restore a person’s
“full capacity and range of possibilities with which to meet the environment” (p.109).
Van der Kolk (2009) points out “After confrontation with helplessness, it is essential to take effective
action” (p.12). Gestalt therapy through its experimental approach is ideally suited to surface unfinished
past situations enabling exploration of different responses within the present field (Clarkson & Mackewn,
1993; Serok, 1985). Phenomenological exploration brings implicit memory into awareness for
experimentation in the here-and-now (Burley & Freier, 2004; Wirth, 2008). The possibilities for creative
experimentation are many, including “fantasy and visualization, creative enhancement of body language,
two-chair work, psychodrama, and enactment” (Cohen, 2002, p. 2). However, “the intervention that is
more healing is a function of whatever is most assimilable, most readily integrated at the client’s current
stage of development” (Kepner, 2003, p.113) and experiments therefore need to be graded. This kind of
exposure and enactment work with traumatic memories can only be integrated if the current field
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Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
conditions outweigh those of the past (Kepner, 2003), measurable by the client’s capacity to stay present
with the experience rather than dissociating due to being overwhelmed (Haarburger, 2006).
The final phase supports integration/reconsolidation and involves “the reorganisation and growth of one’s
perceptions, one’s sense of self, and one’s understanding of the larger world and one’s place in it, as well
as reorganisation and growth in how one makes meaning of experience” (Kepner, 2003, p.131).
Mourning, exploring questions of forgiveness, redefining one’s identity beyond survivorship (Kepner,
2003) and integration of the traumatised and non-traumatised parts of self are named as important tasks
(Butollo et al, 1998). Group therapy to break isolation and support interpersonal growth, as well as
reconnecting with the body through activities such as yoga, martial arts, feldenkreis or dance are
encouraged during this phase (Wolf, 2001; Kepner, 2003).
Conclusion
Definitions, consequences and treatment approaches from the field of trauma therapy, and more
specifically Gestalt therapy, have been reviewed. The importance of a phase-oriented approach, which
ensures clients are sufficiently resourced before trauma memories are processed, has been highlighted in
the literature across modalities. Gestalt therapeutic concepts have been discussed against the theoretical
backdrop of contemporary trauma theory. Based on the literature reviewed, Gestalt therapy has been
found to be a highly recommended approach for working with trauma, as long as practice is based in a
thorough understanding that contact can only be sustained with sufficient support. The majority of authors
therefore explicitly advise against contacting trauma memories prior to establishing sufficient support,
against making memories figural before the ground provides the necessary structures and processes to
support integration. Attention to body process and phenomenological exploration were identified as
important tools for noticing and co-regulating client arousal useful both for grounding and deepening
therapeutic work. Both also facilitate access to implicit memory based action tendencies and relational
patterns, which once brought to awareness can be explored through graded phenomenologically based
experimentation. This resurfacing of unfinished business allows for experimenting with new responses in
the here-and-now with current resources and within the incrementally built safety and support of the
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therapeutic relationship. Thus new implicit memory and neural functions that allow for flexible responses
and authentic exchange with the environment are created and a person’s deeply felt sense of
disconnection and aloneness can slowly be undone.
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Isa Pfluger Psychotherapy with Adult Survivors of Complex Trauma
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