ÁSATRÚ BARBARIANSIron Age Germanic, Celtic and Scythian Re-enactment Group

STARTER’S HISTORICAL GUIDE

1

INDEXThe Ásatrú..................................................................................................................................3

Asatru Meaning......................................................................................................................3Authenticity Policy.................................................................................................................3Asatru Roles...........................................................................................................................3

Background to the Celts.............................................................................................................4Celt Meaning..........................................................................................................................4Who were the Celts?..............................................................................................................4Clothing..................................................................................................................................4Celtic Foods and Feasting......................................................................................................4The Celts as Warriors.............................................................................................................5Celtic Weapons......................................................................................................................6Games and Pastimes...............................................................................................................6Gender Roles..........................................................................................................................7Head Hunting.........................................................................................................................7

Background to the Germanic Peoples........................................................................................8Terminology...........................................................................................................................8Historical Perspective.............................................................................................................8Early Written Records............................................................................................................9Clothing..................................................................................................................................9

Social Organisation..........................................................................................................10Way of Life..........................................................................................................................10Foods....................................................................................................................................11Gender Roles........................................................................................................................11Germanic Warriors...............................................................................................................11Warrior Armour and Clothing..............................................................................................13

References and Sources............................................................................................................14Book References..................................................................................................................14Internet Sources....................................................................................................................14

2

The Ásatrú

Asatru MeaningÁsatrú (pronounced “au satru”) derives from Old Norse. The word consists of two parts - thefirst being Ása-, genitive of Áss, denoting one of the group of Norse gods called Aesir; thesecond part, trú, means “faith, word of honour; religious faith, belief” (archaic English troth“loyalty, honesty, good faith”). Thus, Ásatrú means the “faith/belief in the Æsir”. Today ithas come to mean “belief in the gods”, “those loyal to the Gods”, or “those who believe in theAesir and Vanir”.

“Asatru Barbarians” as a name was chosen as it recognises that our group is pagan in origin.Members depict the European peoples prior to the adoption of Christianity.

Authenticity PolicyThe policy of the Asatru Barbarians is to present as high a standard of historical accuracy asis possible. When on a camp any non-period equipment should be hidden from view ordisguised. It is ok to have comforts (eg comfortable bedding) as long as it is not obvious to acasual scrutiny by members of the public.

Ideally clothing should be hand made but, failing this, hidden stitches can be machine sewnas long as any exposed stitches are hand stitched.

Asatru RolesEurope during our time period was a melting pot of different tribal groups. The ancientGermans were most likely a mix of German, Celtic and other groups. Up till the first centuryBC the Greeks and Romans considered northern Europeans as either Celtic or Scythian.Julius Caesar described the Germans as more primitive and rugged than the “semi-civilised”Celts and set the Rhine as the demarcation between the two peoples, Germans to the east andCelts to the west. However, he also writes that Celt and German tribes often intermixed withlittle regard for ethnic and geographic boundaries. German leaders often had Celtic namesand the name Teutones was a Celtic term for people in general, while Germani is believed bysome scholars to have been a Celtic tribal name. From Caesar’s time onwards Germanbecomes the name commonly given to people living east of the Rhine (Anon., 1994).

Despite the cultural differences between the Celts and Romans, there was considerableintermingling among the two peoples. The mixing of peoples is strongly suggested by thelinguistic situation. Some Germanic tribes spoke Celtic and some Celtic tribes German.Classical historians usually provide the same physical description for Celts and Germans,suggesting considerable intermingling (Duffy, 1996, pp. 127-128).

Asatru members can play any of these three groups (Germanic, Celtic or Scythian) and attimes each of them has been depicted in events or displays in one way or another. Theimportant thing is that there is no mismatching of clothing and kit in this portrayal.

This guide concentrates on the Germans and Celts as being the main tribes the Asatru willportray.

3

Background to the Celts

Celt MeaningThe ethnonym Celts (Latin: Celtae; Ancient Greek: Κελτοί Keltoi, later also Κέλται Keltai)seems to be based on a native Celtic tribal name (cf. Celtici in Portugal) (Pokorny, 1959).The name probably stems from the Indo-European root *kel- or *(s)kel-, but there are severalsuch roots of various meanings: *kel- “to be prominent”, *kel- “to drive or set in motion”,*kel- “to strike or cut”.

Who were the Celts?It is said that the Celts dominated Western Europe for as long as a thousand years and were amajor force and widespread over many countries. They were renowned as fierce intimidatingfighters who would disregard body armour in battle. The basic history of the Celts tracesthem back years where they are believed to have started life in Austria, before spreadingwidely across Europe. The Celts lived a fairly simple existence insofar as they were not asadvanced as civilizations like Rome and Greece. Living a mostly rural existence they did notstrive to build large cities or towns, yet they were still the dominant group in the Iron Ageera, before Rome and Greece became serious forces.

Clothing“[The Celts] wear astonishing clothes,”exclaimed Diodorus Siculus, “dyed tunics,displaying every colour, and trousers thatthey call breeches. On top they pin stripedgarments made of shaggy material inwinter, and smooth material in summer,divided into small squares of everyshade.” Archaeological remains (mostlyfrom the Danish bogs) show capes andtunics for the men and long skirts andsleeved blouses for the women (Anon,1994).

The Celts unlike Roman men woretrousers.

Celtic Foods and FeastingThe Celts grew 3 ancient types of wheat –cinkorn, spelt and emmer. Oat, rye andmillet were also planted. Legumes(lentils, peas, beans) were also animportant resource. Cows milk was aprinciple source of nourishment andbroken pottery strainers uncovered atvarious sites hint at cheese production.Beef accounted for more than half the

meat consumed. The Celts were also great lovers of pork and loved nothing better thanfeasting on the savoury flesh of a fat pig. Salt pork from Europe’s western fringes was sold asa great delicacy in the markets of Rome (so bacon is allowable). Lamb was also eaten. Wild

4

Figure 1 Ancient British, Gallic and Teutonic Clothing(Kretschmer, 1882). First Row (Left to Right):Romanised Gaul; Gaul; Priestly costume; Druid injudge’s costume; 2 British women; 2 Germans. SecondRow (Left to Right): Druid; Gaul; Boudica; Gaul.

foods included seaweed, salmon, watercress, mushrooms and water parsnips. Athenaeuswrote that the Celts preferred their salmon baked, sometimes flavoured with salt or vinegar orspiced with cumin (Anon., 1994).

The Celts were great drinkers of wine, mead and beer. At feasts they would have tellers oftales, poets and musicians to delight the company. Knowing the Celt’s enthusiasm for wine,Italian merchants carried on a lively commerce, exchanging wine for such commodities asiron, gold and slaves (Anon., 1994).

Athenaeus describes their feasts thus: “When a large number dine together they sit around ina circle with the most influential man in the centre like the leader of a chorus. Beside him sitsthe host. Their shieldsmen stand behind them while their spearmen are seated in a circle onthe opposite side, and feast in common like their lords.” Diodorus Siculus wrote: “Besidethem are hearths blazing with fire with cauldrons and spits containing large pieces of meat.Brave warriors they honour with the finest pieces.” Athenaeus again: “They partake of [themeat] in a clearly but leonine fashion, raising up whole limbs in both hands and biting off themeat, while any part of which is hard to tear off they cut through with a small dagger whichhangs attached to their sword-sheath in its own scabbard.”

The Celts as WarriorsIn Battle Celtic warriors threw caution to the wind andtheir style of combat was highly aggressive andunrefined. They were considered in later years bycivilizations like the Romans as Barbarians, possiblydue to their ferocious nature and rural wild livingstandards. Often they were said to have disregardedarmour and fought naked, but armour has been foundfrom Celtic warriors including helmets and breastplates.These items would have belonged to higher rankingCelts, who would have armour and helmets adornedwith intricatepatterns or oftenanimals andsymbols.

Ruthless and reckless, Celtic warriors struck terror intothe hearts of those under assault. The very sound of aCeltic army in the field was enough to scare off manyopponents. “They are given to wild outbursts and they fillthe air with hideous songs and varied shouts,” wroteLivy, who explained elsewhere that “their songs as theygo into battle, their yells and leapings, and the dreadfulnoise of arms as they beat their shields in some ancientcustom—all this is done with one purpose to terrify theirenemies.” Diodorus Siculus observed of their trumpetsthat they were “of a peculiar barbaric kind; they blow intothem and produce a harsh sound that suits the tumult ofwar.” Diodorus Siculus said Celtic armour includedindividually decorated man-sized shields. “Some of thesehave projecting bronze animals of fine workmanship that

5

Figure 3 Limestone statue of Gallicwarrior in full battle gear includingchainmail (which may have been aCeltic invention), 1st century BC,found in southern France.

Figure 2 Celtic helmet, 3rd century BC,found at Ciumesti, Rumania.

serve for defence as well as decoration. Their bronze helmets had “large projecting figures”attached to them (Anon., 1994).

Celtic warriors are said to have enhanced their appearance by painting blue patterns all overtheir bodies. They would also use white lime mead, and pead in their hair, combined with thepatterns on their bodies this would give the Celts a powerful visual image and instantlystriking and recognizable in a fight on the battlefield.

Figure 4 Scenes from the Gundestrup cauldron depicting Celtic warriors wearing horned helmets, datedbetween 200 BC and 300 AD.

Celtic WeaponsCeltic weaponry used a variety of materials but for metal weapons acombination of bronze and iron was popular. The Celts were aroundfor the majority of the Iron Age and they were well renowned for theirmastery of metalwork with items dating back as far as 750 BC, foundin Wales. The common weapons used were swords and spears, withshields used too as a defensive item. Celtic warlords would often wearmore armour including metal armour surrounding their midsection, atrade off in mobility on the battlefield in return for better protectionfrom the enemy’s melee attacks.

Games and PastimesOne of the Celt’s pastimes was bird hunting and old Irish tales reporthow the men struck the birds with stones from their slingshots or witha “wooden weapon” described by Strabo as “thrown by hand and notby means of a strap with a range greater than that of an arrow.” Thereis archaeological and textual evidence for board games and variousoutdoor contests between competing teams. A 1965 excavation of anIron Age grave at Welwyn Garden City, just north of London, turnedup a set of game pieces and dice, which archaeologists surmise mayhave been the components of an old Celtic board game known asbrandub, or black raven. The upper classes, according to Irish lore,

6

Figure 5 The Batterseabronze Celtic shield,dating from the firstcentury BC or AD, BritishMuseum London.

enjoyed a close relative of chess. Called fidchell, or wooden wisdom, it was played with twoopposing armies of wooden pieces facing each other on a board. Celtic outdoor contests,using sticks and balls, resembled modern hockey or games such as hurley and caman, stillplayed in Ireland and the Scottish Highlands in which teams of defenders (nude, according toarchaeological evidence) try to prevent their opponents from getting the ball into a goal(Anon., 1994).

Gender RolesArchaeological evidence indicates that female tasks included spinning, weaving, playing thelyre, riding horses (smaller than those ridden by men), grinding grain, leatherworking, anddancing both singly and in a strange twosome that some have interpreted as a fight inprogress. Male roles include handling/chasing animals, riding horses, and driving a horse-drawn wagon. There is some controversy, however, over such a clear distinction in genderroles (Anon., 1994).

The evidence for women as warriors in Celtic Europe are inconclusive but among the BritishCelts there is a greater amount of historic documentation to suggest warrior roles for women(e.g. Boudica).

Head HuntingDiodorus Siculus in his 1st-century History had this to say about Celtic head-hunting:

“They cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle and attach them to the necks of their horses.The blood-stained spoils they hand over to their attendants and striking up a paean andsinging a song of victory; and they nail up these first fruits upon their houses, just as do thosewho lay low wild animals in certain kinds of hunting. They embalm in cedar oil the heads ofthe most distinguished enemies, and preserve them carefully in a chest, and display them withpride to strangers, saying that for this head one of their ancestors, or his father, or the manhimself, refused the offer of a large sum of money. They say that some of them boast thatthey refused the weight of the head in gold.”

As Asatru members we depict this practice by placing animal skulls over our tents.

Figure 6 Butser Ancient Farm, where researchers try to re-create methods and structures to have beentypical of Iron Age British farming. Note the Celtic roundhouses.

7

Background to the Germanic Peoples

TerminologyThe term German literally translates into “Spear man” (gar spear + man) as the spear was themost common of weapons in ancient Germanic society and every free man had at least one.In ancient times, many barbarian tribes were given the broad label of Germanic (Latin:Germanicus) by the Romans. Although these tribes fully recognized themselves as sharing acommon ethnic origin, spoke mutually intelligible dialects and shared a common religion,they were not unified or connected in any political sense. Each tribe and group would have itsown unique traits, traditions, and individual fighting styles.

The word Teutonic is often used instead of the word Germanic. The terms Teutonic andGermanic are synonymous, both referring to a language group.

Historical PerspectiveThe Germans, Gauls, Slavs and Romans were descended from one great race, the Aryans,who dwelt in western Asia or eastern Europe. These Aryan peoples eventually separated andmoved away in different directions. One branch of them entered Italy and became theancestors of the Greeks and Romans. Another entered what is now France, and became theGauls. One settled in Germany, and still others settled in other lands.

The ancient Germans lived in the lands extending from the North Sea and the Baltic on theNorth, to the Danube River on the South; and from the Rhine on the West, to the rivers Elbeand Oder on the East. To the East were the Slavs, a people still ruder and more uncivilizedthan themselves. To the West were the Gauls, in what is now France. To the South wereprovinces of the Roman Empire, separated from them by the broad stream of the riverDanube.

Julius Caesar defeated the Suevian tribe (about 70 BC) and took possession of Gaul forRome, and was penetrating into Asia and North Africa when he was assassinated in 44 BC.He was succeeded by his nephew Augustus, who continued Rome’s expansionary policymoving east and begun to establish a substantial presence east of the Rhine. Augustus sent hisstepson Drusus with mighty armies to bring the Germans under his sway.

Drusus made three successful expeditions into the heart of Germany, cut a canal to connectthe Rhine and the Yssel, sailed along the coast of the North Sea, and built no fewer than fiftyfortresses along the banks of the River Rhine. Drusus later died through a fall from his horse.

But the German tribes were to tremble before a still more terrible invader. This was Drusus’brother Tiberius, a man of skill and cunning, who knew how to stir up internal strife, settingtribe against tribe, winning over chiefs with bribes of gold or positions in his army, until withcomparatively little bloodshed he brought all the peoples between the Rhine and the Elbeunder his sway. The northern district was committed to the care of Publius Quintilius Varus,a leader of much experience, who made military roads, repaired the castles built by Drusus,and established courts of justice presided over by Roman judges.

In 9 AD a young warrior from the Cherusci tribe named Hermann or Armin, known asArminius by the Romans, leading an alliance of Germanic tribes, ambushed and decisivelydestroyed three Roman legions and their auxiliaries, led by Varus, in the Teutoburg Forest.

8

Arminius had acquired Roman citizenship and received a Roman military education, thusenabling him to personally deceive the Roman commander and foresee the Roman army'stactical responses. The Romans never again attempted to conquer Germanian territory east ofthe Rhine River. The Romans built a 300-mile defensive line roughly along the Rhine duringthe 1st century AD. Thus Germany east and west of the Rhine developed differently.

Early Written RecordsThe first written account of the Germans is a Roman account describing a military defeat atthe hands of the Cimbri (a Celtic tribe) and Teutones described as the Volcae Tectosages inwhat is now Austria (113 BC). The written records of the early Germans are all Roman andthus are not very faltering. The first major European group to come into contact with theGermans were of course the Celts, but as the Celts also left no written language, therelationship between the two peoples is largely lost to history. The first known author todescribe the Germanic tribes in any detail was the Roman historian Tacitus. He described thecustoms, character, and geography (98 AD). The Roman people were curious about theGermanic tribes. They had blocked the expansion of the Empire east, but were not yet amilitary challenge to the security of the Empire. Tacitus described the virtues of these peopleand the potential danger to the Empire (Ozment, 2004).

ClothingGerman clothing during the Iron Ageappears to have been very similar toother peoples in northern and centralEurope at the time - the Irish, British,and Celts (Gauls). Unlike moderntimes, fashion changed very slowly inancient times.

In the 1860s an amazingly completeand well preserved set of clothing wasdiscovered in a peat bog in Thorsberg,Schleswig-Holstein. Considered to beGerman dating from the 3rd centuryAD, the clothing does not showRoman influences.

The Germans wove their clothing,mostly using wool. Plants wereavailable that could be used for fabrics,such as flax (linen) and nettles, butavailable evidence suggests that theGermans relied almost entirely onwool.

There are some drawings in a 19th century publication (Braun & Schneider –see Figure 7)and in Kretschmer, 1882 (see Figure 1, top row, far right).

Men's garments included: leather caps, tunics, trousers, tunics, cloaks, and capes. Thetrousers suggest Central Asian origins. Along with woollen garments have been found metal

9

Figure 7 Germanic clothing. Top Stone age, Bronze age,Bottom: time of Christ, 3rd-4th century AD.

broaches. There were no dedicated children's clothing. Boys wore scaled clown versions ofwhat their fathers wore.

For women the basic clothes were along skirt (0.8m x 2m), either just tiedat the top or with a string sewn in, anda blouse/shirt. The shirt is made likethe 'Kittel' or made from one piece ofcloth. A short version of the skirtexisted but might have been worn byyoung girls (an Iron Age version of theBronze Age string skirt but without thestrings). The second type of clothingwas a tube dress similar to the Greekpeplos, folded over at the top and heldtogether by two fibulae on theshoulder. A leather cape or a piece ofcloth (1.8m x 3m), often withdecorated borders and folded in half,were used as protection against rainand cold.

Social OrganisationThe Germanic peoples lived in largefamilies which were related as tribes.They were divided into Gaue andHundertschaften. The Gaufürstenelected a Herzog in times of war. Therewere also Freie, Halbfreie (Hörige) and

Unfreie (Knechte). The single person had rights only as a member of family. The Freie madeup the Thing, a place where oral law was spoken.

Several hamlets formed a district, and several districts formed a tribe. The German nation, ifwe may call it so, consisted of numerous tribes who were entirely independent, oftenquarrelling and waging war on each other, but similar in customs, in organization andreligion.

Way of LifeThe Germanic tribes were nomadic and the horse eased their way of life. Their goods weretransported using ox-driven carts. Camps were made of skin tents and wood objects werepreferred to clay-made ones. The ancient Germanic did not know the potter’s wheel, butmade ceramics.

Their houses were mere cabins or huts made from wood that was not planed smooth, butrather roughly hewn into boards and timbers. Sometimes a cave would be used for adwelling, and often a timber house would have an underground room for warmth in winterand for protection against their enemies. Sometimes in summer the people made huts of twigswoven together in much the same way that a basket is woven. Such houses were very flimsy,but they had the advantage of being easily moved from place to place. Often, too, the house

10

Figure 8 Huldremose Dress, Denmark, Iron Age., NationalMuseum of Denmark, Copenhagen.

sheltered not only the family, but the horses and cattle as well, all living under one roof(Harding, 1901).

Over the doorway and at the gates hung antlers of deer, horses' skulls or ox-horns, trophies ofthe forest hunting, supposed to ward off from the dwelling evil spirits who might send diseaseon man or beast, blight on crops, or defeat in war and council (Aston, 1915).

At their banquets, when these did not degenerate into orgies of drunkenness, the Germansdeliberated questions of war and government, or reconciled foes and adjusted differences. Allmatters of importance were discussed twice, first over the drinking-horn, when the warriorsmet in the evening, and once more in the morning, when, after a night's sleep, sober reasonand judgment crept forth from their hiding-places into the light of day. Horse-racing anddice-throwing the Germans loved so dearly that nothing was too sacred to be staked uponthem. In the heat of excitement, cattle and horses, field and house, stores and weapons wereheedlessly wagered. When these were gone, the gambler staked his slaves, his children andhis wife, and, when nothing else remained, would even pledge his own personal freedom.Many a mighty warrior shore off the golden locks, the glory of the freeman, and became thechattel of a weaker man as the result of one night's drinking and one hour with the dice-box.His very fatherland was sacrificed, for slaves were frequently sold away into foreign lands(Aston, 1915).

FoodsThey ate wild berries, roots, and herbs of the forest, the flesh of wild animals and theproducts of their fields. They cultivated oats and barley, and their wealth consisted of largeflocks of sheep, small, stunted cattle, and swift, shaggy ponies, small in size but hardy andstrong. In times of peace the men and boys were occupied in hunting bear and boar, wolf anddeer. These furnished them with skins for clothes and bedding, horns which they bound withsilver and used as drinking-vessels, and flesh to eat (Aston, 1915).

Wine was unknown except to the few who lived near the navigable rivers and could exchangetheir goods for the precious casks that came from sunnier lands, for the German climate,generally speaking, was too raw and cold for the cultivation of the vine. But from their owngrain and heather-honey they brewed strong beer and heady mead (Aston, 1915).

Gender RolesIn Germanic society women spun and wove linen and wool, tanned leather, made soap(which was unknown to the Greeks and Romans), took care of the cattle, tilled the soil, anddid the housework. The men preferred to hunt or to fight; and when not doing either, wouldprobably be found by the fire sleeping or idling away their time in games of chance. Theydepended upon their herds and flocks for meat, as well as for milk and the foods they madefrom milk. Trading was practically unknown, each family fending for itself and there wasalmost no commerce, except in a few things such as skins, and the amber of the Baltic Sea.Blacksmithing was highly honoured as an occupation, for the blacksmith not only madeworking tools but also weapons with which to hunt and fight (Harding, 1901).

Germanic WarriorsStrong, often rough around the edges and considered barbaric in attitude, fighting style anddress by some, Germanic warriors were not to be trifled with. Considered to be fair and justwhen not at war, the Germanic warriors were passionate but not always equipped to thestandard of their foe. These long haired warriors fought with passion, honesty and a modicum

11

of battle tactics. Still they would often succeed in battle, fuelled by their intense drive andheart, the heart of a true Germanic warrior.

The Germanic warrior in their tribal unit would be part of a simple political structure andfamily and group hierarchy. The ancient Germanic warriors would be led by one chief, andtheir existence was largely based on their life as a group of nomadic warriors.

The relationship between Germanic warriors and Romans was tempestuous. Both sides hadrelationships with each other, incorporating alliances, treaties, and eventually war. TheRomans viewed themselves as far superior in culture, society and lifestyle than the Germanicwarriors. However, in many ways the Romans were much more barbaric, bloodthirsty andmegalomaniac than the Germanic tribes, even though they appeared to be much morecivilised and organised. The Romans never did conquer Germany.

Germans and Romans were very different in many ways. The Romans were short and dark,while the Germans were tall (very tall they seemed to the Romans) with fair skin, light hair,and clear blue eyes.

They placed a lot of emphasis on individual fighting, but still employed battle lines, like thewell known boar’s head formation that was essentially a forward moving triangle filled withsuitably equipped and armoured Germanic warriors. The front of the boar’s head would beled by the well equipped, well armoured and battle hungry warriors. The armour and typicallybetter weapons afforded them not only more defence but more offence too. Behind this firstline would be more battle savvy fighters, and as we moved further back into the formationwould be the less experienced warriors.

In many cases, the Germanic women fought together with their men.

Figure 9 Ludovisi sarcophagus (240-260 AD) depicting Germanic warriors both mounted andunmounted. It shows their hair, clothes, swords and long oval shields without bosses.

12

Warrior Armour and ClothingEvery Germanic warrior carried a shield, but otherwise the level of equipment an individualwarrior might own varied. The spear was the primary weapon of the Germanic warrior, whichcould be used for both attack and defence. In addition nearly all Germanic warriors carried asword and smaller blades, for close quarter fighting, which the Germanic warriors weretypically excellent at, adding passion and power to what they may have lacked in finesse andpoise. They also used bow and arrow.

Clothing was optional for Germanic warriors; trousers were common if owned, andsometimes a tunic and cloak would be worn, but in many cases clothing was often seen adisadvantage especially if the dirty cloth was to infect a wound obtained in battle.

Helmets were typically rare, but some warriors wore them, whether they were their own orthat of a past fallen foe from a previous battle. Chainmail was also rare but more commonthan helmets, and body armour increased in use later in time.

The Germanic helmet was conical in shape and made of iron. Vikings too were Germanic,and like the other Germanics, they did not wear horned helmets.

Figure 10 German warriors from the Arch of Constantine showing Warrior Armour and Clothing datingfrom 1st to 3rd centuries AD. Note the hexagonal shields and horseback warrior.

13

References and Sources

Book ReferencesAnonymous. 1994: The Celts: Europe’s People of Iron, Time Life Books.

Aston, Florence. 1915: Stories From German History from ancient times to the year 1648, George G.Harrap & Company.

Braun & Schneider. C.1861-1880: The History of Costume.

Duffy, Kevin. 1996: Who Were the Celts, Barnes and Nobel.

Harding, Samuel B. 1901: The Story of the Middle Ages. Yesterday’s Classics.

Kretschmer, Albert; Rohrbach, Carl. 1882: The Costumes of All Nations, Unknown binding.

Myres, J.N.L. 1986: The English Settlements, The Oxford History of England (Oxford: Clarendon).

Ozment, Steven. 2004: A Mighty Fortress: A New History of the German People, HarperCollins.

Pokorny, Julius. 1959: Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch (“Indo-European EtymologicalDictionary”).

Rhys, John.1882: Celtic Britain.

Internet SourcesAncient Civilizations, the Germans: http://histclo.com/chron/ancient/ac-teut.html

Asatru: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81satr%C3%BA_in_the_United_States

Butser Ancient Farm: http://www.butserancientfarm.co.uk/farm/

Celts: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celts

Celtic warriors: http://www.legendsandchronicles.com/ancient-warriors/celtic-warriors/

Germanic Tribes: http://news.softpedia.com/news/3-Things-About-Germanic-Tribes-78452.shtml

Germanic warriors: http://www.legendsandchronicles.com/ancient-warriors/germanic-warriors/

History World: http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=ac67

Odin’s Volk/Asatru: http://odinsvolk.ca/new/

The Baldwin Project: http://www.mainlesson.com/display.php?author=harding&book=middle&story=germans

14