WORLDWARIIVictoryInEurope

DEFEATINGTHENAZIS:ATRIUMPHOFCOURAGE,MILITARY

STRATEGY,ANDENDURANCE

AlliedsoldiersandFrenchciviliansinPariscelebratedvictoryinEurope,May8,1945.

CONTENTSCoverTitle1THEWESTERNFRONTAs1945dawned,mostGermansknewthattheircountrywasonthebrinkofcollapse.Formany,survivingtheAlliedonslaughtwastheonlythingthatmattered.

2THEEASTERNFRONTTheSovietshadmillionsoftroopstodeployagainsttheGermans,andtheyweredeterminednotjusttowin,buttoretaliate.

3LIBERATINGTHECAMPSTheAlliesdiscoveredtheinconceivableatrocitiesandmassmurderspawnedbytheNaziradicalideology.

4MOVINGTOWARDPEACEWiththeAlliesinfirmcontrolofEurope,Nazileadersbegansearchingforwaystoendthewar.

5V-EDAYAftersixyearsofwarandincalculablesuffering,theAlliesdefeatedHitler’sforcesandrestoredEurope’sfreedom.

6THEPOSTWARWORLDHavingsecuredvictoryinEurope,theAlliesturnedtheirfocustorebuildingthecontinent’sshatteredeconomyandtobringingwarcriminalstotrial.

PhotoCredits

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VEDAY1945CelebratingVictoryinEuropeinPiccadillyCircus,London“Thisisasolemnbutglorioushour.GeneralEisenhowerinformsmethattheforcesofGermanyhavesurrendered....Theflagsoffreedomflyallover

Europe.”

—PresidentHarryTruman,May8,1945

1THEWESTERNFRONTAS1945DAWNED,MOSTGERMANSKNEWTHATTHEIRCOUNTRYWASONTHEBRINKOFCOLLAPSE.FORMANY,SURVIVINGTHEALLIEDONSLAUGHTWASTHEONLYTHINGTHATMATTERED.

TheNewYear:1945ASTHEYEARBEGAN,GERMANYFOUNDITSELFFACINGANINSURMOUNTABLEFOE.

AlliedsoldiersandsailorsarrivedinEnglandin1945followingatourofduty.TheywouldsoonbedeployedbacktothecontinenttowagewaragainstNazitroops.

TheAllieshadmuchtocheeraboutastheycelebratedtheNewYearinJanuary1945.TheinvasionofNormandy,France,theprevioussummerhadfinallyputtheNazisontherun,andtheAllies—theUnitedStates,GreatBritain,andtheSovietUnion—couldseethatGermanywasonthebrinkofcollapse.AlongboththeEasternandWesternFrontsofGermany,though,therewerebrutalbattlestowageandtowiniftheAlliesweretosucceed.NazileaderAdolfHitlerbelievedthathiscountrycouldstilltriumph,butmanyofhisgeneralsnolongersharedthisoptimisticview.InBerlin,Alliedbombingraids—AmericanduringthedayandBritishatnight—

tookaheavytoll.Peoplecrowdedintoair-raidsheltersandbasements.Theywrotemessagesonwallsofguttedbuildingstosonsandhusbandsreturningfromthefront,lettingthemknowtheirfamiliesweresafe,atleastforthemoment,andlivingelsewhere.Berlinerswereshortonfood,water,andsanitationfacilities.“HeilHitler!”hadbeentheprevailingeverydaygreetingandrallyingcry;now,Berlinersdeclared,

“Bleibübrig!”—Survive!TheRussianscompoundedGermans’miseryastheyadvancednorthfromHungary

andwestthroughEastPrussia.TheRedArmyshowednomercytocapturedmilitaryortocivilians.Murder,rape,andlootingbecamecommontacticsoftheSovietforces.Germansfacedtheiruntenablesituationwithadarkhumor:“Bepractical,”theyquippedatChristmastime.“Giveacoffin.”

Europe1945

WhenWorldWarIIbegan,AxispowerslinedupbehindtheNazis,butby1945Germanywassurroundedbyenemyforces.AxisPowers:Germany,Italy,Hungary,Romania,Bulgaria,JapanAlliedPowers:UnitedStates,Britain,USSR,Australia,Belgium,Canada,China,Denmark,France,Greece,Netherlands,NewZealand,Norway,Poland,SouthAfrica,Yugoslavia,Brazil

PathtotheEndAs1945dawned,sixlongyearsofwarwasending.TheAlliessqueezedGermanyfromtwosides,whilethefightinginthePacificbecameevenmoresavagefromallsides.

JANUARY

JANUARY17SovietforcesliberatedPoland’scapitalcity,Warsaw,openingthepathfortheRussianstomovesouthintoGermany.JANUARY25TheBattleoftheBulge,Hitler’slastmajoroffensiveontheWesternFront,endedinadecisivevictoryfortheAllies.

FEBRUARY

FEBRUARY4AlliedleadersmetatYalta,acityontheBlackSea,todiscussthesurrenderofGermanyandJapanandtoplanforthepostwarworld.

MARCH

MARCH7U.S.troopscrossedtheRhineRiveratRemageninwesternGermany,pavingthewayforsoldierstomoveintoGermany’sheartland.

MAY

MAY7GermanysurrenderedtotheWesternAllies.MAY9GermanysurrenderedtotheSoviets,bringingthewarinEuropetoaclose.

TheBattleoftheBulgeWITHTHEALLIESSQUEEZINGGERMANYFROMTHEEASTANDWEST,HITLERPROPOSEDADARINGPLAN.

Germany’sprizedPanzertanksplayedakeyroleintheBattleoftheBulge,December16,1944,toJanuary25,1945.

Inthefallof1944,HitlerdevelopedastrategythathehopedwouldturnthewarinthewesternregionsofEuropetohisfavorandhalttheadvancingAmericanandBritishtroops.HewantedtoseizeAntwerp,Belgium,akeyportcityontheAtlanticcoast,whichwouldsplittheAmericanandBritisharmiesfightingintheheavilywoodedArdennesForestinBelgium.HenamedtheplanOperationAutumnMist,butitbecameknownastheBattleoftheBulgefortheeffectthemaneuverhadontheAlliedfrontlines.Iftheplansucceeded,HitlerbelievedAmericanpresidentFranklinRooseveltandBritishprimeministerWinstonChurchillwouldbeforcedtothenegotiatingtable.Hitler’smilitaryadviserscomplainedthattheschemewasoverlyambitious.The

Naziarmylackedfuel,tanks,replacementparts,guns,andartilleryshellsforsuchanaggressivecampaign.Inaddition,theynotedthatGermansoldiershadbeguntosurrenderenmasseandthatfiveyearsofheavycombathadsodepletedtherankandfilethatmostofthefightingwasbeingdonebyyoungboysandoldmen.Hitlerwasunswayedbytheseargumentsandpushedpreparationsforward.Acornerstoneoftheoffensivestrategywasthecreationofanewarmoredtank

group,theSixthPanzerArmy,whichwasplacedinthehandsofJosef“Sepp”Dietrich,Hitler’sfriendandadviser.TheFifthPanzerArmy,ledbyGeneralHassovonManteuffel,whohadgainedfameforhisbattlestrategiesontheEasternFrontandinNorthAfrica,alsoplayedanessentialrole.Theoffensive’ssuccesshingedontheelementofsurprise.Alliedcodebreakers,however,wereonestepaheadoftheGermans.They

interceptedamessagesentbytheJapaneseambassadorinBerlintogovernmentandmilitaryofficialsinTokyo.Themissivedescribedthemassingof“amillion”NazisontheWesternFront.TheAlliesalsolearnedthattheLuftwaffe,theGermanairforce,wasstockpilingfuelandammunitioninthewestandthatNaziofficerswereseekingsoldierswhospoke“theAmericandialect”todisruptAlliedtroopmovementandspreadconfusionamongtheranks.ButinsteadofprovidingtheAllieswithastrategicadvantage,thisinformationmade

Alliedcommandersoverconfident.ThedeadlybattlebeganearlyonDecember16,1944,whenartillerygunslitupthewinterskyinwhatwouldbeoneofthelastgreatGermanoffensivesofthewar.

WinterchallengedU.S.troopsadvancingtocounterGermanforcesintheArdennesForestinBelgium.

Inthefirstdaysoffighting,Nazisoldiers,partoftheSS,movedquicklythroughtheArdennesForest.

PenetratingAlliedLines

WaryAmericantroopsfightinginSt.Vith,Belgium,watchedforGermansnipersastheysoughttocapturethevillage.

GermanfieldmarshalGerdVonRundstedt,assignedtoleadtheattackintheArdennes,wasatrusted,experiencedcommanderwhohadservedinWorldWarI.Althoughhewaspessimisticabouttheoffensiveandknewhedidnothaveenoughtroopsforadecisivevictory,helineduphismenalonga60-milefrontthatstretchedfromsouthernBelgiumtoLuxembourg.“Yourgreathourhasstruck,”hetoldhismen.“YoubearinyourselvesadivinedutytogiveeverythingandtoachievethesuperhumanforourFatherlandandourFührer.”Astheassaultbegan,250,000Germansoldiers,accompaniedbyinfantryandtanks,

chargedrapidlythroughtheArdennes.Withinninedays,theGermanshadpenetratedtheAmericanandBritishfrontlines,splittingtheirarmiesandcreatinga70-mile-wideand50-mile-deep“bulge”intheAllieddefensivepositions.TheAllieswerecaughtunprepared,andtheir80,000soldierswerefacingtheenemy

forthefirsttime.FormanyAmericantroops,itwouldbetheirfirstbattleandtheirlast.AsthestunnedAlliesretreated,theadvancingGermanscapturedthousandsofsoldiers.TheNazisexecutedmanyofthemandheldothersasprisonersofwar.GermansdisguisedasAmericanGIsmovedbehindtheAlliedlines,cuttingcommunicationlinesandseizingvitalbridgeheads.

HardenedTroops

AmericansoldiersusedoccasionallullsintheBattleoftheBulgetorecoverfromthebittercold.

ByDecember20,fourdaysafterthestartofOperationAutumnMist,theGermanshadsurroundedAmericanforcesstationedinBastogne,Belgium,astrategicallyimportanttownwheretheArdennesregion’smainroadsconverged.Runningshortonammunition,besiegedU.S.troopsfoughtvaliantlybutgaveupgroundhourafterhourwhilesustainingheavylossesfromenemybombardment.Still,theymanagedtoholdon,andwhentheGermansdemandedthattheAmericanssurrenderonDecember22,theU.S.commanderrefused.Finally,onDecember26,theU.S.ThirdArmy,ledbyGeneralGeorgePatton,broke

throughtheGermanlinesandrelievedBastogne’sbeleaguereddefenders.WhentheNaziswererunningoutoffuelandammunition,andunabletopushPatton’stroopsback,FifthPanzerArmygeneralvonManteuffelaskedforpermissiontowithdraw.Hitlerdeniedtherequest,andthePanzersremainedmiredintheconflict.InthedaysafterBastogne,thebattlefortheArdennescontinued,butthetideofwar

hadchanged.Pattonmovedhismennorth,successfullyattackingthesouthernGermanlines.BritishfieldmarshalBernardMontgomeryandhissoldiers,movingsouthonJanuary3,struckonthenorthernflankofthe“bulge.”Fourdayslater,U.S.troopscutoffamainGermansupplyroad,deprivingtheNazisofanimportantroutetotransportammunitionandothercrucialequipment.WiththeBattleoftheBulgelost,thewearyGermansoldiersretreatedtotheeast,towardtheGermanheartland.WhileChurchillcalledtheBattleoftheBulge“undoubtedlythegreatestAmerican

battleofthewar,”troopspaidaheavypriceforthevictory.Closeto21,000Alliedsoldierswerekilled.Another43,000menwerewounded,andover23,000werecapturedorreportedmissinginaction.Germanlosseswerehorrificaswell:15,000killed,41,000wounded,and27,000capturedormissing.TheGermansalsolost600tanksand1,600aircraft.Intheend,Hitler’scostlygrandschemeonlydelayedtheAlliedmarchintoGermanybyaboutsixweeks.Moreover,theAllieshaddestroyed

theGermans’abilitytoholdalineinthewest.

DrivingaWedgeBetweentheWesternAllies

GermanforcespiercedtheAmericanandBritishfrontlinesintheArdennesregionofBelgiumandLuxembourg.

MovingontheWesternFrontAhandfulofkeyeventsforcedGermanytoitskneesandwreakedhavoconthecountry.

1945

JANUARYJANUARY1GermanyconductedaraidagainstAlliedairfields,destroyingmorethan450planes.JANUARY25BattleoftheBulgeended.

FEBRUARY

FEBRUARY3AlliesbeganbombingBerlin.FEBRUARY13Dresdenbombingcreatedafirestormthatreducedthecitytoashes.

MARCH

MARCH7U.S.forcescrossedtheRhineRiveratRemagen,Germany.

APRIL

APRIL12PresidentFranklinRooseveltdied,andHarryTrumanbecamepresident.APRIL26AmericanandSovietarmiesmetattheElbeRiverinGermany.APRIL30AdolfHitlercommittedsuicide.

OldBloodandGuts

GeneralGeorgePatton(1885–1945)wasasaudaciousashewasabrupt,asoldierwhoalwayskepthismenmovingacrossthebattlefield.Pattonalsorelishedcombat.Heearnedthenickname“OldBloodandGuts,”promptinghistroopstojoke,“Ourblood,hisguts.”HehelpedleadAlliedtroopsintheirsuccessfulinvasionofSicily,theislandoffthesoutherntipofItaly,andlaterledtheThirdArmyasitsweptacrossFrancein1944.Hewasneveradiplomat,however,andhisbosses,especiallyGeneralDwightEisenhower,thesupremecommanderoftheAlliedforcesinEurope,wereoftencriticalofhim.

One-WordReply:Nuts!

WhenU.S.ArmygeneralAnthonyMcAuliffe(1898–1975)receivedawrittendemandfromtheGermansonDecember22orderinghimtosurrenderatBastogne,theU.S.positionwasdire.McAuliffe’stroopshadbeensurroundedfordaysandhadsustainedheavycasualties.Nevertheless,McAuliffe’snow-famousresponsewas“Nuts!”Officersunderhiscommandtriedtocomeupwithsuitable,officiallanguagetorephrasetheanswer,butintheenddecidedtolettheone-wordreplystand.Itwouldbecomeoneofthemostfamousquotesofthewar.OnDecember30,1944,McAuliffereceivedtheDistinguishedServiceCross,thesecond-highestmilitaryawardthatcanbegiventoamemberofthearmy.

Germany’sTigerTanksTHESEARMOREDVEHICLESWERETHEPRIDEOFTHENATIONANDTHEBACKBONEOFTHENAZIMILITARY.

Thehuge,fearsomeGermanPanzertanksprovidedexcellentprotectionforinfantrytroopsastheyadvancedonthebattlefield.

Inlessthanadecade,Germanengineersandplantworkersdesignedandturnedoutover25,000tanks,eachversionlarger,moresophisticated,andmoredeadlythanitspredecessor.

SERIESITheNazisdevelopedthefirstPanzertank,thePz.1,fortrainingin1934.TheGermanarmyusedover1,400Pz.1s,smallbutmightytanksnotallerthanaman,inthebattleforFrance.

SERIESIPanzer1orPz.1Introducedin1934Numberbuilt:830*

SERIESIIBythestartofthewar,GermanfactorieswereturningoutthePz.2forcombatduty.

SERIESIIPanzer2orPz.2Introducedin1935

Numberbuilt:1,850*

SERIESIIIWhentheSovietsbeganmanufacturingtanksthatoutgunnedthe10-tonPz.2,theGermanscreatedthemoreheavilyarmedPz.3.Thistank,coveredin2-to3-incharmor,wasarmedwitha50mmgun,weighed20tons,carriedacrewoffive,andwasusedbothintheSovietUnionandsouthernEurope.

SERIESIIIPanzer3orPz.3Introducedin1936Numberbuilt:5,775*

SERIESIVThePz.4weighed25tonsandcamewithtwo75mmgunsandtwomachineguns.Itwasengineeredtomatchimprovingenemydesignsandwasproducedbetween1936and1945.

SERIESIVPanzer4orPz.4Introducedin1936Numberbuilt:8,800*

SERIESVManyhistoriansbelievethatthePanther,thePz.5,wasthebesttankanycountrybuiltduringthewar.Thoughitweighed45tons,thisvehiclewasstillhighlymobileinruggedterrain.And,withits75mmgunandoverthreeinchesofarmoratthefrontandnearlytwoinchesonthebackandsides,itwasaneffectiveweapononthebattlefield.

SERIESVPantherorPz.5Introducedin1942Numberbuilt:5,000*

SERIESVIThePz.6TigerwasmuchbiggerbutslowerandlessagilethanthePanther,andtheGermansusedtheTigermostoftenindefensiveoperations.At70tons,itwastheheaviesttankproducedbyanycountryduringthewar.Andarmedwithan88mmgun,itdecimateditslighterfoe,theU.S.Shermantank.

SERIESVITigerIorPz.6Introducedin1942Numberbuilt:1,350*

*Allnumbersareestimates.

HeinzGuderian:GermanTankMastermind

GermancommanderHeinzGuderian(1888–1954)revolutionizedthewayinwhicharmoredvehicleswereusedonthebattlefield.Prussianbybirth,GuderianservedwiththeGermanarmyinWorldWarI,remainedintheGermanmilitary,andin1934becamechiefofstaffofMotorizedTroopsCommand.In1938,HitlernamedGuderiantothenewpositionofchiefofMobileTroops.Hebecameastudentofmechanizedwarfareandpublishedanumberofpapersdescribinghowtanksshouldbeusedinbattle,includinghis

famousworkAchtung–Panzer!(Attention,Tank!).Guderianwentontopioneertheuseofavarietyofsystemsfortanktroopstocommunicatewitheachotherduringbattle.ThistacticaladvantageledtomuchofGermany’searlysuccessinWorldWarII.In1941,HitlerdismissedGuderianforcriticizinghisdecisiontowithdrawandholdhistanksattheoutskirtsofMoscowinsteadofpushingforwardintotheRussiancapital.ButaftertheRussianshumiliatedtheNazisatStalingradinFebruary1943,HitleragainturnedtoGuderian,elevatinghimfirsttoinspector-generalofArmoredTroopsandthentochiefofstaffofthearmyin1944.AmericanforcescapturedGuderianinMay1945,andheremainedaprisoneruntilhisreleasein1948.

OperationLumberjackTHEBATTLEOFTHEBULGEWASOVER,BUTCROSSINGINTOGERMANYWASNOTEASY.

WhentheGermansfailedtodestroytherailroadbridgeatRemagenandthefirstU.S.forcescrossed,asignappeared:“CrosstheRhinewithdryfeet.Courtesyofthe9thArmoredDivision.”

FollowingtheirJanuaryvictoryattheBattleoftheBulge,theAlliescontinuedtheirslogtowardGermany.TheirgoalwastocapturethewestbankoftheRhineRiverandthreestrategicGermancities:Cologne,Bonn,andRemagen.Alliedleadersagreedthatwhileresistancewouldbefierce,enemyforceswouldnotbeabletostopthecampaigncode-namedLumberjack.The21stArmyGroup,composedofBritish,Canadian,andAmericandivisions,

closedinontheRhineinthenorth,whiletheU.S.FirstArmyheadedforCologneandKoblenz.Inthefaceoftheopposition,theGermanmilitarystooditsground.Inanattemptto

slowtheAlliedadvance,HitlerorderedthebridgesovertheRhinedestroyed.OneofthefewspansleftintactwastheLudendorffBridge,15milessouthofBonn,whichcrossedtheRhineattheancientRomantownofRemagen.NamedforGeneralErichLudendorff,whohadledthefinalGermanoffensivesontheWesternFrontduringWorldWarI,thisstrongrailwaybridgedominatedthetownandprovidedpassagetoretreatingGermansoldiersandescapingrefugees.OnMarch7,theU.S.FirstArmybeganitsadvancetoRemagen,ledbyLieutenant

KarlTimmermann,commanderofCompanyAofthe27thArmoredInfantryBattalion.TimmermannbelievedthattheGermans,whowerestationedoneithersideoftheriver,woulddestroytheLudendorffbeforehearrived.ButwhenthelieutenantputhisfieldglassestohiseyesandlookedtowardtheRhine,hesawthatthebridgewasstillstanding.TheGermanswereplanningtodestroythebridgeassoonastheir

soldierscrossed.

ABridgeTooFar

AftercrossingtheRhine,AmericansplantedtheU.S.flagonthetowersoftheLudendorffBridgeatRemagen.

Ataround2PM,justastheAmericanswereabouttoadvancetowardthebridge,adarktorrentofearth,pavingstones,andironexplodedonitswesternramp.TheGermanshadblowna30-footcraterintheroadwayleadingtothebridge.BulletsthenraineddownontheadvancingGIsfromthebridge’stowers.“I’llseeyouontheotherside,”oneofTimmermann’smensaidasthetroopspressedforward.CompanyAwasthenrockedbyanothertremendousexplosion.Whenthesmokecleared,thesoldiersexpectedonceagaintoseethattheLudendorffhadcollapsedintotheRhine.Instead,thebridgewasstillstanding.TwoofTimmermann’smenracedupthe

girderstocutthewiresleadingtotheremainingGermandemolitioncharges,whiletherestofTimmermann’smenfoughttheirwaytotheotherside.BeforetheGermancaptaininchargeoftheNazieffortssurrendered,hesentthismessagetohissuperiors:“...thedemolitionofthebridgewasunsuccessful...theAmericanshavecrossed.”ThecaptureoftheLudendorff,dubbedthe“MiracleofRemagen,”allowedAllied

armiestostreamacrosstheriver.Withinthefirst24hours,morethan8,000soldiershadpassedoverthelastnaturalbarriertoGermany’sheartland.AnattemptbytheNazistoretakethebridgefailed.Tendayslater,thebridgehadbeenhitbynearlyonedozenGerman-firedV-2rockets,andtheheavilydamagedspancollapsed,taking24Americanstotheirdeath.TheLudendorff,however,hadserveditspurpose.FortheAllies,itwasaone-way,eastboundstreet.TheywerenowpoisedtopushintotheinteriorofGermany.

U.S.ArmyengineersworkedtorepairdamagedonebyGermanstotheLudendorffBridge.

MovingAcrosstheRhine

FollowingtheirvictoryinBelgium,theAllies’nextobjectivewastocrosstheRhineandseizeGermany’sheartland.

FACESofWAR

OMARBRADLEY

“Inwarthereisnosecondprizefortherunner-up.”ThecommanderoftheU.S.FirstArmy,GeneralOmarBradleywasoneofthefirsttoreceivewordthatthebridgeatRemagenhadbeentakenbytheAmericans.Bytheendofthewar,BradleyhadcumulativelycommandedmoretroopsthananyothergeneralinAmericanhistory.HismodeststylemadehimafavoriteoftheGIs.Eisenhowercalledhim“themastertacticianofourforces...America’sforemostbattleleader.”

IntotheHeartlandONCETHEALLIESHADCROSSEDTHERHINE,EISENHOWER’SATTENTIONSHIFTEDTOTHERUHRVALLEY.

GermantroopswhofoughtintheRuhrValleywereheldinaprisoncampfollowingtheirsurrenderonApril17,1945.

OncetheycrossedtheRhineRiver,theWesternAlliesbeganadetermineddriveintotheRuhrValley,anareaborderedroughlybytheRhinetothewest,thecitiesofDortmundandHagentotheeast,theRuhrRivertothesouth,andtheLippeRivertothenorth.Thisstrategicareawasrichwithcoalandirondeposits,anditwastheThirdReich’sprimaryindustrialcenter.TheplancalledforBritishfieldmarshalBernardMontgomerytomarchtowardthe

ElbeRiverinthenorth,whiletheAmericanspushedsouthtowardtheRuhr.ThegoalwastoencircleandeliminatetheGermanforcesthatremainedintheregion.GeneralDwightEisenhower’sstrategysurprisedotherAlliedwarplanners,who

presumedthecommanderwouldcontinuetheadvanceontoBerlin.MontgomeryandChurchillwereunhappy.“Berlinremainsofhighstrategicimportance,”ChurchillwrotetoRoosevelt.“TheAlliedarmiesofthenorthandcentershouldnowmarchatthehighestspeedtowardstheElbe.”Eisenhower,unmoved,wonthedisputeandproceeded,dismissingBerlinas“nothing

butageographicallocation.”OnApril1,theAmericansfinishedsurroundingtheRuhrValleyandcutoffabout500,000Nazitroops.

AlliedairattackstargetedGermanindustriesintheRuhrValley.Survivorsofthebombingssurveyedthedamagetotheirstreetsandhomes.

Despitethedanger,onMarch25,1945,WinstonChurchillcrossedtheRhineaccompaniedbyseveralU.S.andBritishgenerals.

TheGermans,ledbyFieldMarshalWaltherModel,triedunsuccessfullytocounterattack,firstinthenorth,theninthesouth.ModelalsobalkedatordersfromHitlertodestroytheindustriesinthearea.“AllfearcomesfromtheDevil,”hewrotehiswife,astheAmericansclosedin.“Wemustalldieatsometimeorother.”WhenAmericangeneralOmarBradleyorderedmoretroopstosqueezetheRuhr

Valleyfromboththenorthandthesouth,ModelgavehismentheoptionoftryingtogohomeorfightingtheirwayoutoftheRuhr.Mostsoldiersdecidedtosurrender.“Whatistherelefttoacommanderindefeat?”Modeltoldhisofficers,“Inancienttimes,theytookpoison.”AndonApril21,Model,oneoftheThirdReich’sbestcommanders,committedsuicide.

“Mypurposeistodestroytheenemy’sforcesandhis

powers.”—DwightEisenhower

EisenhowertheDiplomat

GeneralDwightEisenhower(right),supremecommanderoftheAlliedforcesinEurope,conferredwithBritishfieldmarshalBernardMontgomeryaboutAlliedbattleplans.

ManagingthepersonalitiesofhiscommandersandoftheWesternleaders—ontopofday-to-daymilitaryproblems—wasoftenachallengeforEisenhower.Torelievethestress,hereadstoriesoftheWildWestatnight.Thatway,“Idon’thavetothink,”hesaid.EisenhowerwasespeciallyirritatedbysomedecisionsbyMontgomery.Inonewell-knownincidentrecordedbyphotographers(seefarright,above),aftertheAmericanshadcapturedtheLudendorffBridgeinGermany,MontgomeryallowedChurchilltocommandeerariverlaunchandcrosstheRhineRiver.TheBritishleader,whohadbeenvisitingMontgomery,tookseveralmembersoftheAlliedforceswithhim,andspentabout30minutesinenemyterritory.Noharmcametothegroup.

ACulturalCenterIsFlattenedINTHEMOSTDESTRUCTIVEBOMBINGRAIDOFTHEWAR,THEALLIESINCINERATEDDRESDEN,KILLINGNEARLY135,000PEOPLE.

AnAlliedbombingraidcreatedafirestorminDresden,Germany.ItreducedmuchofthecitytoashesandkilledmorepeoplethananyotherAlliedbombingraid.

“ItseemstomethatthemomenthascomewhenthequestionofbombingofGermancitiessimplyforthesakeofincreasingtheterror,thoughunderotherpretexts,shouldbereviewed.”—WinstonChurchill,March28,1945

ThenorthernGermancityofDresden,nicknamedthe“FlorenceoftheElbeRiver,”wasfilledwithmuseumsandhistoricbuildingsthatdatedfrommedievaltimes.Becauseithadnotbeenamilitarytargetintheearlyyearsofthewar,DresdenescapedthefirebombingsthatdecimatedotherGermancities,anditbecameamagnetforrefugeesfleeingtheadvancingRedArmy.ByFebruary13,1945,Dresdenwasteemingwithpeople,farmorethanthecity’sofficialpopulationof350,000.Overthenext48hours,anestimated135,000wouldbekilled,thegreatestlossofcivilianlifeofallAlliedbombingraidsduringthewar.Thecampaign,whichwasconductedby800AmericanandBritishaircraft,

unleashedmorethan3,400tonsofexplosivesonthebeleagueredcity.Incendiarybombsignitedafirestormthatburnedfordaysanddestroyedeightsquaremiles.Somecitizenswereluckyenoughtoescapetheinfernoandendedupwithonlyburnedfeet.Afewpeopletriedtofindrefugeinthecity’sreservoirs,onlytodrown.Those

hospitalsleftstandingwereoverwhelmedwiththeinjured.WhywasDresdentargetedsolateinthewar?SomearguethatDresdenwasamajor

communicationscenter,anddestroyingthecitypreventedtheGermanarmyfromsendingmessages.DresdenmayhavebeenselectedbecauseChurchillandRoosevelthadpromisedRussianPremierJosephStalinthattheywouldbombeasternGermany.Or,thecitymayhavebeenchosentowarnStalinnottostrayfromtheagreementsmadeearlierinthewar.TheUnitedStatesandBritainhopedthattheirdisplayoffearsomefirepowerwoulddiscouragetheambitiousRussianleader.

ElderlypeoplelentahandintherebuildingofDresden,buttherewaslittletheycoulddo.Theprocesswouldtakedecades.

“IwouldhavedestroyedDresdenagain.ThebomberskeptoveramillionfitGermansoutoftheGermanarmy.”

—BritishairmarshalSirArthur“Bomber”Harris

Bombers:AKeytoVictory

B-24Liberator

Wingspan:110feetLength:68feet

Engines:1,200horsepowerCeiling:28,000feetThemilitaryuseofaircraftbecamewidespreadduringWorldWarI.Earlyfighterplanes

wereequippedwithmachinegunsandbuiltformaneuverability,whichenabledthemtoengageinaerialcombatandstrafeenemygroundpositions.Bombersweredesignedtocarryheavyweaponsandinflictseriousdamageontheground,buttheirtargetingtechnologywaslimited.Atwo-mancrewmanuallyejectedsingle

bombsasbesttheycould.

WorldWarIItriggeredarapidevolutioninthedesignofcombataircraft.Bombersandfighterswereproducedrapidlytomeetwarneeds,andnumerouschangesweremadetoimprovethem.America’sfirstlong-rangebomber,theB-17Fortress,wasintroducedin1938;itwentfromdesignboardtoaerialflighttestinginlessthanoneyear.ThisplanewassoonfollowedbytheB-24LiberatorandthentheB-29Superfortress.ThesenewplaneswerefasterandcouldreachaltitudesunattainablebyWorldWarI–eraaircraft.Theydeliveredpowerfulexplosivestolevelmilitaryandindustrialsitesandtodestroyessentialwarresources.TheB-17wasusedbytheBritishduringthefirstyearsofthewar.DesignersoftheB-24Liberator,whichwentintoproductionin1941,madeimprovements:Engineerssuccessfullyextendedtherangeby100miles,increasedtheweightofbombstheplanescouldcarryto8,000pounds,andequippedtheaircraftwithtendefensivemachineguns.ThenewlydesignedLiberatorwasusedtocarryoutthemoredamagingairassaultsonGermanyandotherAxistargetsinEurope;itslongerrangeandgreaterspeedwerealsousedtoadvantageinthePacific.SeveralAmericancompaniesincludingConsolidated,Ford,andDouglasAircraftproducedtheLiberator,andtheirworkersstruggledtokeepupwithdemand.Sometimes,theflightcrewevenstayedatthefactorysotheycouldgetusedtothenewplaneassoonasitcameofftheproductionline.Nicknamedthe“FlyingBoxcar”duetoitsflat-sidedfuselage,theB-24LiberatorbecamethemostproducedU.S.bomberduringthewar.Inall,morethan18,000B-24swerebuilt;theplanewasretiredin1945.

TheCaptureofHanoverWHENAMERICANSOLDIERSREACHEDTHECITY,THEYSAWTHATALLIEDBOMBSHADREDUCEDITTORUBBLE.

Hanover’srailwaystationwasdestroyedduringtheAlliedassaultsonthecity.

TheroadthroughtheheartofGermanywaspavedwithbombed-outbuildingsandruinedcities,theresultsofrepeatedaerialassaults.Oneofthehardest-hitmetropolitanareaswasHanover,animportantrailroadjunctionandindustrialcenter.TheBritishhadbeguntheiraerialmissionsoverthecityduringthesummerof1941,

attackingrailyards,oilrefineries,metalworks,andotherstrategictargets.InSeptember1943,theAlliesdroppedover2,100tonsofbombsonHanover,followedbyanother1,600tonsinOctoberofthatyear.Still,theAllieswerenotdone.OnJanuary5and6,1945,theyblanketedthecitywith2,300moretonsofexplosives.Theraidsleft90percentoftheinnercityinruins.Residentialareaswerenearlyobliterated,andsome6,000civilianswerekilled.Still,theAlliedgroundadvanceonHanoverwasslowedbypocketsofGerman

resistance,mostlybydeterminedSSdetachments.Itwasn’tuntilthesecondweekofApril1945thattheAmericans,ledbyMajorGeneralAlexanderBollingandhis84thInfantryDivision,reachedthecity’soutskirts.Theytooktwodaystocapturethecity,andwhenitfellonApril10,the84thInfantrywasreadytopushthroughtoBerlin.Threedayslater,BollingandhismenreachedtheElbeRiver.There,theAmericantroopsreceivedorderstostandtheirgroundandhalttheiradvance.

TheFallofNurembergHAND-TO-HANDFIGHTINGMARKEDTHEDEMISEOFTHESPIRITUALCENTEROFTHENAZIPARTY.

AlliedbombingraidspoundedNuremberganditsfactoriesintorubble,openingthewayforU.S.troopstoenterthecity.

BerlinmayhavebeenthepoliticalcenterofNazism,butNurembergwasitsspiritualhub.AcitywithhistoricaltiestotheHolyRomanEmpire,NurembergwaschosenbyNaziofficialstohosttheparty’sannualrally,aritualizedspectacledesignedtoenergizethefaithful.TheralliesbecamesohugethatAlbertSpeer,theThirdReich’schiefarchitect,designedavastcomplexofbuildingsandparadegrounds,dubbedtheZeppelinfeld,ontheedgeofthecitytoaccommodatethecrowds.Theassembliesincludedmilitaryparades,masscallisthenicclasses,music,and

singing.Thedramatichighpointcameontheeveningofthe“DayofthePoliticalLeaders,”anhomagetotheparty’s“martyrs”whohadbeenkilledinthefailed1923Munich“BeerHallPutsch,”Hitler’sattemptedcoupd’état.In1935,theNazisusedtherallytoannouncetheinfamousNurembergLaws,which

strippedJewsoftheircitizenshipanddeprivedthemofmanypoliticalrights.

DestroyingtheOldCityDuringthewar,Nurembergbecameasignificantsiteforthemanufactureofaircraft,submarines,andtankengines.InJanuaryandFebruary1945,theoldcitysuffereditsheaviestroundsofbombingbyAlliedplanes.ThesesystematicraidsbytheBritishRoyalAirForceandtheU.S.ArmyAirForcedestroyedmostofthecity’scenterincludingmedievalwalls,acastle,andtwohistoricchurches.Inaddition,manufacturingplantsinoutlyingareasweredemolished.IntheraidthattookplaceonJanuary2,nearly2,000peoplewerekilledinjustonehour.Thefollowingmonth,inFebruary,anotherbombingraidkilledanother1,000.Inall,about6,000residentsofthecitylosttheirlivesintheairraidsand100,000werelefthomeless.

DoortoDoorOnMarch28,theU.S.SeventhArmycrossedtheRhineandbeganitsmarchtowardNuremberg.TheyreachedthecitybyApril16andbegantheirattackfromthenorthandsouth.HitlerorderedhistroopstodefendNurembergatallcosts,andtheNazistrainedtheirantiaircraftgunsontheAmericaninvaders.Forthenextfourdays,U.S.troopsfoughthandtohand,blockbyblock,onebuildingatatime.WhentheAmericansbreachedwhatremainedofNuremberg’smedievalwalls,troopsquicklyoverwhelmedabout2,000enemysoldiers;onApril21,theAlliesofficiallytookthecityandinstalledtheAmericanflaghighaboveAdolfHitlerPlatz.MuchofNuremberglayinruins,andlegionsofresidentshadfled.Ancient

landmarkshadbeendestroyedorwerebadlydamaged.AhandfulofdeadNaziloyalistsremainedwheretheyhadfalleninthestreets.Soonthereafter,onthesoutheastedgeofthecity,anAmericanArmyrabbiarrivedat

Speer’simmenseZeppelinfeldtoofferaprayerofthanksgiving.Later,reporterswatchedastheAmericansblewuptheinfamous,largestatueoftheswastikathathadloomedovertheparadegrounds.TheGermansrebuiltNurembergafterthewar.Whilearchitectsandworkersdid

theirbesttorestorethecitytoitsformerglory,manyofthecity’sancientbuildingswerebeyondrepairorreconstruction.

TheFallofBerchtesgadenHITLER’SFAMOUSMOUNTAINRETREATWASAPRIMETARGETASTHEALLIESSQUEEZEDGERMANY.

OnMay4,U.S.ArmysoldiersrippeddowntheNaziflagthatwasflyingoverHitler’sretreatatBerchtesgaden.Britishbombshaddamagedthecomplex,andretreatingSStroopshadsetfiretoit.

Asearlyasthefallof1943,EisenhowerhadworriedthatNaziswouldentrenchthemselvesinheavilyfortifiedstrongholdsinBavariainsoutheasternGermany.Now,astheendofthewarloomed,thegeneralbegantofocusonNaziPartydiehardswhohethoughtwouldeitherwithdrawtoBavaria’sruggedmountainsandmakeadesperatelaststandorholeupthereandwageaguerrilla-stylewar.Oneoftheregion’sprimestrategictargetswasBerchtesgaden,aremotevillage80

milessoutheastofMunich.Itwashere,onthebucolicslopesofamountainretreat,theObersalzberg,thatHitlerhadcomeafterhisfailed1923“BeerHallPutsch”andwherehehadwrittenthesecondvolumeofMeinKampf.ThechaletsandlodgesoftopNazileaders,includingHermannGöring,headoftheLuftwaffe;MartinBormann,Hitler’sprivatesecretary;andSpeer,werelocatedontheObersalzberg.TheareaalsoheldalargeconsignmentoftroopsfromtheSSthatprovidedsecurity.

ThemountaintopEagle’sNestwasbuiltforHitler’s50thbirthday.

TheDashtoBerchtesgadenAlliedtroops,bothFreeFrenchandAmericans,racedtocaptureBerchtesgaden.Atfirst,theytargetedtheenclavefromtheair,hopingtodestroybothHitler’shomeandtheEagle’sNest,thechaletwhereHitlerentertaineddignitariesandguests.OnApril25,agroupofBritishRoyalAirForceplanesdroppedanestimated1,400tonsofbombs,designedtodestroyundergroundbunkersthattheAlliesbelievedexistedbeneaththeObersalzbergcomplex.ThehomesofBormannandGöringandtheEagle’sNestallsustainedheavydamage.Aftertheraid,localGermansracedupthemountaintolootthecontentsofthebuildings.TheystolevaluablepiecesoffurnitureaswellasBormann’sprizedcollectionofwatercolors.OnMay4,departingSStroopssetfiretoHitler’shome,anditwasstillsmoldering

laterthatdaywhentwoAlliedinfantrybattalions,includingtheU.S.Army’sThirdInfantryDivision,marchedonthevillage.ThesoldierstoredowntheNaziflagandrippeditintosouvenirshreds.Finally,theAmericansmadetheirwaytotheEagle’sNest.Theretheyfoundwine,teacups,andspoonsetchedwith“A.H.”Göring’shouseyielded18,000bottlesofwineandliquor,thousandsofcigarettelightersandcameras,andtwodozensuitcasesstuffedwithclothing.

In1933,AdolfHitlerboughtahouseonObersalzbergMountainatBerchtesgadenneartheAustrianborder.Heeventuallyexpandedthesiteintoalargecomplexofbuildings.

AlliesFreetheNetherlandsTHELIBERATIONOFARNHEM,NETHERLANDS,WASNOTEASY,ANDBOTHGERMANSANDTHEWESTERNALLIESFOUGHTHARDFORTHISSTRATEGICTOWN.

OnApril14,1945,theAlliesroutedtheGermansfromArnhem,thefirststepinliberatingtheNetherlands.Here,troopsworktostabilizedamagedbuildings.

AstheWesternAlliescrossedtheRhineandadvancedslowlyintoGermany,theyweresimultaneouslyfightingtoliberateArnhemintheNetherlandsfromitsNazioccupiers.Theinitiative,dubbedOperationCannonshot,wasledbytheCanadianFirstArmyandlaunchedApril11,1945.AsCanadiantroopscrossedtheIJsselRiverandbegantoattackArnhem,theRoyalAirForceprovidedcover,targetinganddestroyingGermanpositionswithinthecity.Aseparateassaultwasmountedfromthesouth,butthosesoldiersencounteredsuchstrongGermanresistancethattheAlliesrelocatedtheirforcesandcontinuedthebattlefromtheeast.Overthenextseveraldays,Alliedprogresswasslowedbyminesanddemolishedbridges,butintheendtheNaziscouldnotholdArnhem.ByApril14,theCanadianshadsecuredmostofthecity,withmop-upoperationstakinganothertwodays.ItwasavictorythatpavedthewaytoliberatetheNetherlands.InearlyMay,Germanforcessurrenderedthecountry.

Arnhem,some20mileswestoftheGermanborder,wasthesceneofamajorbattlefortheNetherlands.

AlliedtroopsfacedstiffresistancefromNazisinDutchcities.TheseBritishsoldierstookcoverfromsniperfireduringabattle.

ACityinRuinsTheliberatedcityofArnhemwasashellofitsprewarself.TheoccupyingNazishadtakenalmosteverythingofuse,andthedamagefrommultiplebombingrunsandartillerybarrageshadleftmostbuildingsemptyskeletons.Homesthatwerestillstandinghadnofurniture,nowindows,andnodoors.Bridgeshadbeendestroyed,andtemporary,movablespansweretheonlymeanstotravelfromwesttoeast.Onewarreporterdescribedthecityas“adeserted,burningshell.”Alliedcasualtiesduringthebattlewerefairlysmall;about60Alliedsoldierslosttheirlivesandover130werewounded.Noexactcountsexist,butthenumberofinjuredanddeadGermansisestimatedtobeinthethousands.

LiberationinItalygaverisetostrongemotionsinthosewhohadsufferedduringthewar.AnelderlywomangaveanAmericansoldierawelcomingkiss.

TheAlliesMoveNorthThroughItalyHELPEDBYITALIANRESISTANCEFIGHTERS,THEALLIESADVANCEDFROMSOUTHERNEUROPE.

ThrongsinBologna,Italy,gaveanexuberantwelcometoItalianresistancemovementmemberswhofreedtheircityonApril21,1945.

In1943,followingitssurrendertotheAllies,Italyhadofficiallychangedsidesinthewar.ButGermanforcesstilloccupiedthenorthernpartofthecountry,andtheregionhaditsownpuppetFascistgovernment,whichwasledbyIlDuceBenitoMussolini.As1945proceeded,theNazisstationedinItalyweredeterminedtopreventtheAlliesfromusingthecountryasabaseforattacksagainstnorthernEuropeandtheBalkanstotheeast.TounseattheGermans,theAlliesplannedaspringoffensive.TheystartedonApril

6withtwodiversionaryattacksonthecoasts,aploytodrawtheGermandefendersawayfromthemainplannedthrustthroughthecountry’scenter.ByApril19,BritishandAmericantroopshadsurroundedthenortherncityofBologna.Twodayslater,anothergroupofAlliedfightersenteredBolognaandsecuredthecity.AmericantroopscontinuedmovingnorthandonApril23crossedthePoRiver.Theywereroughly250milessouthoftheGermanborder.AstheyproceededtoSalò,thesmalltownwherethepuppetgovernmentwasheadquartered,theyencounteredlessandlessresistance.

ItaliansJointheBattleAstheAlliedforcespushednorth,anItalianpoliticalgrouprepresentingresistanceforcesopposedtotheFascistregime,thepartisans,organizedageneralstrikeandarmeduprisinginthemajorcitiesofGenoa,Milan,Turin,andVenice.Thepartisansintendedthis“DayofUprising,”scheduledforApril25,todemonstratethattheFascistsnolongercontrolledthecountry.ThestrikealsofreedpartisansfromtheirdayjobssotheycouldparticipateinthebattleagainsttheremainingGermansandFascists.Theuprisingwassuccessful,andsomehistoriansbelievethatitsavedkeyindustrialsitesinnorthernItalyfromdestructionbyretreatingenemyforces.

TotalSurrenderOverthenextfewdaysastheuprisingscontinued,Fascistgovernmentsinnortherncitiesbegantocrumble.SomewereoustedevenbeforetheAlliedtroopsarrived.OnApril25,anti-FascistsforcedtheNazisoutofTurinandMilan.OnApril27,GeneralReinhartMeinhold,thecommanderofGermanforcesinGenoa,foundhimselfsurroundedbyanti-Fascistforcesandsurrendered—oneofthefewtimesinhistorythatmilitaryforcescapitulatedtocivilians.Thenextday,GermantroopsinVenicewerealsoforcedtocedetothepartisangroups.InthewakeoftheseNazicapitulations,someconfusionensuedoverthesurrender

agreementinItaly.SecretnegotiationsforasettlementhadbeenunderwayinSwitzerlandsinceMarch.ButonMay1,GeneralAlbertKesselring,commanderofGermanforcesinsouthernEurope,voicedhisoppositiontotheagreement.However,onthenextday,heconsented,allowingthesurrendertotakeeffect.ApproximatelyonemillionGermansoldiersfinallylaiddowntheirarms.Atwar’send,AlliedtroopsinItalyhadfoughttheirwayover1,000miles.Morethan

300,000U.S.andBritishtroopsand430,000Germantroopshadbeenkilled,severelywounded,orweremissing.

NaziOccupationinNorthernItalyEnds

Asthepartisans,supportedbyAlliedforces,unitedinItaly’snortherncities,BenitoMussolini’sFascistgovernmentcametoanend.Thedictatorhimself,tryingtoescape,

wascaughtneartheSwissborder.

Partisans:CivilianResistancetotheAxis

PartisanswerefinallyfreetowalkthestreetsofMilanafteritsliberationonApril25,1945.

ThecivilianresistancetoGermanoccupationinnorthernItalywasorganizedbytheCommitteeofNationalLiberation,acoalitionofanti-Fascistsknownaspartisans.Therewereasmanyas200,000ofthesemenandwomen,andtheymanagedtokillenemysoldiers,destroycommunicationlinesandtransportationcenters,anddisruptAxissupplylines.TheAlliessuppliedthepartisanswitharmsandothergoods,usuallybyparachutedropfromtheRoyalAirForceortheAmericanOfficeofStrategicServices.GermanandFascistforcesdidtheirbesttosuppressanyresistanceactivityandoftenexecutedpartisansandmadeapublicdisplayofthebodiestodissuadeothersfromjoiningthegroup.Overthecourseofthewar,nearly50,000partisanslosttheirlivesinthefighttofreeItaly.

TheFinalDaysintheFührerbunkerLIVINGUNDERGROUNDINBERLIN,HITLERISSUEDHISFINALORDERS.

ThedebrisleftbehindintheFührerbunker,whereHitlerandEvaBrauncommittedsuicide,includeda16th-centurypaintingthathadbeenlootedfromaMilanmuseum.

Atwar’send,theFührerbunkerwasstillintact.However,onDecember5,1947,theSovietstriedtodemolishitcompletely.In1959,theareawasleveledandturnedintoapark.

FollowingthecaptureofBerlin,AmericansoldiersexaminedtheremainsoftheReichChancellery.

InJanuary1945,HitlerrelocatedtoBerlinandtookrefugeintheFührerbunker,aself-sufficientundergroundair-raidshelterthathad18roomsanditsownwaterandelectricalsupply.TheheavilyfortifiedbunkerwasadjacenttotheReichChancelleryinthecitycenter,anditwastobethefinalhomeoftheNaziregime.WhenHitlerfirstmovedintotheFührerbunker,hisdaysfollowedacertainpattern.

Intheafternoon,hecametoanundamagedwingoftheChancellerybuilding,whereheconsultedwithhistopmilitaryadvisersandaides.Followingthesemeetings,hehadteawithhissecretariesandotherofficials.Hethenretreatedundergroundandspentthenightsinthebunker.Thisroutinesoongavewaytoanother.Hitleremergedtotakehisdog,anAlsatiannamedBlondi,onshortwalksintheChancellerygardensandthenspenttherestofhistimeunderground.Hitlercontinuedtoconferwithhistopadvisers,includingGöring,HeinrichHimmler,andJoachimvonRibbentrop,inthebunker,usuallymeetingthematnight.InMarch,amidstdesperate,last-ditchfightingandwiththeAlliesclosinginon

Berlin,Hitlerissuedthisorder:“Allmilitarytransportandcommunicationfacilities,industrialestablishmentsandsupplydepots,aswellasanythingelseofvaluewithinReichterritory,whichcouldinanywaybeusedbytheenemyimmediatelyorwithintheforeseeablefuturefortheprosecutionofthewar,willbedestroyed.”HitlerdemandedthatAlbertSpeer,MinisterofArmamentsandWarProduction

andtheprimaryplannerofthecountry’swareconomy,overseethedestruction.SpeerrefusedtoobeywhathasbecomeknownastheNeroDecree,believingthattheGermanpeoplewouldneedtheinfrastructureandsuppliesafterthewar’send.Speerwasabletopersuadegeneralstoignoretheorder.Soonthereafter,hetraveledtoBerlinandtoldHitlerofhisactions.BythattimeitwastoolatetocountermandSpeer’sdecision,and,asaresult,atleastsomeofGermany’sindustrialbasesurvivedthewar.InApril,Hitler’smistress,EvaBraun,andJosephGoebbelsandhisfamilyjoined

HitlerintheFührerbunker.Laterthatmonth,onApril20,HitlercameuptoawardIronCrossestomembersoftheHitlerYouth.Itwouldbehislasttriptothesurface,foronthatdayBerlinwashitbySovietartilleryfire.Justtwodayslater,HitlerwasforcedtoadmitthattheNaziscouldnotwinthewar.HeblamedhisgeneralsforthelossandstatedthathewouldstayinBerlinuntiltheend.Bythe27th,Berlinhadlostallsecureradiocommunicationsandthestaffthat

remainedinthebunkerwereforcedtorelyontelephonelinestosendinstructionsandorderstothosestillinthefield.Eventsprogressedquickly,andpublicradiobecamethemainsourceofnewsandinformationaboutthewar.Onthe28th,HitlerlearnedthatHimmler,headoftheSS,hadbeentryingto

arrangesurrendertermstoendthewar,andHitlerorderedHimmler’sarrest.Thenextday,whenHitlerwastoldofMussolini’scaptureandkilling,theFührervowedhewouldneverbecomeasimilarspectacle.Onthe29that4:00am,Hitlersignedhiswill,inwhichhestatedthathechosesuicideovercaptureandthathewantedhisbodytobeburnedattheChancellery.ToensurethecyanidepillsthattheSShadgivenhimwereeffective,hetestedoneonhisdog.OnApril30,HitlerwasinformedthatBerlinwouldfallbeforetheendoftheday.

Thatafternoon,HitlerandBraunwentintohisstudyandkilledthemselves.Braunbitintooneofthecyanidepillsanddied.Severalminuteslater,Hitlershothimselfinthehead.Inaccordancewithhisorders,soldierstookthetwobodiesuptotheChancelleryandburnedthem.Guardsthenconcealedthecharredremainsinashellcraternexttothebuilding.

FACESofWAR

EVABRAUN

“FromourfirstmeetingIsworetofollowyouanywhere—evenuntodeath—Iliveonlyforyourlove.”

EvaBraunoncedescribedHitleras“agentlemanofacertainagewithafunnymoustache.”Shewouldbecomehismistressanddevotedcompanion,thenthewifewhowoulddiewithinjustafewhoursofhermarriage.

FACESofWARThesemen,verydifferentinbackgroundandleadershipstyle,ralliedtheircountrymentowar.Roosevelt,Churchill,andStalinbroughtvictoryandhonortotheirnationsandcitizens.ThebrutalreignsofHitlerandMussoliniendedindefeat.

WINSTONCHURCHILLAstatesmanandinspiringorator,ChurchillinspiredtheBritishduringtheirdarkesthours.“Ihavenothingtoofferbutblood,toil,tearsandsweat,”hetoldtheHouseofCommonsinhisfirstspeechasprimeminister.

Bornintoalifeofprivilege,WinstonChurchillenteredpoliticsatage25,whenhesuccessfullyranforParliament.In1904,heswitchedallegiancefromtheConservativePartytotheLiberalParty,realizingthathisbeliefsfitbetterwiththeLiberals.WhentheLiberalPartywonthe1905nationalelection,Churchillassumedthepostofunder-secretaryofstateattheColonialOffice.Hecontinuedtoriseinthegovernmentandin1911becameFirstLordoftheAdmiralty,inchargeoftheBritishnavy.Heappliedhisenergiestostrengtheningthenavy,butduringWorldWarI,helostthispositionduetonavalfailures.Afterthewar,Churchillservedinvariousadministrativegovernmentpositions,eventuallyshiftingbacktotheConservativeParty.In1929,heturnedhisenergiestowritingarticles,speeches,andbiographies,andbecameoneofthehighest-paidBritishwritersofthe1930s.AstheNaziscametopowerin1933,ChurchillbecameapersistentvoicespeakingoutabouttheperilsofGermannationalism.WhenHitlerinvadedPolandinSeptember1939,PrimeMinisterNevilleChamberlainwassweptfromofficeduetohispolicyofappeasementtowardHitler;ChurchilltookChamberlain’splacein1940.Churchill’sleadershipinspiredtheBritishpeopleandhelpedkeephiscountrystrongasitsoughttostymieNaziGermany.Inlate1940,ChurchillandRooseveltsignedwhatbecameknownasthe“Lend-Lease”agreement,underwhichtheUnitedStateswould“lend”warsuppliestoBritain,inexchangeforlong-termleasestoterritoryforairandnavalbases.Asprimeminister,ChurchillalsoworkedcloselywithSoviet

premierJosephStalintocreateaunifiedcampaignagainsttheAxis.

“Weshallnotfailorfalter;weshallnotweakenortire....Giveusthetoolsandwewillfinishthejob.”

FRANKLINDELANOROOSEVELTBorntoawealthyfamily,RooseveltledAmericaoutoftheDepressionandthroughWorldWarII.HebecameachampionofeverydayAmericansandastaunchsupporterofthenation’smilitarytroops.

WhenFranklinDelanoRooseveltbecamepresidentin1933,theGreatDepressionwasinfullforce,andthroughoutthecountry,Americansweresuffering.Withinhisfirst100daysinoffice,RooseveltpushedthroughCongresshissignature“NewDeal”legislationcreating42newagenciesdesignedtoproducejobs,regulatebanks,andprovideunemploymentinsurance.RooseveltalsoledthenationthroughWorldWarII,managingthewareffortasanactivecommanderinchief.Hebecameknownforworkingcloselywithhismilitaryadviserstodevelopwartimestrategiesandforchoosingfieldcommanders.WhenFDRpassedawayinApril1945,victoryinEuropehadnotbeenachieved,andtheUnitedStatesstillfacedmonthsoffightinginthePacific.Rooseveltwasoneofthemostbeloved,andalsooneofthemosthated,presidentsinAmericanhistory.SomecalledhimasaviorofthenationforhiseffortsduringtheDepressionandWorldWarII;otherscriticizedhisexpansionofthefederalgovernmentandlimitationsonfree-marketcapitalism.Hislegacyasoneofthenation’sgreatpresidentsendures.

“Wecangainnolastingpeaceifweapproachitwithsuspicionandmistrustorwithfear.Wecangainitonlyifwe

proceedwiththeunderstanding,theconfidence,andthecouragewhichflowfromconviction.”

JOSEPHSTALINHemarshaledhiscitizenstodefeattheNazisandhelpedmodernizeRussia.Healsoconductedareignofterroragainsthisownpeople.

JosephStalin,bornIosifDzhugashvili,ruledtheSovietUnionfor25yearsandledthecountryinitstransformationintoamajorworldpower.Whileinhis30s,hetookthenameStalin,meaning“manofsteel,”fromtheRussianwordstal,andduringhisyearsasgeneralsecretary,heearnedareputationasoneofthemostruthlessandbrutaldictatorsinhistory.HisregimewouldberememberedforthearrestsofmillionsofSovietcitizens,manyofwhomdiedincustody.Thesonofacobbler,StalinstudiedatatheologicalseminarybeforereadingtheworksofrevolutionarySocialistKarlMarx.Inspiredbythosewritings,Stalinbecameoneofthekeyplayersduringthe1917BolshevikRevolutionandquicklyrosethroughtheranksoftheCommunistParty,buildingsupportthatwouldbeusefulafterthedeathofSovietleaderVladimirLenin.Stalinwas,atleastinitially,Lenin’sprotégéandoutmaneuveredhisrivalsuponLenin’sdeath.Bythelate1920s,hehadconsolidatedhispowerandbecomethecountry’svirtualdictator.WhenGermanyinvadedRussiainJune1941,theRussianswereinitiallyoverwhelmed.UnderStalin’sleadership,theSovietsregroupedandlaunchedmajorcounterattacks.Afterthewar,Stalinretainedaniron-fistedgriponthecountry,overseeingthereconstructionoftheSovietUnionandthebuildupofitsmilitaryforcesandarmaments.Hediedin1953.

“Ideasarefarmorepowerfulthanguns.Wedon’tletour

peoplehaveguns.Whyshouldweletthemhaveideas?”

ADOLFHITLERAcharismaticleader,Hitlereasilybuiltafollowingofloyalcitizensandsoldiers.HefoundedGermany’sNaziParty,ledthecountryintoWorldWarII,andcausedthedeathsofmillionsofinnocentcivilians.

AdolfHitlerservedintheBavarianarmyduringWorldWarIcarryingmessagesbetweenGermanunitsandwasawardedtheIronCrossforhisbraveryinaction.Followingthewar,HitlerreturnedtoMunichandbecameinvolvedinnationalistandSocialistpolitics.In1923,hetookpartinanattempttooverthrowthegovernment,the“BeerHallPutsch,”andwasjailed.HewrotehisplanfortransformingGermany,MeinKampf,whileservinghissentence.HitlerreturnedtopoliticsafterhisreleaseandfoundsuccessinGermany’s1930election,whentheNaziPartywon107seats.Twoyearslater,theNazissecured230seatsandbecamethelargestpartyintheReichstag.HitlerwasthennamedchancellorofGermanyinJanuary1933.Thenextmonth,whenafireseverelydamagedtheGermanparliamentbuilding,theNazisclaimedaCommunistrevolutionwasunderwayandpassedtheEnablingAct,effectivelymakingGermanyadictatorshipandHitleritssoleleader.HeassumedthetitleFührer,meaning“Leader,”inAugust1934.Overthenextfewyears,HitlerorderedthebuildupofGermany’smilitarypower.HebegantoannexneighboringterritoryinordertofulfillhisdreamsofAryanlebensraum(“livingspace”)andanexpandedGermanempire,thussettinginmotiontheSecondWorldWar.

“Itisnottruththatmatters,butvictory.”

BENITOMUSSOLINITheFascistdictator’sreachforpowerandempireendedinfailureanddisgrace.

Knownasamanwhopossessedremarkableoratoricalskills,BenitoMussolinioftenreferredtohimselfasa“manofthepeople.”MussoliniservedinWorldWarI,andwhenhereturnedhome,hebeganpushingtheideathatitwouldtakeadictatortoleadItalyoutofitseconomicandpoliticalproblems.Ashisideasgainedpopularity,Mussolinigainedsupport,andfascismwasborn.Intheearly1920s,FascistgroupsinspiredandsupportedbyMussolinibegantogaincontrolofthecountry.ThesegroupsknownasBlackShirtsusedtacticsthatincludedterrorizinglocalpopulationsandattackinggovernmentinstitutions.In1922,Mussoliniwasnamedprimeminister,theyoungestprimeministerinthenation’shistory.In1925hebecameItaly’sdictatorandtookthetitle“IlDuce,”theleader.MussolinimayhaveunderstoodthatpeacewasinItaly’sbestinterestsandthatthecountrycouldnotcarryoutalongwar,buthealliedhimselfwithHitlerandsignedthePactofSteelin1939,thuscreatingtheRome-BerlinAxis.WhileGermanyandItalywerelinkedmilitarilyandpolitically,Italywasdefinitelythejuniorpartner.AsthewarwentbadlyforItaly,Italiansbecamemoreandmoredisenchantedwiththeirleader.And,whenMussoliniwasforcedtoretreatandestablishanewFascistgovernmentinnorthernItaly,eventheIlDucehimselfknewitwasonlyapuppetgovernmentandthattheendwasathand.DuringanattempttoreachSwitzerland,Mussoliniwascapturedbyresistancefighters,andonApril28,1945,hewaskilled.

“Letushaveadaggerbetweenourteeth,abombinourhand,andaninfinitescorninourhearts.”

2THEEASTERNFRONTTHESOVIETSHADMILLIONSOFTROOPSTODEPLOYAGAINSTTHEGERMANS,ANDTHEYWEREDETERMINEDNOTJUSTTOWIN,BUTTORETALIATE

Poland:AKeyStateontheEasternFrontTHOUSANDSOFPOLESJOINEDINTHECAMPAIGNTOLIBERATEWARSAW,BUTTHEADVANCINGREDARMYLEFTTHEMONTHEIROWN.

FollowingthedefeatofthePolishHomeArmyin1944,Germansoldiersroundedupmembersoftheresistancemovement.Memberswereguaranteedprisoner-of-warstatusinacapitulationagreement.

AsAugust1944approached,SoviettroopsleadingthedriveintoNazi-occupiedPolandclosedinontheVistulaRiver,justeastofWarsaw.EncouragedbytheadvancingRedArmy,residentsinthecapitalrevoltedagainsttheNazis.Anundergroundresistancegroupofsome40,000ill-trainedandpoorlysuppliedPolishsoldiersformedtheirownarmyandplannedtotakecontrolofWarsawbeforetheSovietsarrived.TheHomeArmy,asitwascalled,wasstronglyanti-Communistandhadclosetiesto

thePolishgovernment-in-exileinGreatBritain.ForSovietpremierJosephStalin,membersoftheHomeArmywerenotheroesbuttraitors,andtheirrevoltconstitutedacriminalact.InsteadoforderingRussiangeneralKonstantinRokossovskyandhisswiftlyapproachingtroopstoaidtheresistancefighters,Stalinissuedacommandforbiddingit.HealsorejectedcallsbytheBritishtoair-dropsuppliestotheHomeArmyandtothecity’sstarvingresidents.EliteNaziunitsbegancrushingtheuprising,battlingferociouslyfromstreettostreet,andtheyshowednomercytoanywho

opposedthem.Anestimated150,000Polishpartisanswerekilled.OnOctober2,1944,ashatteredPolishHomeArmysurrenderedtotheGermans.

Overthenextseveralmonths,theNazisexercisedcompletecontroloverWarsaw,decimatingthecity’sremainingpopulationanddeportingthousandsofcivilianstoconcentrationcamps.Duringthesemonths,theGermansalsodestroyedwhatlittleremainedoftheoncevibrantandbeautifulcapital,includingresidences,publicbuildings,schools,andscientificinstitutions,aswellasfarmland,mines,electricalpowerplants,andothercrucialindustrialfacilities.

PolishcivilianscarriedwhatbelongingstheycouldwhenGermansdeportedthemtoeitherforcedlaborcampsorexterminationcamps.

EventsontheEasternFrontTheSovietUnionbattledGermanforcesinarelentlessdrivethroughPrussia,Poland,andHungarytocaptureBerlin.

1945JANUARY

JANUARY17SovietscapturedWarsaw,Poland’scapital.

FEBRUARYFEBRUARY13SovietgroundforcescapturedBudapest,Hungary,aNazistronghold.

MARCH

MARCH6TheGermanslaunchedtheirlastmajoroffensivetoholdtheoilfieldsinHungary,butweredefeatedwithinamonthbytheUSSR.MARCH12AnAlliedairraidonViennadecimatedthecity.ByearlyApril,itwasinAlliedhands.

APRILAPRIL16SovietforcescrossedintoGermanyandbeganabombardmentofBerlin.APRIL30AdolfHitlercommittedsuicidetoavoidcapture.

MAY

MAY2SovietshoistedtheirflagovertheReichstaginBerlin.

TheSovietsPushfromtheSouthandtheEastTHEUSSRPLANNEDAPINCERMOVETOSURROUNDGERMANFORCES.

TheRedArmydisplayeditsmilitarymightasitadvancedthroughthecitiesofeasternEurope.

Byearly1945,theAlliesweresqueezingAdolfHitler’sReich,poisedtoenterGermanyfromnearlyeverydirection.TheRedArmywasbeginningitsmovewestthroughPolandandPrussia,southfromtheBalticstates,andnorthfromHungary.TheWesternAllieswerepushingeastfromFrance’sNormandycoastandnorththroughItaly.AstheAlliedvicetightened,theNaziswereforcedtofightonseveralfrontsatonce,

andtheydidsoinspiteofcriticalshortages.Germany’smanufacturingfacilitieshadbeendevastated,andthecountrycouldnotreplaceplanesforitsdepletedLuftwaffe.CrudeoilandfuelforitsremainingPanzerdivisionswereinshortsupply.Troopswererunningoutofammunition.Somanysoldiershadbeenlostthatthemilitaryhadtouseyoungboysandoldmentofillthegap.Intheeast,wheretheNazishadbeenengagedinadefensivestrugglefortwoyears,it

hadbecomeincreasinglydifficulttokeeptheSovietforcesatbay.RedArmytroops,withtheireyeonBerlin,seemedtobeeverywhere,advancinginoneplace,andatthesametime,deployingthousandsoffighterstobattleinotherlocations.MuchofthefightingconvergedinPolandandarounditsborders.

AStrangeKindofLiberationTheNewYearopenedwiththeSoviets,ledbyRussiangeneralGeorgyZhukov,inastrongpositiontocaptureWarsaw,thePolishcapital.Zhukov’stroopscrossedtheVistulaRiverandconvergedonthecityfromthenorthandthesouth.Then,onJanuary17,theRedArmyfinallyovercametheremainingresistancefromtheGermantroopsandmarchedintothecapitaltoofficiallyliberateit.Ontheirarrival,theSovietsdiscoveredthattherewaslittlelefttosetfree—muchof

thecityhadbeenreducedtorubble.Stilltheymovedquickly,roundingupsurvivingresistancefighterstopreventthemfromrisingupagainsttheirnewoccupiers.TheSovietsdesignateddissenters“enemyagents”andtreatedthemaccordingly—deporting,imprisoning,orexecutingthem.OnceentrenchedinWarsaw,theRussianswouldnotleavethecityfor45years.ThefightinginPolandtookaheavytoll:Bywar’send,thecountrywouldlose30

percentofthebuildings;60percentofitsschools,scientificinstitutions,andpublicadministrationfacilities;about35percentofitsagriculturalregions;andone-thirdofitsmines,electricalpowerplants,andmajorindustries.

TheEasternandWesternFronts1945

TheSovietspressedGermanyfromtheeastintheirdrivetowardBerlinastheWesternAlliespushedfromthewest.

FACESofWARGEORGYZHUKOV

“Itisafact...thatlarge-scalebattlesandwholewarsarewonbytroopswhichhaveastrongwill,cleargoals,highmoralstandards,anddevotiontothebannerunderwhichtheygointobattle.”

GeorgyZhukovhadareputationforbeingbothoutspokenandstern,andhewasoftenatoddswithStalin.Evenso,hebecamethemostsuccessfulRussiangeneralofWorldWarIIandachievedrecognitionas“themanwhodidnotloseabattle.”Inthesummerof1943,ZhukovledtheRedArmyintheBattleofKursk,some300milessouthofMoscow.ThereheroutedHitler’sarmiesinoneofthegreatesttankclashesofthewar.In1945,hewouldtriumphonceagainattheBattleofBerlin,whenafterahard-wonsiege,joyousSoviettroopsraisedtheSovietflagovertheGermancapital.

TheKönigsbergOffensiveASRUSSIACONTINUEDITSMOVEEASTWARD,THENAZISWEREINCAPABLEOFSTOPPINGTHEONSLAUGHT.

FightinginthecityofKönigsbergwasfierce,withsnipersinnearlyeverybuilding.

EvenastheSovietsliberatedWarsaw,muchoftherestofPolandwasstillunderGermancontrol.Bymid-January,EastPrussia,aGermanprovince,wasbrimmingwiththousandsoftroopsthattheNazishadbroughttothefrontlines,hopingtoslowtheRussianadvance.TheywereintentondefendingtheEastPrussianportcityofKönigsberg,ontheBalticSea.ThepopulationaroundKönigsberg,whichwaspredominantlyethnicGermanwith

asmallminorityofPoles,hadbeendecimatedbythewar.By1945,mostofthosewhowereleftwerewomen,children,andelderlymen.TheyhadreceivednowarningandweresurprisedbytheapproachofSoviettroops.OnJanuary21,inanattempttofleetheadvancingRussians,thepeopleofKönigsbergbeganamassevacuation.TheireffortswerecutshortbytheRedArmy,whichblockedallroutesoutofthe

city,includingtheroadtoPillau,aportthathadbecomethemainevacuationsiteforthosehopingtoescape.About200,000civiliansremainedtrappedinKönigsbergduringwhatturnedouttobeoneofthecoldestwintersinhistory.TheNaziswhohadarrivedtodefendthearea,includingtheThirdPanzerArmy,alsofoundthemselvespennedinbySovietforces.

TheBattlefortheCityKönigsberghadstrongdefenses.Threeringsoffortifiedbarrierswithtowers,fortresses,andmoatssurroundedthecity.Realizingthatitwouldbedifficulttoseizethecity,theRedArmystationedtroopstoencircleit,whileotherswereorderedtocontinuetheirmarchtowardGermany.ThistacticbenefitedtheGermanswhowereabletoreopenasafepassagefromKönigsbergtoPillau,whereanumberofshipswere

waitingtohelpevacuatetheremainingpopulation.ByMarch,theSovietshadmadecapturingKönigsbergapriority,andinearlyApril,

theRussianslaunchedanairoffensivetotakethecity.Theybombedthetownforfourdays,strafingitdayandnight.OnApril6,theSovietsfollowedupwithagroundassault.Withinjustafewdays,theRussianshadcrushedGermanresistance.Thousandswhohadbeenunabletoevacuatediedduringthebattle.ThefateofKönigsberg’sdefendersbecameclear.GeneralOttoLaschradioedHitler

askingforpermissiontosurrender.TheFührerrefusedtherequestandorderedLaschtofighttothelastman.AlargegroupofcivilianstriedtoescapetoPillau,butRussiantroopsmowedthemdownastheyran.Twodayslater,withover80percentofthecityinruinsandnohopeofreinforcements,LaschdisobeyedHitlerandsurrenderedhistroops.RussiansoldiersthensweptintoKönigsberg.

PolishForcesHelpedtheAlliesWin

PolishpilotsflewwithBritain’sRoyalAirForce.

SoonafterGermanyinvadedandoccupiedPoland,Polishleaderswhohadescapedformedagovernmentinexile,firstbasedinFranceandlaterinLondon.ThisgroupprovideddirectiontothePolishHomeArmyandotherunitsofthePolishresistance.Polishescapeesalsoincludedthousandsofsoldiers,sailors,andairmen.Thesemen

joinedtheAlliedforcesinthecampaignsinNorthAfrica,Italy,andFrance,andparticipatedintheNormandyinvasion.PolishpilotsservedinspecialBritishairforcesquadronsandfoughttheGermanLuftwaffetohelpdefendBritain.Duringthistime,Polishintelligencecryptographersdiscoveredhowtounscramble

militarymessagescreatedbytheGermancodingmachine,Enigma,andsharedtheinformationwiththeBritish.ThePoles’workledtotheAlliesdevelopingadecoding

device.By1945,theAllieshadinterceptedthousandsofGermancommunications,oneofthekeystowinningthewar.

AWateryGrave:TorpedoesSinktheGermanEvacuationShip

AdolfHitlerattendedthe1937launchoftheWilhelmGustloff,acruiseshipthatwaslaterconvertedintoahospital.

OperationHannibal,theevacuationofGermansfromEastPrussia,successfullymovedmorethantwomilliontroopsandciviliansfromtheareabytheendofJanuary1945.Withthousandsofciviliansstillontherun,GermanadmiralKarlDönitzorderedathousandshipsintooperation,manyofthemcivilian,tohelprelocatethethrongofrefugeescrowdingintonearbyportcities.OneofthelargestvesselscalledintoservicewastheWilhelmGustloff,acruiseshipthathadbeenconvertedintoahospitalatthestartofthewar.ThecrafthadalsoservedasafloatingbarracksfornavalpersonnelstationedinGdynia,Poland.TheWilhelmGustloffsetsailfromGdyniaonJanuary30,overloadedwithsome10,000people—morethanfourtimesitscapacity.ItsdestinationwasKiel,anorthernGermanportabout60milesnorthofHamburg.Shortlyafterleavingthedock,theshipwashitbythreetorpedoesfiredbyaRussiansubmarine.Just40minuteslater,thevesselsank,takingwithitanestimated9,000passengers,includingmorethan4,000children.Itwasthelargestlossoflifeinhistoryfromthesinkingofasingleship.

TheGermansLoseTheirGriponPolandTHENAZISTRIEDTOHOLDASTRONGFRONTLINE,BUTTHEYWERENOMATCHFORTHESOVIETS.

BridgesacrosstheVistulaRiverferriedbothmenandequipmentintoPoland.

WhiletheRedArmywasbatteringtheNazisalongthenorthernfrontsofPoland,theGermanarmystillheldavise-likegriponmostofthecountry.Hitler’smilitaryknew,however,thattheRussianswereapproachingfromthesouthandfromtheeast,andthattheSovietshadmillionsofmentopourintotheoffense.Germanintelligencereportedanimmenseenemybuildupalongtheeasternfront:225Sovietinfantrydivisionsand22armoredcorps,allassembledandreadytoattack.Topreparefortheconfrontation,theGermansestablisheddefensivelinesineastern

PolandthatstretchedfromtheNarewandVistulaRiversinthenorthtotheCarpathianMountainsinthesouth.GermansoldiershadstrictorderstoholdthelineandgivenogroundtotheRussians.AlosswouldgivetheRedArmyaclearpathtotheGermanhomeland.OnJanuary9,HeinzGuderian,chiefoftheGermangeneralstaff,madehisthirdtrip

inthreeweekstoseeHitler.Hediscussedtheseverityofthethreat,reviewedthepossibleconsequencesoflosingthebattle,andrequestedthatGermanysendinreinforcementstocountertheSovietassault.Thegeneral’seffortswereunsuccessful.Hitlerhadalreadyorderedthatsometanks

leavetheVistularegionandmovetoHungary,inhopesofretakingthatcountry’svaluableoilfields.HedismissedGuderian’sconcernsaboutthemassiveRussianbuildupandinsistedthattheSoviettroopsandtankswereadeceptivesnaredesignedtodividetheGermanforces.Leftwithonly12armoredand50infantrydivisionsstretchedover700miles,GuderianknewhistroopswerenomatchfortheRussians.

PolishpeoplewelcomedSovietforcesthathadcrushedGermandefensesinJanuary1945.

EarlyonthemorningofJanuary12,theRedArmy,underthedirectionofRokossovsky,theSovietgeneralwhohadledtheassaultonWarsaw,launchedanattackalongtheVistulaRiverinsouthernPoland.IgnoringGuderian’srecommendationtoallowtheFourthPanzerArmytoretreattomoredefensiblepositions,Hitlerinstructedthatthetanksadvanceintobattle,puttingthemwithinrangeoftheRussianartillery.Inonlyafewhours,theSovietsdestroyedmostofthedivisionandcontinuedtheirdeadlybarragenorthofWarsaw.Thewell-armedRussianforceseasilybrokethroughtheGermanlines,creatingahugebreachnearly200mileswide.

“TheEasternFrontislikeahouseofcards.Ifthefrontisbrokenthroughatonepointalltherestwillcollapse.”

—HeinzGuderiantoHitler,January9,1945

TheEasternFront,1945

SovietforcesbattledacrosstheVistulaRiverandforcedaGermanretreat.ThisoffensivepushedtheEasternFrontclosertoBerlin.

FightingintheBalticsHITLERIGNOREDAWARNINGABOUTTHEDANGEROUSSOVIETMOVEINTHENORTH.

ArmedGermanferryboatsontheBalticSeatransportedtroopsandequipment.

TheSovietsembarkedontheirBalticoffensivetoretakethestrategicallyimportantstatesofLithuania,Latvia,andEstoniainSeptember1944.Theirgoalwastoconquertheregion,boundedonthewestandnorthbytheBalticSea,onthesouthwestbyPoland,andonthesoutheastbyRussia,inordertoopenanothercorridorsouthintoPolandandtodenytheNazisanimportantroutetoportcities.TheassaultshouldnothavebeenasurprisetotheGermanoccupiers.Hitler’s

generalshadrepeatedlywarnedthattheSovietswouldstrikeintheeast.WhattheyhadnotplannedonwasthevengeancethattheRussiantroopswouldwreakonthecivilianpopulation.RussiahadsufferedhorriblyfromGermanaggression—some20millionSoviets

wouldlaydeadbytheendofthewar—andinthewaningdaysoftheconflict,RedArmysoldiersbehavedasifthetimehadcomeforretribution.AstheymovedthroughtheBaltics,Soviettroopsrapedandmurderedwomenandgirlsandlootedshopsandhomes.TheyoftentargetednoncombatantsofGermanethnicityandthosewhoseallegiancehadchanged,usuallybyforce,tosupporttheirGermanoccupiers.RussiansoldiersdraggedNaziofficialsintothestreetsandexecutedthem.Sovietairplanesgunneddownrefugeeswhoweretryingtoescape.Panic-strickenciviliansandNazisoldiersalikerushedtotheBalticportsinanefforttofleetherampagingforcesoftheRedArmy.TheSovietssufferedtheirownlosses:Some60,000menwerekilled.

TheBalticOffensive

AvictoryintheBalticregionofferedtheSovietsanavenueintoPolandandameanstoblockGermanaccesstoports.

TheSiegeofDanzigTHERUSSIANSPUSHEDALONGA165-MILEFRONT,CAPTURINGTHEPORTCITYWHERETHEFIRSTSHOTSOFTHEWARHADBEENFIRED.

CiviliansinDanzighurriedtoleavethecityasthebattleloomed.

Danzig,nowknownasGda´nsk,isoneoftheoldestcitiesinPoland,anditholdsanimportantlocationdirectlyontheBalticcoast.UnderGermanoccupation,DanzigsufferedthesamedisastrousfateasWarsaw.Civilianswhodidnotconformtotheso-calledpurityoftheAryanracewereshippedtoexterminationcamps.AstheRedArmyapproachedinJanuary,Danzig’sGermanoccupiersbegan

evacuatingtheirpeople,justastheyhadfromKönigsberg.TheyweredeterminednottogiveupthiskeyportwithoutafightandsetouttoinflictasmuchdamageontheadvancingSovietsastheycould.TheNazisscuttledshipsintheharborandblewupbuildingsandequipment.MembersoftheSS,theeliteGermanmilitarycorps,roamedthestreets,killingthosewhomtheybelievedhadfailedintheirdutytoprotectthecity.Theyhungthecorpsesfromtrees,oftenwithasigndanglingaroundtheneck:“Iwastoocowardlytofight.”ByMarch13,RedArmysoldierswerestationedontheoutskirtsofDanzig,readyfor

battle.ThreeSovietarmoredcolumns,followedbymotorizedinfantry,convergedonthecityfromthewest,east,andsouth.Twodayslater,onMarch15,thesiegebegan.Ferociousbattlesragedinallareasofthecityastheremainingresidentstriedtoescapetosafety.TheGermansheldoutfortwoweeks,buttheycouldnolongerfendoffthewell-

armedSoviettroops.OnthenightofMarch27,Germansoldiersreceivedorderstocompleteanevacuation.WhentheremnantsoftheNaziforceswithdrewonMarch28,thecityfell.Losseswerehigh:TheSovietshadkilledsome39,000Germansduringthebattleandcapturedroughly10,000more.

RedArmytroopsenteredDanzigafterdefeatingGermanforces.

ThebattleleftmuchofDanziginruins.

Poland’sChangingBorders

Bythefallof1939,PolandwasoccupiedonthewestbyGermanyandontheeastbytheSovietUnion,andthecountry’sbordersshifted.PolandwouldnotregainitslostterritoryuntilMay1945.

ContinuousBombardmentEVENHISTORICCITIESLIKEVIENNAWEREVULNERABLETOALLIEDASSAULTS.

AustrianchildrenexploredtheruinsthatwereleftinViennaaftertheAlliedassaults.

Knownforitsrichhistoryandculture,Vienna,Austria,wasavitalcogintheNaziwarmachine.ThecityhadbeenoccupiedbytheGermanssinceMarch1938andwashometotheFloridsdorfoilrefinery,whichwasessentialtotheNazis.Moreover,theDanubeRiver,justeastofthecitycenter,servedasamajortransportationarteryusedbyGermanshipstomovesuppliesandessentialequipment.DuetoitspositionincentraleasternEurope,justoutsidetherangeofAmerican

bombersthatstruckmanyNazitargets,Viennainitiallyescapeddestruction.Butinlate1944,theAlliesestablishedanairbaseatFoggiainsouthernItaly,andViennabecameaprimetarget.InFebruaryandMarch1945,AmericanandBritishaircraftexecutedanintensiveaerialcampaigntobringtheGerman-occupiedcitytoitsknees,andworkingtogether,theysoonsetViennaablaze.TheBritishpreferredtoflyatnightunderthecoverofdarkness.Thiswassaferfor

themen,butnightflightsmadeforlessaccuratetargeting.Americancrews,whowereescortedbyfighterplanes,chosetoattackduringdaylighthours.Thismadeformoreprecisetargeting,butcostahigherpercentageofAmericanaircraftandairmen.Asaresultofthetwo-prongedassault,Viennaenduredthethreatofraidsaroundtheclock.Theonlydefenselefttothecitywasitsantiaircraftguns.ThemostextensiveairraidonViennawasconductedonMarch12,when747

bombers,escortedby229fighterplanes,blastedthecityfornearly90minutes.While

themaintarget,theFloridsdorfoilrefinery,survived,theairraidseverelydamagedordestroyedsuchrenownedsitesastheAlbertinaMuseum,theMesselpalastFairPalace,andtheViennaStateOpera.Whenthetwo-monthcampaignwasover,theAllieshaddropped80,000tonsof

bombsandnearly30,000peoplehadbeenkilled.MuchofVienna’sinfrastructureandmanyofitshomeshadbeendemolished.Bridgeswereunusable,andtheshellingleftmorethan3,000cratersintheoncebeautifulcity.

Afterthebombingraidsended,residentsofViennatriedtoreturntotheirnormal,dailyactivities.

AlliedAccesstoVienna

TheAlliedvictoriesinItalyenabledthemtoestablishanairbaseinFoggia.From

there,AlliedbomberswereinrangeofViennaanditsoilrefinerythatsuppliedGermanforces.

ViennaFallstotheRussiansSOFTENEDBYANAERIALBOMBARDMENT,THEAUSTRIANCITYWASUNABLETOFIGHTOFFAGROUNDATTACK.

RedArmysoldiersoverpoweredtheweakGermandefensesinVienna.

Vienna,nowweakenedbytheAllies’springbombingcampaign,washighonStalin’slistofEuropeantargetstoseizeor“liberate”aspartofhisplantomaximizehispostwarinfluence.OnApril2,hedispatchedRedArmygroundtroopstosurroundthecrippledcity,whichwasdefendedbyseverelydepletedNazisforces.Scramblingtomakeduewiththemanpoweravailable,theGermanforcesfocusedtheirresistanceonthemoststrategiclocations,leavingothersectionsundefended.Buttheeffortfailed.Withinaweek,theNazishadsurrenderedthewesternsectionofVienna—animportantgoalbecausethatpartofthecityhousedthemainrailwaystation.Then,onApril13,1945,theyhandedViennaovertotheRedArmy.JustasatKönigsbergandDanzig,Sovietforcesexplodedinawaveofviolenceandlooting.

TheSiegeofBudapestTHEBATTLEFORTHEHUNGARIANCAPITALTURNEDINTOAFEROCIOUS,BLOODYCAMPAIGN.

SoviettroopsfoughtforcontrolofBudapest.

HungarywasGermany’slastallyinEurope,aswellasagatewaytosouthernBavariaandthelocationoftheNazis’lastremainingcrudeoilplant.HitlerdidnotwanttoseeBudapest,thecityknownasthe“PearloftheDanube,”fall,especiallytotheRussians.HehopedthatamusculardefenseofPoland,punctuatedbystrongcounteroffensivesinHungary,wouldkeeptheSovietsatbay.Itwasnottobe.InOctober1944,RussianandRomanianforceslaunchedamajor

offensiveagainstBudapest,hopingtocapturetheHungariancapital,isolateandeliminateGermantroopsinsouthernEurope,andcarveacorridornorthtoGermany.BylateDecember,theRussianscontrolledlargeareasofsouthwestHungaryandhadcutthelastlinkbetweenBudapestandAustria.Theoffensiveleftsome67,000Axissoldiersand800,000civilianssurrounded.Still,theGermanswerenotwillingtogodownwithoutafight.OnDecember29,

NaziforcesfiredontwogroupsofRussiandiplomatswhohadbeennegotiatingthesurrenderofBudapest.Althoughtheemissarieswerealltravelingunderwhiteflags,someofthemwerekilled.TheSoviets’responsewasrapid,ferocious,andrelentless,andtheyredoubledtheireffortstotakethecity.GermansfoughttenaciouslyandreinforcementspouredintoBudapest,helpingthe

troopsalreadytherelaunchaseriesofcounteroffensives.Thesoldiersattemptedseveraltimestofighttheirwayoutofthecitybutfailed,andnearly190,000GermanandHungariantroopsweretrapped.Afterfourmonthsofbrutalcombat,BudapestfinallysurrenderedonFebruary13.Inanowwell-establishedpattern,Soviettroopsbeganaperiodoflooting,massrape,andrandomexecutions.

AnAmericansoldierinBudapestphotographedthefamousBudapestsuspensionbridge,whichwasdestroyedduringthefightingforthecity.Theroyalpalaceinthebackgroundwaspracticallygutted.

HungarianNazisshotJewsbesidetheDanubesotheirbodiesfellintotheriver.Thismemorialincludes60pairsofcast-ironshoesmadeina1940sstyle.

TheSiegeofBudapest

ThecostoftheSovietcaptureofBudapestwasextremeonbothsides:80,000Soviettroops,38,000GermanandHungariansoldiers,and38,000Hungarianciviliansdied.

OneFinalPushRUNNINGSHORTONFUEL,GERMANYATTEMPTEDTORECAPTUREHUNGARY’SOILFIELDS.

GermansoldiersfiredantiaircraftgunsonSoviettroopsduringtheHungarianoffensive.

Germanybythispointwasrunningshortoffueltopoweritstanks,trucks,andairplanes.Inordertocontinuefighting,thecountryneededtocapturedependablefieldsthatheldthisvaluableassetandestablishsecuresupplylines.Themostlogicaltargetsweretheoil-producingfieldsinHungary’sLakeBalatonregion,about50milessouthwestofBudapest.InMarch,GermanforceslaunchedOperationSpringAwakeningtoseizethearea.

Theyalsohadabackupplan:Iftheinitiativefailed,theywoulddestroythefieldstokeepthemoutofSoviethands.TheoffensiveturnedouttobeGermany’slastmajorinitiativeofthewar.NeithersideinOperationSpringAwakeninghadahugenumericaladvantage.

Strategyandtacticswouldruletheday.TheGermansandHungarianssent465,000menintobattleagainsttheSoviets’431,000.HitleralsoorderedtheSixthPanzerArmytothearea.TheGermanbattleplancalledforasurgearoundthenorthendofLakeBalatonthroughtotheDanubeRiver.TheNazisplannedasecondthrustaroundthesouthernendofthelake,hopingtoencircleandtraptheRussiandefenders.AnticipatingNazimoves,theSovietscreatedaseriesoftrapsandantitankambushpoints.

ForcingtheNazisintoRetreatAstheGermanPanzersbegantheirstrikeonMarch6,theymadeverylittleprogressandsustainedseriouslosses.Tendayslater,theRussiansstruckback,forcingtheNazistoretreat.Injust24hours,theGermansgaveuptendaysofgains.TheNazisfailedtocapturetheprizedoilfields,andbytheendofthemonth,Russianforceshadchased

theremainsoftheSixthPanzerArmybackintoAustria.GermanyandHungaryhadlostover12,000menandmorethan30oftheirprizedtanks.TheRussianssufferedlossesaswell:nearly8,500killedandanother24,000wounded.

LakeBalaton

OneoftheresortsnearLakeBalaton

HungarianscallLakeBalatonthe“HungarianSea,”possiblybecauseitisthelargestlakeincentralEurope.Itmeasures48mileslongand9milesacrossatitswidestpointandreachesamaximumdepthof37feet.LakeBalatonwasformedwhenerosioncrumbledtheridgesthatdividedaclusteroffivesmallerlakes.Agricultureplaysanimportantpartintheareaaroundthelake,especiallyvineyards

onthenorthshorethatwerefirstestablishedbytheRomans.NearbyspasfeaturemedicalbathsthatattractthousandsofHungarianandforeigntouristseachyear.

Germany’sEasternandWesternFronts

TheAlliessqueezedGermanyfromtheeastandthewest.SovietforcesmadequickworkofdrivingGermantroopsfurtherwest.

OntoBerlinSTALINHADONEGOAL—TOREACHTHEGERMANCAPITALBEFOREHISWESTERNALLIES.

Until1933,theGermanReichstagwasthehomeofthenation’sparliament.Alliedbombings,streetfighting,andtheBattleofBerlinleftthebuildinginruins.

AmericanandBritishforceswerepressingtowardBerlinfromthewestandthesouth,butStalin’sarmieswereclosesttotheGermancapital,andtheyweremovinginfromthesoutheast,theeast,andthenorth.FortheSovietleader,thiswasaraceagainsthisallies,andhewasdeterminedtowin.HeorderedgeneralsZhukovandIvanKonevtoreachthecitybyApril22,aheadoftheWesternAlliedtroops.

APolishmotherwhohadsoughtrefugeinBerlinfoundthecityundersiegeandinruins.

TheRussianscommittedoverwhelmingtroopsandfirepowertotheeffort,theirfirstforayintoGermany.Theysentin1.5millionsoldiers,about3,300tanks,and28,000artillery,dwarfingNaziforces.Konev’smenwerethefirsttoarrive,crossingtheOder

RiverintoGermanyonApril16.Zhukovwasnotfarbehind,andthetwoarmiesunleashedaterrifyingartilleryblitzagainsttheNazifortifications.AstheSoviettroopsadvanced,theywerepushedbytheirgenerals,whowantedthegloryofcapturingtheGermancapital.TheRussiansfoundtheGermansinfullretreat,evenastheytriedtorepelwaveafterwaveofRussianattacks.Still,forZhukov,thepaceoftheRussianadvancewastooslow.OnApril22,theday

theSovietsweresupposedtoenterBerlin,hecomplainedthattheRedArmyhadonlyreachedtheoutskirtsofthecity.ThesoldierspickeduptheirpaceandwithinthreedaysbrokethroughtheGermandefensivelinesprotectingthecapital.TheSovietsmovedinwithtanksandblanketedBerlinwithrocketfire,pavingthewayformorethan500,000RussiantroopstobeginattackingthecenterofthecityonApril26.Duringthenextthreeweeks,theSovietsmovedthroughthecity’srubble-strewn

neighborhoods.Fightingwasfierceandprogressedstreetbystreet.WhenaGermansniperinsideabuildingaimedataSovietsoldier,theRussianssimplydestroyedtheentirebuilding.Thestrategyprovedsuccessful,butasthebattledraggedon,Russiancasualtiesmountedquickly:80,000menwerekilledand275,000wereinjuredordeclaredmissing.OntheGermanside,150,000menlosttheirlivesandthousandsmoreweretakenprisoner.ThefightingcametoanendonMay2whenRedArmyinfantrysoldierstriumphantlyraisedtheSovietflagontopoftheReichstag.

OnMay2,SovietsoldierstriumphantlyraisedtheirflagontotheReichstaginBerlin,signalingthatthecitywasintheirhands.

EndGameThebattleforBerlinforcedciviliansoutoftheirhomes,andduringthefinalclashesforthenation’scapital,somesoughtshelterintheAnhalterBahnhof,Berlin’smostimportanttrainstation.Withitsundergroundbunkerandwallsthatwerenearlyfiveyardsthick,thestation

seemedtoprovidetheidealrefuge.Itwasstockedwithcannedfoodandalsohad

emergencysupplies,buttheconditionsinsidewereappalling.Upto12,000peoplecrammedthemselvesinto11,811squarefeet.Onewomanspentsixdaysstandingonthesamestep.Berlinersknewitwassuicidetoleavethebunker,butmanydid,hopingtofindfreshwaterorfood.Thosetryingtoescapethecityfarednobetter.Nazisoldierssetupantitankbarricadesalongmajorintersectionsandsummarilyexecuteddeserters,noquestionsasked.StalinandhisRedArmyhadwontheracetoBerlin,buthisWesternAllieswerenot

faraway.WiththecapitalinthehandsoftheAllies,thewarwouldsoonbeover.

GermanciviliansinBerlintriedtofleetheSovietonslaught,buttherewasnoplacetofindsafety.

AGermansoldiersatamongtheruinsoftheReichstaginBerlinaftertheRussianarmyenteredthecityin1945.

MeetingattheElbeSOVIETSANDALLIESCONVERGEDINGERMANY,SPLITTINGTHEGERMANARMY.

AmericanandSoviettroopsmetonadamagedrailroadbridgeatTorgau,Germany,onApril27andexchangedcongratulatoryhandshakes.

“Wemeetintrueandvictoriouscomradeshipandwithinflexibleresolvetofulfilourpurposeandourduty.Letallmarchforwarduponthefoe.”

–WinstonChurchill,April27,1945

OnApril25,theGermanssufferedanotherterribledefeatwhenSovietandAmericansoldiersconvergedattheElbeRivernearTorgau,some70milessouthofBerlin,effectivelysplittingtheGermanarmy.FortheGermans,itwasanotherdeathknell.FortheAlliedtroops,itwasanoccasionforexuberance.Forthefirsttime,Western

andEasternAlliedsoldierswereabletojoinhands.Theyexchangedvodkaandchocolateandposedforphotographerswhorecordedtheformalhandshakes.Inaddition,statementswereissuedsimultaneouslyinWashington,London,andMoscow.Eachoftheannouncementsproclaimedthesamegoal:TheAlliesweredeterminedtodestroytheThirdReich.AmericangeneralOmarBradleycommentedontheoccasion,praisingSoviettroops

fortheirdeterminedeffortsonGermansoil,andlaudinghisAmericanforces,saying,“Intenmonthsyouhaveadvanced1,120kilometers(696miles)fromtheinvasionbeaches.Allthishasbeenattainedthankstoyourcourage,yourspiritandinitiativeandthankstoyourcomradeswhodiedinordertoachievethis.”

AmericangeneralEmilReinhardtshookhandswithhisRussiancounterpart,GeneralVladimirRusakov,astheycelebratedthemeetingoftheirtroops.

“ThisisnotthehouroffinalvictoryinEurope,butthehourdrawsnear,thehourforwhich...peoplehavetoiledandprayedsolong.”

—HarryTruman,April27,1945

OnApril25,asmilingAmericanLieutenantWilliamRobertsonexchangedgreetingswithRussianLieutenantAlexanderSylvashko.

“Ourtaskandourdutyaretocompletethedestructionoftheenemy....TheRedArmywillfulfilltotheendthistaskandthisdutytoourpeopleandtoallfreedom-lovingpeoples.”

—JosephStalin,April27,1945

RussianandAmericanmilitarycommandersmetatTorgauonApril26,1945,onedayafterthehistoricmeetingofthetroops.

3LIBERATINGTHECAMPSTHEALLIESDISCOVEREDTHEINCONCEIVABLEATROCITIESANDMASSMURDERSPAWNEDBYNAZIRACIALIDEOLOGY.

The“FinalSolution”PUTTINGHISANTI-SEMITICIDEASINTOACTION,HITLERLAIDPLANSTOERADICATEEUROPE’SJEWISHPOPULATION.

Starving,sick,andemaciated,survivorsoftheconcentrationcampatBuchenwald,Germany,struggledtotheinfirmaryfollowingthecamp’sliberationinApril1945.GeneralLouisAudibert,amemberoftheFrench

Resistance,isatthefront.HiswifediedatRavensbrück,awomen’scampinnorthernGermany.

AdolfHitler,whohadbegunexpressingultra-nationalisticandanti-Semiticideasasearlyas1919,believedstronglyinthesuperiorityoftheGerman,or“Aryan,”race.ElectedchancellorofGermanyin1933,hebeganthegovernment-sponsoredpersecutionofJews.Hewarnedlike-mindedpeopleofthesupposeddangerthatJewishpeoplewouldtakeovertheworld.Initially,officialracismwaslimitedtothepassageofanti-Jewishlawsandeconomic

boycottsofJewishbusinesses.GermanshopsandrestaurantspostedsignsbarringJewsfromentering.Thegovernmentalsospreaditsanti-Semiticideologyinnewspapers,speeches,posters,andinschools.TheninNovember1938,theNaziPartyinstigatedtwodaysofviolentattacksagainstJewishhomes,businesses,andsynagoguesthroughoutGermanyandAustria.Eventually,thoseattackswouldescalateintomassmurder.

TheConcentrationCampSystemAlmostassoonastheNazisseizedpowerin1933,theybeganbuildingcampsofvaryingsizesandpurposestoholdtheirenemiesprisoner.Therewere23mainfacilities,eachofwhichcouldhavedozensofsatellites,foratotalofnearly20,000campsbytheendofthewar.Somelocationswereprimarilyusedformassexecutions,whileothersservedasforced-laborcentersortemporarystopsonthewaytothedeathcamps.Onlyasmallpercentageofthemillionsofprisonerssenttothecampssurvivedtheordeal.AfterGermanyinvadedPolandinSeptember1939,theNazisbeganforcingJewsto

liveinghettos,separatedfromothercivilians.Theseareaswereofteninthepoorest,run-downneighborhoods,andmanymorepeoplewerecrowdedintothemthantherewasroomfor.ThefirstghettowasestablishedinPoland,inPiotrkÓwTrybunalski,followedbymanyothersintownsacrossthecountry.Soon,theGermansbuiltwallsorbarbed-wirefencesaroundtheghettostoensurethatJewswereisolated.Inmanycases,Jewsandother“undesirables”suchasRoma(Gypsies),Jehovah’s

Witnesses,dissentingpriestsandpastors,thedisabled,andhomosexualsweretransferredtothesystemofconcentrationcampsestablishedaroundGermanyandintheoccupiedterritories.There,prisonerswereeitherforcedintorelentlesslabororexterminated,usuallybypoisongas.Bodieswereburnedinlargecrematoriums.ThissystemwasthecenterpieceoftheThirdReich’s“FinalSolution,”whichresultedinthedeathsof11millionpeople.

SoldiersfromtheSixthArmoredDivisionspokewithsomeofthesurvivorsabouttheconditionsinthecamps.Buchenwald,shownhere,wasoneofthelargest.

PrisonersatDachau,likethisHungariansurgeon,wereliberatedonApril29,1945.AtthetimetheAlliesenteredthecamp,atyphusepidemicwasraging;anestimated2,500formerprisonersdiedfromthediseaseintheweeks

betweenMay29andJune16.

NaziConcentrationCamps

DuringWorldWarII,thetermconcentrationcampreferredtoacompoundwhereethnicminorities,politicalopponents,andothernoncombatantswereconfinedunderharshconditions.

TheDeathMarchesMORETHAN250,000PRISONERSPERISHEDINFORCEDEVACUATIONSOFCONCENTRATIONCAMPS.

Thisstatuecommemoratesthe7,000prisonerswhowereforcedtowalk70milesfromDachautoTegernsee,bothinGermany.Thosewhocouldnotkeepuponthesix-daymarch,whichbeganonApril26,1945,wereshot.Manydiedofhunger,illness,orexhaustion.AfterthefirstmonumentwaserectedatDachau,22identicalstatueswere

placedalongtheroutethatstretchedsouthtoTegernsee.

InJuly1944,SovietforcesarrivedattheMajdanekcampineasternPolandandliberateditssurvivors.Thestoriesoftheprisoners’sufferingandNaziatrocitiesquicklyspread,andatothercamps,SSofficersbegantodestroyevidenceofNazibarbarity.Inlate1944andearly1945,astheAlliessqueezedGermanyfromtheeastandwest,theNazisbegantorelocateprisonersfromconcentrationcampslocatednearthefront,forcingthemtotravelonfoottocampsfartherinsideGermany.Theseone-waytripsbecameknownasdeathmarches.Theevacuationmarcheswerebrutal.Prisoners,cladinnothingmorethanragsor

threadbareblankets,wereoftenrousedwithlittlenoticeandforcedtomoveataferociouspacetokeepaheadoftheapproachingAlliedforces.Theymarchedinbitterlycoldweather.Withverylittlefoodandfewplacestotakeshelter,manycaptivesdiedfromstarvation,exposure,orexhaustion.Thosetooillorfrailtokeepupwereshotbyguards.

ThesemensurvivedadeathmarchandwerefreedfromthecampatNeuengamme,Germany.

Onebyone,thecampsatAuschwitzinPoland,Buchenwald,Dachau,andothersinGermanywereemptiedofmanyoftheprisonersastheAlliesdrewcloser.Thedeathmarches,duringwhichanestimated250,000prisonersdied,lasteduntilGermany’ssurrenderinMay.InJanuary1945,withtheSovietsclosinginonAuschwitz,almost60,000prisoners

wereforcedtowalk35mileswesttoraillines.Nearlyallperishedalongtheway.Thoseprisonerswhodidsurvivewereputintoboxcarsandtransportedtootherconcentrationcamps.InanotherdeathmarchthatoccurredinlateJanuary,7,000prisonerswereforcedto

walkfromtheEastPrussiancityofKönigsbergtoPalmnicken,some31milesaway.Nearlyhalfoftheprisonersdiedduringthejourney.MostofthesurvivorswereslaughteredbyNaziofficersonafrozenBalticSeabeach.Tothisday,nooneissurewhogavetheordertoevacuatethecamps.Noevidence

existsthatHitlerorHeinrichHimmler,theleaderoftheSS,wantedthecampsliquidatedorevengavetheordertodoso.Mosthistorianssuspectthatastheendofthewarapproached,therewasagradualadministrativebreakdown,whichledtothemassiveslaughter.

TheNazisconfiscatedallprisoners’belongings,especiallythosethatmighthavesomevalue.AlliedtroopsliberatingBuchenwaldconcentrationcampinGermanyfoundtheseweddingringsalongwithwatches,precious

stones,andgoldfillings.

FACESofWARADOLFEICHMANN

“IwillleaplaughingintomygravebecausethefeelingthatIhavefivemillionpeopleonmyconscienceisformeasourceofextraordinarysatisfaction.”

AdolfEichmann,oneofthemajororganizersoftheHolocaust,wasborninGermanyin1906.HejoinedtheNaziPartyin1932,becameamemberofHeinrichHimmler’sSS,andin1938wasputinchargeofremovingJewsfromVienna.

AschiefoftheJewishofficeoftheGestapo,theNazisecretpolice,EichmannimplementedHitler’s“FinalSolution”toexterminateEurope’sJews.HenotonlyorganizedtheconvoysthatbroughtJewstothedeathcamps,healsodesignedthecampsthemselvesanddevelopedmanyoftheexecutiontechniquestheNazisused.TheAmericanscapturedandimprisonedEichmannin1945.Ayearlater,heescapedandin1958fledtoArgentina.OnMay11,1960,IsraeliagentsabductedEichmannnearBuenosAiresandbroughthimtoIsraeltostandtrial.Duringhiscourthearing,Eichmannwasdefiant,claiminghewasjustfollowingtheordersofhissuperiors.HewasfoundguiltyofcrimesagainsthumanityandhangedinIsraelonMay31,1962.

TheHolocaustIsRevealedINTHEWANINGDAYSOFTHEWAR,THEWORLDBEGANTOUNDERSTANDTHEREALMEANINGOFTHECATASTROPHE.

OnApril12,1945,GeneralGeorgePatton,GeneralOmarBradley,andMajorGeneralTroyMiddletonvisitedaconcentrationcampatOhrdruf,Germany,andwitnessedtheevidenceofNaziatrocities.

HolocaustisawordderivedfromGreek,meaning“sacrificebyfire.”TheHolocaustisalsocalledShoah,aHebrewwordmeaning“thecatastrophe.”Soldiersliberatingthecampsdiscoveredunimaginableatrocities:gaschambersformassexecutionsandhumanswhohadbeentortured,starvedtodeath,andusedassubjectsin“medical”experiments.Soviettroops,whowerepushingwestwardtowardBerlinthroughPoland,werethe

firsttouncoverthehorrorswhentheyenteredtheMajdanekcampinLublin,Poland,onJuly23,1944.TheGermanshadalreadyevacuatedmostoftheprisonerstoothercampsfartherwest,sofewerthan500weakandemaciatedinmatesremained.Intheirhaste,theNazisonlydestroyedpartofthecamp,leavingnearlyintactthehorrifyingevidence.TheRussiansdiscoveredthegaschambers,crematoriumovens,andhumanskeletons.Corpses,burnedremains,andboneswerefoundburiedinpitsatvariouslocationsinthecampandnearbywoods.TheSoviettroopsuncoveredstacksofpassportsandadeathregisterlistingthosewhohadbeenkilled—morethan100,000total.Recordsshowedthatprisoners’moneyandothervaluableshadbeenconfiscatedandsenttoBerlin.InApril1945,asAmericantroopsbeganliberatingBuchenwaldandDachau,they

encounteredscenesasdisturbingasthosetheSovietshadfound.BillBarrett,ajournalistwiththeU.S.Army,describedthehideousconditionsthathewitnessed:“Therewereaboutadozenbodiesinthedirtyboxcar,menandwomenalike.Theyhadgonewithoutfoodsolongthattheirdeadwristswerebroomstickstippedwith

claws.Thesewerethevictimsofadeliberatestarvationdiet....”Alliedtroopstriedtoprovidecomforttothesurvivors.Soliersgavetheirrationsto

thestarving,onlytofindthatmanywerebarelyalive,livingskeletonstooweaktoeatordigestthefood.Doctorsandreliefworkerstried,mostlyinvain,tosavetheincarcerated.HalfofallprisonerstheAlliesdiscoveredinAuschwitzinJanuary1945diedwithinafewdaysafterliberation.

RedArmytroopsfoundskeletalhumanremainsoutsidethecrematoriumovensattheMajdanekcampwhereNazisburneddeadprisoners’bodies.

Theseshoeswereallthatremainedofthemen,women,andchildrenannihilatedinPolandattheMajdanekconcentrationcamp.Nazisstoredtheshoesforsortingandsalvage,butthereweresomanythattheyspilledoutof

thewindowsanddoorsofthebuilding.

FACESofWARELIEWIESEL

“Theremaybetimeswhenwearepowerlesstopreventinjustice,buttheremustneverbeatimewhenwefailtoprotest.”

Eliezer“Elie”Wiesel,whowouldachieveglobalrenownforhismemoirNight,aboutsurvivingtheHolocaust,wasbornin1928inSighet,Transylvania(present-dayRomania).InJune1944,whenWieselwas15,hisfamilywasdeportedtotheAuschwitzconcentrationcamp.Wiesel’smotherandyoungersisterweresenttothegaschamber,andElieandhisfather,Shlomo,wereassignedtoworkasslavelaborers.InJanuary1945,thetwomenwereforcedonaten-daydeathmarchtomeetatrainforBuchenwald.EliesurvivedtheordealandwasliberatedalongwithotherprisonersonApril11,1945.AmongthemanyawardsandhonorsWieselhasreceivedaretheNobelPeacePrize,thePresidentialMedalofFreedom,andtheU.S.CongressionalGoldMedal.

FACESofWARRAOULWALLENBERG

“Theroadwasstraight,whenJewsweredeportedtodeath.Theroadwas...fullofobstacles,whenJewsweretryingtoescape...”

In1944,Hungary’sleadersdecidedtoseekaseparatearmisticewiththeAllies,butHitlermovedquicklytopreventitbyputtingSSofficerAdolfEichmanninchargeofroundingupHungary’sJewsandotherso-calledsubversives.AlarmedJewishcitizensinBudapestreachedouttotheembassiesofneutralcountriesforhelp.Swedenresponded,issuingpassesthatidentifiedJewsasSwedes.RaoulWallenberg,awealthySwedishbusinessman,volunteeredtohelp.HewasappointedtotheSwedishdiplomaticstaffandsenttoBudapest.WallenbergnegotiatedapprovalfromtheHungariangovernmenttoissue4,500SwedishpassestotheJews,thenproceededtograntmorethan15,000oftheseidentitycards.Healsorentedbuildingsthatservedashidingplaces.Wallenberg’sassignmentbecamemorecomplicatedinOctober1944,whenGermanyacceleratedthedeportationofJews.Wallenbergcontinuedhiswork,tryingtohelpthoseondeathmarchesandtheremainingresidentsoftheBudapestghetto.

ChronologyofLiberationALLIEDSOLDIERSFOUNDTHESAMEHORRIDCONDITONSATEACHCAMP.

FivedaysaftertheliberationofBuchenwald,Germany,Jewishsurvivorsstillsleptintheirbarracks.Americantroopsdidtheirbesttoprovidefoodandmedicalcarefortheformerinmates.

LiberatedAuschwitzinmatestoldSovietsoldierswhattheyhadexperiencedatthehandsoftheNazis.

BeginninginJanuary1945,astheAlliesadvancedintoGermanyfromtheeastandthewest,American,British,andSoviettroopswereabletofreethousandsofprisonersheldinNaziconcentrationcamps.

January27:Auschwitz

SeveraltrainsarrivedatAuschwitzeveryday,eachcarryingmorethan1,000prisoners.

ThelargestcampcomplexintheNazisystem,Auschwitz,hadthreemainlocationsnearthetownofOswieciminGermanyandmorethan40subcamps.Auschwitzhadheldupto150,000prisonersandoperatedasaprison,extermination,andlaborcamp.ThelocationcalledAuschwitzIhousedprisonersandforcedlaborers,provided

facilitiesforthecamp’schiefdoctor,JosefMengele,toconduct“medical”experiments,andhadagaschamberandacrematoriumforkillingsmallgroups.Thesecondmainlocation,Auschwitz-Birkenau,wasprimarilyanexterminationcenter,witheightgaschambers,46ovens,andfourcrematoria.Auschwitz-Monowitzservedashousingforforcedlaborerswhoworkedatanearbyfactory.BythetimetheSoviettroopsarrivedattheAuschwitzcomplex,theNazishad

alreadyevacuatedmorethan60,000prisoners.Seventhousandothersconsideredtoosickoralreadyclosetodeathwereleftbehind.Russiansoldiersfoundprisonerswhowerestillalivebetweenthebodiesofprisonerswhohadalreadydied.Thestenchtheyencounteredfromthedecaywashorrendous.ItisunknownexactlyhowmanypeoplediedintheAuschwitzcampsystem,butconservativeestimatesrangefrom1.1millionto1.3million.

April11:BuchenwaldBuchenwaldopeneditsdoorsin1937andwasusedprimarilytohousepoliticalprisoners.Withintheyear,theSSbegansendingJewstothesite,andbytheendofthewar,BuchenwaldwasoneofthelargestdeathcampsintheReich.Itcontainedmorethan80subcampsandwasdesignedtoaccommodateupto11,200prisoners;manywereusedasslavelabor.InApril1945,theGermansevacuatedsome28,000prisonersfromBuchenwald;

thosewhoremainedseizedcontrolofthecampandwaitedforhelptocome.TheywouldgaintheirfreedomonApril11whentheU.S.Armyarrived.TheAmericanswereshockedatwhattheyfound.Thecampreekedofexcrementandofburninghumanfleshandhair.“Morethan3,200naked,emaciatedbodieshadbeenflungintoshallowgraves,”

rememberedGeneralOmarBradley.Starvingprisoners,Bradleysaid,“hadtornouttheentrailsofthedeadforfood.”Itisbelievedsome250,000EuropeanswereimprisonedatBuchenwaldduringthewar.Bradley’stroopsfoundmorethan21,000survivors.

April15:Bergen-BelsenBuiltin1940innorthernGermany,Bergen-Belsenwasdesignedasaprisoner-of-warcampthatcouldholdupto10,000people,butthreeyearslatertheSSconvertedpartofthefacilityintoaholdingcamp.Overthecourseofitsoperation,Bergen-BelsenhousedJews,politicalprisoners,Roma,homosexuals,andothers.

Typhus,adiseasespreadbyinsects,wasanever-presenthazardinthecamps.OnecommonprecautionafterliberationwastosprayprisonerswiththeinsecticideDDT,asBritishsoldiersdidatBergen-Belsen.

Aswithallsuchcamps,conditionsweredeplorable.Therewerefewlatrines,agrosslyinadequatefreshwatersupply,andovercrowdedbarracks.Prisonerscouldgoseveraldaysatatimewithoutfoodandwereravagedbydysentery,typhus,tuberculosis,andotherdiseases.ByApril1945,Bergen-Belsenwasteemingwith60,000inmates.OnApril15,

Britishforcesliberatedthecamp.Mostoftheinmateswereveryill.Thesoldierswereshockedtoencounterprisonerswhowerestillalivebutsoemaciatedthattheylookedlikelivingskeletons.Theyalsodiscoveredthousandsofcorpsesscatteredaroundthe

camp.ThestenchatBergen-Belsenfromdisease,excrement,anddeathwasoverwhelming.Havingsurvivedthehorribleconditions,morethan10,000ofthosewhohadbeenliberateddiedbecauseoftheirillnesses.WhentheBritishleft,theyburnedBergen-Belseninordertostopthespreadof

disease.ThelastbuildingwasceremoniallydestroyedonMay21,1945.

BritishsoldiersmadeGermanciviliansfromthenearbytownsofBergenandBelsencarrythebodiesofconcentrationcampvictimstomunicipalcemeteriesforburial.TheBritishalsoforcedthecivilianstotourthecamp,whereaBritishofficertoldthem,“WhatyouseehereissuchadisgracetotheGermanpeoplethattheir

namesmustbeerasedfromthelistofcivilizednations...”

AmericantroopspassedcandyandcigarettesthroughthefencetoprisonerswhenDachauwasfirstliberated.

TwoDachauprisonerssecretlywrote“DachauSong”aboutthemotto“ArbeitMachtFrei”(“workmakesyoufree”).Itbeganwiththesewords:“Barbedwire,loadedwithdeath,isdrawnaroundourworld....Butwehave

learnedthemottoofDachauanditmadeusashardassteel:Beaman...forwork,workmakesyoufree!”

April29:DachauDachauwasthefirstcampthattheNazisopened,inMarch1933,justfiveweeksafterHitlerwaselectedchancellorofGermany,anditbecamethemodelfortheothersthatfollowed.LocatednearMunich,Dachauhadamaincampwith32barracks;oneofthemwas

oftenusedforgruesomemedicalexperiments.Inaddition,therewereapproximately30subcampswhereprisonerswereforcedtoworkonarmaments.WhentheAmericansenteredDachauonApril29,theyfound30railroadcars

crammedwithcorpsesthathadarrivedfromotherdeathcampsandthousandsmoredeadinsidethefacility.Therewere30,000survivors,mostofwhomweremalnourishedandriddledwithdisease.SomeGIsweresoaghastthattheymachine-gunned30SSguardswhohadbeencaptured.ItisunknownexactlyhowmanypeoplewereinternedintheDachausystem,butitis

estimatedthatbetween160,000and190,000peoplewereimprisonedinthemaincamp.Anadditional90,000prisonerspassedthroughthesubcamps,manythroughaseriesofrelocationsfromcamptocamp.TheestimatednumberofdeathsassociatedwithDachauis32,000.

SurvivorsofasubcampofNeuengammehelpedoneanotherintoatransporttruckafterthecampwasliberated.

May4:NeuengammeTheNeuengammecamp,locatedatanabandonedbrickworksfactoryoutsideHamburg,Germany,wasknownforworkingprisonerstodeath.Amongotherjobs,inmatesproducedbricks,minedclay,madearmaments,andremovedrubblefromcitiesbombedbytheAllies.Theywerestarved,beaten,keptinfilthyconditions,andmadetoworkregardlessofweather.NazimedicalresearchersusedtheinmatesatNeuengamme,includingchildren,to

testdrugsintendedtocombatavarietyofdiseasesincludingmalaria,typhus,andtuberculosis.AstheBritishapproachedinearlyMay1945,theNazisevacuatednearly10,000prisonersandplacedthemonthreeshipsintheBalticSea.TheBritisharrivedonMay4,buttragedyfollowedtheliberation.PursingtheNazis,theBritishaccidentallyattackedtwooftheshipsholdingthe

prisonersduringanairraid,killingsome7,000peopleaboard.Onlyabout500wererescued.

WhilethesignovertheentrancetoTheresienstadtdeclared“WorkMakesYouFree,”Nazipropagandadescribedthecampasa“spa”whereelderlyGermanJewscould“retire.”

Imprisonedartistsstolepaperandotheritemstorecordtheirexperiences,andtheysharedthepaperwithchildreninthecamp.Liberatingforcesdiscoveredhiddenartworkandpoemsbythousandsofchildren,mostofwhomdid

notsurvive.

May8:TheresienstadtTheresienstadtwasawalledghettolocatedinwhatistodaytheCzechRepublic.TheNazisplannedtousetheghettotohouseEuropeanJewswhowereprivilegedandfamous,butitendedupservingmanypurposes.CzechJewsintransittoforced-laborcampsinPoland,Belorussia,andtheBalticcountrieswereinternedinTheresienstadt;theghettoalsobecamealaborcampandaholdingareaforthousandsinpoorhealth.Inthelastweeksofthewar,theNazisforcedbetween13,500and15,000additional

prisonersfromothercampsintoTheresienstadt.Most,althoughnotall,wereJewish,andHimmlerandSecurityPoliceChiefErnstKaltenbrunnerplannedtousetheinmatesasawayofopeningpeacenegotiationswiththeWesternAllies.OnFebruary5,theyreleased1,210prisonersfromTheresienstadtasatokenofgoodfaith.AllreachedSwitzerlandsafely,andtheSwedishRedCrosswassoonabletotruckanother423outofthecamp.OnMay3,asthecommandantandSSguardsfled,theInternationalRedCrosstook

overTheresienstadt.OnMay8,Soviettroopsenteredthecampandliberatedthe19,000prisonerswhohadbeenleftbehind.

JosefMengele:MedicalHorrors

JosefMengeleinhisSSuniform

JosefMengele(1911–1979)becameknownasthe“AngelofDeath”forthenotoriousexperimentsheperformedonprisonersatAuschwitz.Aftercompletingdoctoratesinmedicineandanthropology,Mengelebeganworkingforascientistknownforhisresearchontwins,ajobthatledtoMengele’sowninterestinthesubject.In1943,hewasnamedchiefdoctoratAuschwitz,andalongwiththeothermedicalstaff,hemetincomingprisonerstoselecttestsubjects,whilesendingotherstotheirdeathsinthegaschambers.Mengeleperformedthousandsofunimaginableexperimentsoninmates.Hewasparticularlyfascinatedwithtwins;mostwerechildrenandmanyofthemdiedduringtheexperiments.OftenthesurvivingtwinwasslaughteredinorderforMengeletocomparetheconditionofthebodiespostmortem.AsAlliesapproachedAuschwitz,Mengelefledandwentintohiding,eventuallymakinghiswaytoSouthAmerica.HediedbydrowningonFebruary7,1979,inBrazil,aftersufferingastrokewhileswimming.Hewasburiedunderthepseudonym“WolfgangGerhard.”Hisdeathwasconfirmedin1985byBrazilianforensicscientists,andin1992DNAevidenceprovedconclusivelythatitwasMengele.

DachauTransformedTHESITEOFINFAMOUSNAZIATROCITIESHASBECOMEASOMBERMEMORIAL.

ThetextonthememorialwallatDachaureads,“Maytheexampleofthosewhowereexterminatedherebetween1933–1945becausetheyresistedNazismhelptounitethelivingforthedefenseofpeaceandfreedomandin

respectfortheirfellowmen.”

WhenAmericanGIsliberatedDachauonApril29,1945,theyfound,inthewordsofColonelWilliamQuinn,“...sights,sounds,andstencheshorriblebeyondbelief,crueltiessoenormousastobeincomprehensibletothenormalmind.”Theywereshockedbythethousandsofdecomposingcorpsesandthepale,skeletalsurvivorsstaringattheliberatorsindisbelief.Somehardenedbattleveteranscriedatwhattheysaw;othersragedasthemagnitudeofthedeath,deprivation,andsufferingbegantosinkin.TocommemoratethosewhowereimprisonedordiedatDachau,agroupof

survivorsbeganplanningamemorialin1955.TheyreceivedfinancingfromGermany’sBavarianstategovernmentandbeganconstructionin1962,openingthesitethreeyearslater.Today,visitorstothememorialcaninspectsomeoftheoriginalstructures,including

guardtowers,inmatebarracks,thecampprison,andthecrematorium.Thereisalsoamuseumwithexhibitsthatfocusontheprisoners’biographies,theireyewitnessaccounts,andthecamp’shistory.Atwo-mile“PathofRemembrance,”theroadthatcaptiveshadtowalkfromtherailroadstationtothecamp,featuresinformationdisplayssetupatvariouspointsalongtheroute.

PayingTribute

AngelaMerkelandHolocaustsurvivorMaxMannheimeratDachau,August2013

InAugust2013,AngelaMerkelbecamethefirstGermanchancellortotourDachau,theformerconcentrationcamp.Shelaidawreathatthesiteandsaidshewantedhervisittobe“abridgefromhistorytothepresentandintothefuture.”MaxMannheimer,a93-year-oldsurvivorofthecamp,accompaniedthechancellorandcommented,“Itisagreathonorandanhistoriceventforussurvivors.”

4MOVINGTOWARDPEACEWITHTHEALLIESINFIRMCONTROLOFEUROPE,NAZILEADERSBEGANSEARCHINGFORWAYSTOENDTHEWAR.

PeaceOverturesWITHTHEALLIESBATTERINGGERMANYONTWOFRONTS,NAZIGENERALHEINZGUDERIANHOPEDAFAVORABLEACCORDCOULDBEACHIEVED.

NazileaderHeinrichHimmlerinspectedaprisoner-of-warcampthatheldcapturedRussiansoldiers.UnderHimmler’spolicies,themenwerekeptindeplorableconditionsandunderstrictguard,sotherewaslittlechanceof

escapeorofrepatriation.

GeneralHeinzGuderian,afrequentcriticofAdolfHitler’smilitaryplans,wasdismissedforurgingapeace

settlementwiththeAllies.

Inthesummerof1944,NazimilitarycommanderHeinrichHimmlerattemptedtoinitiatepeacetalkswiththeUnitedStates,butPresidentFranklinRoosevelt,whowantedtoendthewarunconditionally,refusedtheoffer.Justsixmonthslater,astheAlliesbegantheiradvancetowardBerlin,theGermansonceagainraisedtheprospectofestablishingpeacetalkswithboththeAmericansandtheBritish.ItstartedonJanuary25,whenGeneralHeinzGuderian,theGermanarmy’schiefof

staff,askedhiscountry’sforeignminister,JoachimvonRibbentrop,toapproachtheWesternAlliesandaskforanegotiatedsettlement.Instead,vonRibbentropreportedtheconversationtoAdolfHitler,whothenaccusedGuderianoftreason.TheThirdReichleaderdidnotdisciplineGuderian,butwarnedthatanyonesayingthewarwaslostwouldbepunishedasatraitor.Thegeneraldidnotgiveup.HopingthatapeacesettlementwouldsavetheGerman

armyfrombeingcompletelydestroyed,GuderianspoketoHimmleronMarch21,tellinghimthatthewarwasalreadylostandthattheyshould“putanendtothesenselessslaughter.”Overthenextweek,GuderiancontinuedtoarguewithHimmlerandHitlerovermilitarystrategy.OnMarch28,HitlerdismissedGuderianfromoffice.

Germanysuffereddevastatinglossesthroughout1945,whichwouldalsoaffectitspostwardevelopment.

FromRibbentroptovonRibbentropInGerman,thewordvonmeans“of”or“from,”andwhenitispartofafamilynameitusuallydenotesnobility.In1925,32-year-oldJoachimRibbentropwasadoptedbyadistantrelative,GertrudvonRibbentrop.Atthattime,theyoungmanwasabletoaddthearistocratictitlevontohisname.

JoachimvonRibbentrop:AmbitionandZeal

JoachimvonRibbentrop

JoachimvonRibbentrop(1893–1946)wasHitler’sministerofforeignaffairsfrom1938untiltheendofthewarin1945.Thesonofanarmyofficer,vonRibbentropattendedschoolsinGermany,Switzerland,France,andEngland,andthenservedwiththeGermanarmyduringWorldWarI.Hemarriedthedaughterofawealthychampagnemaker,amatchthatmadehimfinanciallyindependent.HemetHitlerin1932andbecameoneofthefirstmembersoftheNaziParty.Ambitiousandzealous,vonRibbentropquicklyrosethroughtheranksoftheNazihierarchy.Asministerofforeignaffairs,henegotiatedGermany’snonaggressionpactwiththeSoviets,whichallowedforthedivisionofPoland.VonRibbentropwascapturedbytheAlliesinJune1945,triedatNuremberg,andsentencedtodeath.VonRibbentropwasexecutedonOctober16,1946.

TheYaltaConferenceTHEBIGTHREEMETATTHECRIMEANRESORTTODISCUSSTHEUNCONDITIONALSURRENDEROFGERMANY.

AtYalta,PresidentFranklinRooseveltandPrimeMinisterWinstonChurchilltalkedprivatelyaboutthefutureofEuropeandalsoabouthowtobringtheSovietUnionintothewarwithJapan.

WiththewarinEuropewindingdown,thetimehadcomeforRoosevelt,BritishprimeministerWinstonChurchill,andSovietpremierJosephStalintodecidethecontinent’spostwarfate,andtheyagreedtomeetattheBlackSeaportofYaltatodiscusstheplan.EachmanarrivedonFebruary4,alongwithanentourageofdiplomats,military

officers,soldiers,andaides.AmongthoseattendingforGreatBritainwereAlexanderCadogan,under-secretaryforforeignaffairs,andAnthonyEden,Britain’sforeignsecretary.Stalinwasaccompaniedbyhisministerofforeignaffairs,VyacheslavMolotov,andtheSovietambassadortotheUnitedStates,AndreiGromyko.Rooseveltbroughthissecretaryofstate,EdwardStettinius,andAverillHarriman,U.S.ambassadortotheSovietUnion.Thepresident,whohadbeenrecentlyelectedtoafourthterm,alsobroughtalonghisdaughterAnnawhoservedashispersonalassistant,insteadofhiswifeEleanor.

RooseveltwasinfailinghealthandbroughthisdaughterAnnatohelpcareforhimduringtheconference.

Yalta,aresortcityonthenortherncoastoftheBlackSea,wasaholidaydestinationforRussiansandgainedworldwidefamewhenitwasselectedasthesitefora“BigThree”meeting.

ThreeDifferentAgendasAsidefromagreeingtodemandtheunconditionalsurrenderofGermany,theagendasofthethreemencouldnothavebeenmoredifferent.WhileStalinwantedtoexpandtheUSSR,RooseveltandChurchillwerefocusedonthewarinthePacific.TheyhopedtogetStalintodeclarewaronJapanonceGermanysurrendered.UnbeknownsttoChurchill,RooseveltsecretlysecuredtheSovietdictator’scooperationbyagreeingtogranttheSovietsasphereofinfluenceinManchuriaonceJapanhadcapitulated.TheAlliedleadersalsodiscusseddividingGermanyintozonesofoccupation.Each

ofthethreenations,aswellasFrance,wouldcontrolonezone.ChurchillandRooseveltalsoagreedthatallfuturegovernmentsineasternEuropeshouldbe“friendly”totheSovietUnion.Inexchange,StalinagreedtoallowfreeelectionsineachoftheliberatedeasternEuropeancountries.

TheFutureofPolandThestatusofPolandhadbeenacontentiousissueamongtheAlliesthroughoutthewar.Churchill,astalwartanti-Communist,metwithStalininOctober1944todiscusstheRussians’treatmentofthePolishHomeArmyduringtheWarsawUprising.Byearly1945,theSovietswerewellpositionedwithinPoland’sborders,andChurchillfearedthatwithinjustafewmonths,Communistforceswouldoccupyallof

easternEurope.Now,atYalta,ChurchillwasdeterminedtotrytokeeptheSovietsoutofPoland’s

internalaffairs.Stalindisagreed:“FortheRussianpeople,thequestionofPolandisnotonlyaquestionofhonorbutalsoaquestionofsecurity.[It]isaquestionoflifeanddeath....”Despitetheirdifferentviewpoints,theAlliedleadersagreedthattheSovietscould

keepeasternPolandandmakeitpartoftheUSSR.TheAllieswouldcompensatePolandwithGermanterritoryinthewest.ThethreeleadersalsoagreedthattheCommunistswouldhavearoleinPoland’sfuturenationalgovernment;thatfreeelectionsshouldbeheldasquicklyaspossible;andthatanti-CommunistPoleslivinginexileinGreatBritainshouldhaveaplaceinanewPolishgovernment.WiththePolandquestionsettled,Stalinthenconsentedtohelpwiththe

establishmentoftheUnitedNations,whichRooseveltdesperatelywantedtocreate.Thepresidentbelievedthisneworganizationwouldbeabletostepinwhenconflictsaroseandhelpcountriessettletheirdisputespeacefully.

TheBigThree—Churchill,Roosevelt,andStalin—tooktimetoposeforofficialphotographs.

TheImpactofYaltaTheinitialreactiontotheYaltaagreementswasoneofcelebration,especiallyintheUnitedStates.ItseemedasthoughtheWesternAlliesandtheSovietswouldcontinuetheirwartimecooperationintothepostwarperiod.Historianscontinuetodebatetheimpactoftheconference,butonethingremains

clear:Bythespringof1945,anyhopeofcontinuedAmericanandSovietcooperationhadbeendashed.AfterYalta,StalinrenegedonhispromisesconcerningeasternEurope,especiallytheagreementtoallowfreeelectionsinallterritoriesthatwereliberatedfromNazicontrol.AstheUSSRcreatedan“ironcurtain”andinstalledgovernmentsdominatedbytheSovietUnionineachofthesecountries,theonetimealliesfoundthemselvesonthepathtoanother,moreideologicallydrivenconflict—

theColdWar.

SovietpremierJosephStalin(right)consultedwithhisministerofforeignaffairs,VyacheslavMolotov.

TheDeathofFDRTHEPASSINGOFTHEAMERICANPRESIDENTSHOCKEDTHEWORLD.

Churchillandhiswife,Clementine(farleft),traveledtoRoosevelt’shomeinHydePark,NewYork,topaytributetotheirfriendandwartimecolleague.Followingherdeathin1962,EleanorRoosevelt(leftofChurchill)wasalso

buriedatthefamilyestate.

At1:00pmonApril12,RooseveltwassittinginachairathiscottageinWarmSprings,Georgia,signingdocumentsatthesametimeanartiststoodinfrontofaneaselcompletingthepresident’sportrait.Rooseveltturnedtothepaintertoremindherthattherewereonly15minutesleftinthesession;hethengrabbedhisheadandcomplainedofasharppain.Withinminuteshediedfromacerebralhemorrhage.Thenation’swarpresidentwas63yearsold.Radiobroadcastsandnewspapersacrossthecountryquicklyconveyedthenews.

“PresidentRooseveltisDead,TrumantoContinuePolicies,”readtheheadlineoftheNewYorkTimes.Thedeathwasanunexpectedandoverwhelmingdevelopment.Formanypeople,

Rooseveltwastheonlypresidenttheyhadeverknown.EvenVicePresidentHarryTruman,whoreceivedwordwhilevisitingSamRayburn,theSpeakeroftheHouse,foranend-of-daylibation,wassurprised.TrumanstillhadadrinkinhishandwhenanaideaskedhimtocalltheWhiteHouse.

NewspapersaroundtheworldannouncedthatRoosevelthaddied.Theseyoungsailorsreadthedetails.

Grief-strickenandstunned,AmericanscrowdedalongstreetsinWashington,D.C.,watchingthefuneral

procession.

“HolyGeneralJackson!”Trumansaidasheputdownthephone.Herushedtothepresident’sprivatequartersandmetFirstLadyEleanorRooseveltinthehall.PlacingherhandonTruman’sshoulder,Mrs.Rooseveltbrokethenewsagain,goingontosaytheoft-quotedwords:“Isthereanythingwecandoforyou?Foryouaretheoneintroublenow.”Around7:00pmthatevening,Truman,whohadservedjust82daysasvicepresident,wassworninasthenation’s33rdpresident.

FormerFirstLadyMrs.RooseveltandPresidentHarryTrumansharedaprivatemomentastheypaidtheirrespectstotheformerpresident.

“Ifeltlikethemoon,thestars,andalltheplanetshadfallenonme.”

—HarryTruman,April13,1945

FACESofWARHARRYTRUMAN

“Americawasnotbuiltonfear.Americawasbuiltoncourage

...andanunbeatabledeterminationtodothejobathand.”HarryTrumanwasborninMissouriin1884andasayoungmanhelpedhisfatherrunthefamilyfarm.HecommandedaregimentduringWorldWarI,servedasajudge,andin1934,waselectedtotheU.S.Senate.Asajudgeandassenator,Trumangainedprominenceforhishonestyandefficiency.InJuly1944,hewasnominatedtorunasvicepresidentontheDemocraticticketwithRoosevelt,andwhenFDRwonhisfourthterm,Trumanassumedhisnewpost.Just82dayslater,onApril12,1945,hewassworninaspresident.Duringthenextfewmonths,thispresidentwouldseevictoryinEuropeandapprovedroppingtwoatomicbombsonJapan,bringingthewartoanend.

Himmler’sProposalTHEPOWERFULGENERALWANTEDTOSURRENDERANDDIVIDETHEALLIES.

GermansoldiersweresurroundedbyAmericantroopsandforcedtosurrender.

“IadmitthatGermanyisdefeated.”—HeinrichHimmler,April23,1945

AtaroundmiddayonApril24,TrumanwenttothePentagonforaprivatetransatlanticphonecalltoLondontospeakwithChurchill.Theprimeministerhadimportantnews:TheGermanswerefinallywillingtosurrender.AccordingtoChurchill,HimmlerhadspokenwiththeheadoftheSwedishRed

CrossandaskedhimtoarrangeanimmediatemeetingwithAmericangeneralDwightEisenhower.Germanywaspreparedtosurrenderallitstroopsinthewest.TheGermanmilitaryleaderacknowledgedtotheRedCrossleader,CountFolkeBernadotte,thattheNazishadlost.NowHimmlerwantedtotrytodriveawedgebetweentheWesternAlliesandtheSoviets.“Ihavealwaysbeen,andIshallalwaysremain,aswornenemyofBoshevism,”hetoldBernadotte.

FacingFactsBernadotte,whohadheldmanyconversationswithEisenhower,suspectedthegeneralwouldbalkattheidea,becauseEisenhowerhadmadeitclearhewouldacceptnothinglessthantheunconditionalsurrenderofGermanytoalloftheAllies.Still,BernadotteagreedtoforwardHimmler’sproposaltotheSwedishgovernmentontheconditionthatthesurrenderofNazitroopsinDenmarkandNorwaywaspartofthepackage.Himmleragreedtothedeal.

Himmler(left)andAdolfHitlerworkedtogethertoestablishmostoftheThirdReichpolicies.Here,theymettoobserveparadingNazistorm-troopers.

Trumanrejectedthesuggestionoutofhand,andtheBritishreplytotheSwedishgovernmentwasequallyblunt:Surrenderwouldhavetooccuronallfronts.Moreover,ifanyNaziresistancepersistedafterafinalagreementhadbeenreached,theAllieswouldcontinuefightinguntiltheyhadwonatotal,decisivevictory.BernadotterelayedtheinformationtooneofHimmler’saidesonApril27,andthe

nextday,reportsaboutHimmler’seffortsappearedinthepress.Uponhearingthenews,Hitler,sheltereddeepinsidehisBerlinbunker,accusedhisgoodfriendandloyalsoldierofbetrayal,strippedhimofallhistitles,andorderedhisarrest.

FACESofWARHEINRICHHIMMLER

“OneprinciplemustbeabsolutefortheSSman:wemustbehonest,decent,loyalandfriendlytomembersofourbloodandtonooneelse.”

Bornin1900toamiddle-classfamily,HeinrichHimmlergrewupaferventGermanpatriot.LikemanyGermanyouthoftheera,Himmlerjoinedoneoftheright-wingsoldierorganizationsthatformedafterWorldWarI.Hetookpartinthefailed1923BeerHallPutsch,whenHitlertriedtoseizepower.In1925,HimmlerjoinedtheNaziPartyandearnedareputationforstrongnationalismandanti-Semiticviews.In1929,HitlerappointedhimasReichsführerSS,responsibleforallinternalsecuritywithintheThirdReich.Unopposed,HimmlerbecamethechiefarchitectoftheHolocaustanddevelopedtheNaziconcentrationcampsystem,whichresultedintheruthlessmassacreofmillionsofpeople.FollowingGermany’ssurrendertotheAllies,Himmlertriedtoescape,butwascapturedbytheBritish.OnMay23,1945,hebitdownonacyanidepillhiddeninoneofhisteethanddied.

ThePotsdamConferenceTHEBIGTHREEMETAGAINTODECIDETHEFATEOFTHEPOSTWARWORLD.

AtPotsdam,Stalin(left),Truman(center),andChurchill(right)frequentlyfoundthemselvesatodds,expressingdifferencesthatwouldleadtodissensionafterthewar.

ThedayaftertheUnitedStatessuccessfullytestedthefirstatomicbombatAlamogordointhedesertofNewMexico,theleadersoftheBigThreenationsgatheredatPotsdam,atownjustoutsideBerlin,tocontinuetheplanningbegunatYaltaforapostwarEurope.ThegoalsoforganizingtheadministrationofadefeatedGermany,settingpostwarbordersinEurope,anddeterminingwarreparationstookcenterstage.Truman,Stalin,andChurchillwerejoinedbyClementAttlee,Britain’sdeputy

primeministerandaLabourPartymemberofChurchill’sConservativeParty’scoalitiongovernment.HeandChurchillwerewaitingforresultsoftherecentBritishelection,anunexpecteddevelopmentgivenChurchill’swartimepopularity.WhentheresultswereannouncedonJuly26,Attleebecameprimeminister,andChurchilllefttheconference.Attlee,Truman,andStalineachhaddifferentgoalsregardingreparations.Stalinwas

focusedonthemoniespromisedtotheUSSRatYalta,whichwashalfofthetotalamountavailable.TrumanandU.S.secretaryofstateJamesByrnessoughttoavoidareplayoftheendofWorldWarIwhentheTreatyofVersaillesrequiredextremelyhighpayments,orreparations,fromGermany,ultimatelysowingtheseedsofWorldWarII.AttleeagreedwiththeAmericanposition.ThoughtheUSSRalreadycontrolledalmosthalfofGermanyandallofPoland,the

Balticstates,Hungary,Bulgaria,andRomania,StalinusedtheconferencetopushforanexpandedsphereofinfluenceineasternEuropetoserveasadefensivebufferalongtheUSSR’swesternborder.Incontrast,BritainandtheUnitedStatessoughtto

encouragenewdemocraticgovernments.AttleeandTruman,representingWesterndemocracies,feltagrowingdistrustofStalin’sintentionsineasternEurope,andbothfearedfurtherSovietexpansion.

AtsomeofthePotsdammeetings,StalinworehisfullmilitaryuniformasmarshaloftheSovietUnion.DuringPotsdam,anewmilitaryrankwascreatedjustfortheRussianleader,generalissimusoftheSovietUnion.Stalin

refusedtosignthedecreecreatingit,laterstatingthattheSovietarmyhadonlymarshalasitshighestrank.

HowtoHandlePolandOneofthemostcontentiousquestionsfacingtheBigThreewasthefutureofPoland.HowtoresolveissuesinvolvingthatcountryremainedamajorsourceofdisagreementfortheUSSR,Britain,andtheUnitedStates.InexchangeforterritorythatPolandhadlosttotheSovietsduringthewar,PolandwastoreceiveterritoryinthewesternportionofthecountrythathadbeenseizedandoccupiedbytheNazis.DuringtheirmeetingatPotsdam,thethreeleadersestablishedPoland’sprovisionalwesternborder;thefinaldemarcationwastobeestablishedatalatertime.

ThePotsdamConferencewasheldattheCecillenhofPalace,originallybuiltforroyalty.Thebuildingsarenowopentovisitors.

TheRefugeeCrisisAnotherofthemajordifficultiestoberesolvedwastherefugeeissue:ThePoleshadalreadybegundeportingseveralmillionGermansfromthewesternterritory,andothereasternEuropeancountrieswererepatriatingGermancitizensaswell.The

BritishandtheAmericansfearedtherefugeeswouldoverrun—andpotentiallydestabilize—theWesternoccupationzones.Bythetimetheconferenceended,theAllieshadnottakenanyactionontherefugee

crisis,sayingonly“anytransfersthattakeplaceshouldbeeffectedinanorderlyandhumanemanner.”TheyalsorequestedthatPoland,Czechoslovakia,andHungarytemporarilyhaltanyadditionaldeportations.

PostwarGermanyDespitetheirdifferences,oneofthekeyaccordsreachedbytheAllieswasthatallaspectsofGermansocietyweretoberestructured.Thecountry’smilitaryandparamilitaryforcesweretobedisbanded,warcriminalstried,andallNazi-eralawsrepealedandreplacedwithnew,moredemocraticmeasures.Inaddition,allauthoritarianinfluenceswouldberemovedfromthejudicialandeducationalsystems,andtheinvolvementofpoliticalpartiesinlocalandstategovernmentswouldbeencouraged.TheBigThreeagreedthatGermanyanditscapital,Berlin,wouldbedividedinto

fourzonestobegovernedbytheoccupationarmiesoftheUnitedStates,Britain,theUSSR,andFrance.Eachofthefournationswouldreceivewarreparationsfromitsoccupationzone.

5V-EDAYAFTERSIXYEARSOFWARANDINCALCULABLESUFFERING,THEALLIESDEFEATEDHITLER’SFORCESANDRESTOREdEUROPE’SFREEDOM.

SurrendertotheBigThreeGENERALDWIGHTEISENHOWERFORCEDGERMANYTOCAPITULATETOBOTHTHEWESTERNALLIESANDRUSSIA.

NumerousGermansoldierscapturednearthewar’sendwerekeptinruralcampsinAllied-occupiedGermany.

“WiththissignaturetheGermanpeopleandtheGermanarmedforcesareforbetterorworsedeliveredintothevictor’shands....InthishourIcanonlyexpressthehopethatthevictorwilltreatthemwithgenerosity.”

—GermangeneralAlfredJodl,May7,1945

ByApril,bothGermanciviliansandthecountry’smilitaryknewthattheywouldbeforcedtoadmitdefeat.TheSovietshadcapturedBerlin,andNazisoldiersstillstationedalongtheEasternandWesternFrontsweresurrenderingdaily.AxisforcesinItalyandsouthernAustriacapitulatedonMay2,andjusttwodayslaterGermantroopsinDenmarkandtheNetherlandsgaveupthefight.Thefollowingday,theremainingGermanarmiesinAustriafollowedsuit.Forallthesemen,thefightingwas

finallyover.

AnAmericansoldierguardedGermanprisonersduringtheAlliedadvanceintoGermany.

OnMay2,BritishfieldmarshalBernardMontgomeryexplainedpartialsurrendertermsforGermanforcesintheNetherlands,Denmark,andnorthwestGermany.Thenextday,NaziofficersreturnedtoMontgomery’sfield

headquartersnearHamburgandagreedtothesurrenderterms.

GermanyAdmitsDefeatBeforeAdolfHitlercommittedsuicideonApril30,1945,henamedGermannavalcommanderKarlDönitztosucceedhimasbothpresidentandcommanderofthesupremearmedforces.Dönitz,inhisnewroleaspresident,immediatelybeganactingonhisbeliefthatthe

AmericansandBritishwouldtreatGermantroopsbetterthanSovietpremierJosephStalin.OnMay7,hedispatchedJodl,atrustedcommanderwhoheldaleadpositionintheGermanArmedForcesHighCommand,tomeetwithGeneralDwightEisenhowerinReims,France.Negotiationsweredifficult.EisenhowerrejectedJodl’sofferthatGermanywould

surrenderonlytotheWesternAlliesandinsistedthattheGermansconcedetobothRussiansandtheWesternAllies.TheNaziswereoutofoptions.JodlradioedDönitz,requestingpermissiontosignsurrenderdocuments.Fourdifferentversionswereneeded:English,French,German,andRussian.GovernmentofficialsinLondon,

Paris,andMoscowquicklyapprovedthetranscripts.Bytheendoftheday,DönitzhadmadeGermany’sdefeatofficial.ShortlybeforemidnightonMay8,asecond,slightlydifferentdeclarationwas

executedwithRussianofficials,atStalin’sinsistence.MeetinginKarlshort,justoutsideBerlin,GermanfieldmarshalWilhelmKeitelformallyconcededhiscountrytoSovietgeneralGeorgyZhukov.ThesefinaldocumentsweresignedonwhatwasactuallyMay9inMoscow,andthisbecametheofficialsurrenderdatefortheRussians.ThewarthatbeganinSeptember1939hadcometoanendinEurope.American

forcesreceivedamessagefromEisenhowerafterthesurrender,inwhichhesaid,“Therouteyouhavetraveled...ismarkedbythegravesofformercomrades....Ourcommonproblemsoftheimmediateanddistantfuturecanbebestsolvedinthesameconceptionsofco-operationanddevotiontothecauseofhumanfreedomashavemadethisExpeditionaryForcesuchamightyengineofrighteousdestruction.”

“BycommandofAdmiralDönitztheArmedForceshavegivenupthehopelessstruggle.Aheroicfightthathaslastedfornearlysixyearsthuscomestoanend...theGermanArmedForceshavesuccumbedtooverwhelmingsuperiorstrength....Toshowobedience,disciplineandabsoluteloyaltytoourFatherland,bleedingfrominnumerablewounds,isthesacreddutyourdeadimposeuponusall.”

—FinalorderoftheGermanArmedForces,issuedonMay9,1945

GeneralAlfredJodl:ViolatingRulesofWar

GeneralAlfredJodl,ChiefoftheOperationsStaffoftheGermanHighCommandAlfredJodl(1890–1946)wasaGermanartilleryofficerduringWorldWarIandremainedinthemilitaryserviceafterthearmistice.AttheoutbreakofWorldWarII,JodljoinedtheGermanarmycommandstaff,whichwasresponsibleforthe

overallactionsofthearmy.

Asamemberofthegeneralstaff,JodlsignedoffontwoofAdolfHitler’sordersthatwereclearviolationsoftherulesofwar.The“CommandoOrder”directedGermanforcestoimmediatelykillallcapturedAllieswithouttrial.The“CommissarOrder”directedthatGermantroopsimmediatelyexecute,againwithoutanykindoftrial,anySovietpoliticalofficertheycaptured.Atthewar’sconclusion,JodlwasauthorizedbyChancellorKarlDönitztosignthesurrenderdocumentswiththeAlliesandtoagreetotheunconditionalsurrenderofGermanforces.JodlwasconvictedofwarcrimesattheNurembergTrialsandthenhangedin1946.

KarlDönitz:Germany’snewleader

KarlDönitz,shownhere,waswearingtheIronCross,whichwasawardedforexceptionalbraveryandleadershiponthebattlefield.

FollowingHitler’sdeathonApril30,andinaccordancewiththeFührer’swill,GrandAdmiralKarlDönitz(1891–1980)becameGermany’snewheadofstate,presidentoftheReich.Aloyal,obedient,andzealousNazi,Dönitzwasknownforhisruthlesscunningandlackofrespectforhumanlifeonthebattlefield.Inhismemoirs,Dönitzrecounted:...Ididnotforamomentdoubtthatitwasmydutytoacceptthetask...ithadbeenmyconstantfearthattheabsenceofanycentralauthoritywouldleadtochaosandthesenselessandpurposelesssacrificeofhundredsofthousandsoflives...Irealized...thatthedarkestmomentinanyfightingman’slife,themomentwhenhemustsurrenderunconditionally,wasathand.Irealized,too,thatmynamewouldremainforeverassociatedwiththeactandthathatredanddistortionoffactswouldcontinuetotryandbesmirchmyhonor.ButdutydemandedthatIpaynoattentiontoanysuchconsiderations.Mypolicywassimple—totryandsaveasmanylivesasIcould.Athis1946warcriminaltrialatNuremberg,Dönitzwassentencedtotenyearsinprisonandwasreleasedin1956.

TheWarinEuropeEndsAxisforcesinEuropefinallysurrendered.Asthenewsspread,joyfulcelebrationseruptedaroundtheworld.Soon,Americantroopsbegantheirlong-awaitedtriphometoreunitewithlovedones.

MAY2TheremainingAxisforcesinItalyandsouthernAustriasurrendered.

MAY4NaziforcesinDenmarkandtheNetherlandscededtotheAllies.

MAY5AllNaziforcesstillfightinginAustriasurrendered.

MAY7AlfredJodltraveledtoReims,France,andactingonbehalfoftheGermangovernment,signedanunconditionalsurrenderwiththeWesternAllies.

MAY8V-EDaywasannounced,andcelebrationsbeganaroundtheworld.May8GermanofficialsmetwithSovietmilitaryleadersandsignedsimilarsurrenderpapers.

MAY9Russiansjoinedthecelebrationsmarkingtheendofthewar.

JUNESoldiersstationedinEuropebegancominghometotheUnitedStates.

V-EDayintheBritishCommonwealthTHEEMPIRESAVOREDASWEETMOMENTOFTRIUMPH.

Thousandsofciviliansandmilitary,includingthesemembersoftheWomen’sRoyalArmyCorps,filledLondon’sTrafalgarSquaretocelebrateV-EDay.

TheannouncementthatGermanyhadofficiallyandunconditionallysurrenderedwasbroadcastinBritainlateatnightonMay7,andonthefollowingday,asenseofeuphoriareignedthroughoutthecountry.Peopleflockedtocitystreetstosing,dance,andcelebrate.Othersspentthedayquietlyathomeandinchurch,reflectingontheeventstheyhadendured.Forthosewhohadfought,acommonlyheardphrasewassimply“Isurvived.”InLondon,bandsplayed,flagsflew,andcrowdsgatheredoutsideBuckinghamPalace

tocheerforKingGeorge,whocameoutonthebalconyeighttimes.PrincessElizabethandhersister,PrincessMargaret,joinedthethousandsofcitizensinthestreets.PrimeMinisterWinstonChurchill,whospokefromthebalconyoftheMinistryofHealth,drewtheloudestcheerofallwhenheremindedtheelatedthrongsassembledbelow,“Thisisyourvictory.”

WinstonChurchillspoketothecheeringmasses,whichburstintoaroundof“Forhe’sajollygoodfellow.”

InTorontoandthroughoutCanada,peoplegatheredinthestreetstocelebrate,andinmanycities,May7wascommemoratedwiththanksgivingservices.TheGlobeandMail,Toronto’snewspaper,calledthefestivitiesa“carnivalofjoy,”markedwithlaughterandtears,blaringcarhorns,andopenchurcheswherepeoplegatheredtoprayandgivethanks.Itwasadayfilledwithexhilaration,flags,andofficialspeeches,aswellaswithhymnsandcallstorememberthosewhohadlosttheirlivesduringthewar.Incomparison,thecelebrationinNewZealandwassubdued.WhenV-EDaywas

announced,thecountry’sprimeministerPeterFraserinsistedthatnocelebrationsbehelduntilMay9,whenChurchillofficiallyannouncedthatpeacehadcome.ForNewZealanders,thedaybeganwithbellsandsirensandthengavewaytospeechesbygovernmentofficials,parades,andthanksgivingservices.Citizenswoncomplimentsfromthegovernmentfortheir“commendablerestraint.”Thedeclarationofvictory,however,wasnotsharedthroughouttheBritish

Commonwealth.InAustralia,theSydneyMorningHeraldledwiththequestion,“Sincewhenhasitbeencustomarytocelebratevictoryhalfwaythroughacontest?”Forasservicemenandwomenrecalledcomradeslostandhardshipsendured,theymayhavealsobeenwonderingiftheywouldbesenttofighttheJapanese.LiketheirNewZealandneighbors,theAustraliansknewthatthewarwasstilltobewon.

VictoryDayinFranceTHEBELLSRANGOUTANNOUNCINGTHEGOODNEWS.

SoldiersandciviliansfilledthestreetsofParistocelebrateV-EDayandrememberthe217,000soldiersand567,000civilianswhohadmadevictorypossiblebutnotlivedtocelebrateit.

OnMay8,CharlesdeGaulle,leaderoftheFreeFrenchForces,announcedGermany’ssurrenderinaradiobroadcasttohisfellowcitizens.Churchbellspealedinthevillages,towns,andcitiesthroughoutFrance,signalingtheendofNazioppressionandannouncingthatitwastimetocelebrate.AnAmericanairmanstationedinFranceatthetimewrote:“Thepeoplewentmad.Madwithlaughterandmadwithhappiness,madwithanythingandeverything.AllupanddownthestreetsthecheeringpopulaceletitbeknownthatHitlerwasKAPUT....”

AFrenchvictoryleafletfeaturedCharlesdeGaulle’swartimepromise,“Francewilllive,andinthenameoftheFrenchpeople,Isweartoyouthatshewilllivevictorious.”

DeGaulle’saddresstotheFrenchpeoplebegansimply:“Thewarhasbeenwon.”Hecontinued,“...[T]hecountryturnsitsthoughtsandaffectionfirstofalltowardthose

whodiedforherandthentowardthosewhoinherservicestruggledandsufferedsomuch.Notonesingleactofcourageorself-sacrificeofhersonsanddaughters,notonesinglehardshipofhercaptivemenandwomen,notonesinglebereavementandsacrifice,notonesingletearwillhavebeenwastedinvain....Honor,eternalhonor,toourarmiesandtheirleaders.Honortoournation,whichneverfaltered,evenunderterribletrials,norgaveintothem.”

JubilantParisiansparadedthroughtheArcdeTriompheandalongtheChamps-ElyséestocelebrateGermany’sdefeat.

InParis,paradingcrowdstooktothestreetsandfilledthecity’scenter,kissingoneanotherandsingingthenationalanthem.Onejournalistreportedthattherewas“...hardlyanyplacetobreatheandnoplaceatalltomove.”Thesoundsofbellsandcarhornsjoinedthedeafeningblastofair-raidsirens.Itwasadayofglory,knowingthatmanyofthosewhohadcollaboratedwiththeVichygovernmentandtheNaziswouldbebroughttotrialfortreasonandotherwarcrimes.

V-EDayintheUnitedStates“OURVICTORYISONLYHALFOVER.”—PRESIDENTHARRYTRUMAN

OverjoyedV-EDaycrowdsjammedTimesSquareinNewYorkCitysotightlythatneitherstreetsnorsidewalkswerevisible.

IntheUnitedStates,victorycelebrationsmarkingtheendofthewarinEuropewerejoyousand,aselsewherearoundtheworld,filledwithatremendoussenseofrelief.ThenightskyoftheEastCoast,particularlyinandaroundNewYorkCity,radiatedwithlightaseveningblackoutconditionswerenolongerrequired.JubilantcrowdsfilledTimesSquare,flagsflewhigh,churchbellsrang,carhornsblared,andpeopledancedinthestreets.Butthefestivitieslackedasenseoffinality.TheUnitedStateswasstillatwarinthe

Pacific,andeveryoneknewthenationfacedadeadlyenemy.InaradiobroadcasttothenationonMay8,PresidentHarryTrumanaddeda

somberremindertothecelebratoryatmosphere:“Forthisvictory,wejoininofferingourthankstotheProvidencewhichhasguidedandsustainedusthroughthedarkdaysofadversity.OurrejoicingissoberedandsubduedbyasupremeconsciousnessoftheterriblepricewehavepaidtoridtheworldofHitlerandhisevilband.Letusnotforget,myfellowAmericans,thesorrowandtheheartachewhichtodayabideinthehomesofsomanyofourneighbors—neighborswhosemostpricelesspossessionhasbeenrenderedasasacrificetoredeemourliberty.”

AmericansfillingTimesSquareandsurroundingstreetsweresoelatedthatthecelebrationextendedfarintothenight,withcitylightsatfullbrilliance.Duringthewar,businessesinNewYorkhaddimmedtheirlightsto

conserveelectricityandcoal.

Hecontinued,“WecanrepaythedebtwhichweowetoourGod,toourdead,andtoourchildren,onlybywork,byceaselessdevotiontotheresponsibilitieswhichlieaheadofus.IfIcouldgiveyouasinglewatchwordforthecomingmonths,thatwordiswork,work,andmorework.Wemustworktofinishthewar.Ourvictoryisonlyhalfover.”

VictoryDayinMoscowSTALINANDTHEUSSRCELEBRATEDWITHGUNFIREANDGUSTO.

HappycrowdsinMoscowpackedRedSquareedgetoedgeduringcelebrationsofVictoryDay,May9.Forabriefperiod,thewarwasoverfortheUSSR,asithadnotyetdeclaredwaronJapan.

“Eternalglorytotheheroeswhofellinthestruggleagainsttheenemyandgavetheirlivesforthefreedomandhappinessofourpeople!”

—JosephStalin,May9,1945

TheofficialnoticethatGermanyhadsurrenderedtoRussiawasmadeintheearlymorninghoursofMay9.ThechiefannouncerofRadioMoscowbrokethenewstotheRussianpeople:“Attention,thisisMoscow.Germanyhascapitulated.Thisday,inhonorofthevictoriousGreatPatrioticWar,istobeanationalholiday,afestivalofvictory.”Eventhoughitwasthemiddleofthenight,celebrationseruptedthroughoutthecity.

Peoplerushedoutsidetodance,pray,cry,andlaugh,andimpromptufestivitieslastedthroughouttheday.ThenewspaperPravdaledwiththeheadline“TriumphintheCapital”andfollowedwithaglowingtributetoStalin.Thatnight,fireworkslituptheskynearRedSquare,andthousandscametosharetheirjoy.TheobservancesinRussiaandtherestoftheSovietUnionwerenotconfinedtojust

oneday.AmajorparadetomarkthevictorywasheldinMoscow’sRedSquareonJune24,adatechosenbecausemanywarveteranshadreturnedhomeandcouldparticipateinthemilitaryhonors.SurvivingRussiansoldiershadreasontobe

thankful,formillionsofRussianshadbeenkilledduringthefighting,andseveralmillionmorehadbeenmurderedbytheNazisafterbeingcapturedduringbattle,amountingtoatotallossofsomewherebetween9millionand13millionmen.

TheSovietsputonamassivefireworksdisplayinMoscowtomarkthevictory.

RussianvictoryceremoniesincludedRedArmysoldiersloweringcapturedNazibannerstowardtheground,signifyingGermany’sdefeatandsurrender.

OperationMagicCarpetBeginsSHIPSBEGANFERRYINGTROOPSHOMEFROMEUROPE.

EcstaticcrowdsonthedocksofNewYorkCitywelcomedreturningAmericantroopsontheBritishshipQueenMary.

AmericansoldiersinEuropehadfinishedtheirjob,andtheU.S.militarycouldnowfocusonanotherHerculeantask:bringingtheirmenandwomenhome.Thejobwasnotaneasyone.Manyofthenavy’sshipswerestilldeployedinthePacificandunavailabletobringsomethreemillionmenandwomenhome.Also,therewasthequestionofwhoshouldgettocomehomefirst.Thegovernmentaddressedthefirstissuebyconverting300cargoshipsintotroop

transports.Forthesecond,thearmydevelopedacomplexsystemofpointsbasedonseniorityandtimeoverseastodeterminetheorderofreturn.StartinginlateJune,thefirsttransportsbegantheirjourney,andoverthenext14

months,morethan400,000GIsamonthtraveledtheAtlanticinanoperationdubbedMagicCarpet.Thefleetalsoincludedhospitalships,whichbroughtbackmorethanhalfamillion

woundedsoldiers.OnreturntripstoEurope,theshipscarried500,000GermanandItalianPOWstotheirhomes.

Familiesfeltbothreliefandelationastheyembracedlovedoneswhoreturned.

AftertheendofthewarinEurope,U.S.soldiersboardedtransportshipsforthetriphome.

6THEPOSTWARWORLDHAVINGSECUREDVICTORIESINEUROPEANDJAPAN,THEALLIEDPOWERSTURNEDTHEIRFOCUSTOREBUILDINGSHATTEREDECONOMIESANDTOBRINGINGWARCRIMINALSTOTRIAL.

ThePartitionofGermanyTHEALLIESRESTRUCTUREDTHECOUNTRY’SGOVERNMENTANDTRIEDNAZISFORWARCRIMES.

SignsmarkedtheboundariesofthefoursectorsofBerlin.Militarypolicepatrolledtheperimetersandguardedcrossingpointsbetweenthesectors.

FollowingGermany’ssurrender,civilauthoritythroughoutthecountrybrokedownandtheeconomyfaltered,resultinginalackofpublicservices,widespreadhunger,andhomelessness.Torestoreorder,theAlliesestablishednewadministrativeandeconomicsystems.TheyalsotookstepstoremoveallelementsofNazismfrompoliticalandsociallife,andprosecutedthoseresponsibleforthehorrorsoftheThirdReich.

TheBerlinDeclarationOnJune5,American,British,French,andSovietmilitarycommanderssignedtheBerlinDeclarationof1945thatsplitGermanyintofouroccupationzones.EachoftheAllieswasassignedresponsibilityforadministeringonezone.AnAlliedControlCouncil,madeupofmilitaryrepresentatives,wasformedandauthorizedtoexercisejointgoverningpoweroverthecountry.Thecouncil’sdecisionsweresupposedtobe

unanimous,butincasesofdisagreement,eachzone’smilitarygovernorcouldtakeseparateaction.Thecapitalcity,Berlin,wasalsodividedintoquartersbecauseofthewaythezoneswereapportioned.

Membersofdenazificationcommissionsinterviewedwitnessestodecidewhowaspunishableandwhowaseligibleforclemency.

ConflictAmongthe“BigFour”ThejointadministrationofGermanysoondeterioratedintoirreconcilabledifferences.TheUSSRwassupposedtosupplyfoodtotherestofthecountryinexchangeforreparationsfromtheotherthreezones.WhentheSovietsfailedtomeettheirobligations,theUnitedStatesandBritainbegansendingreliefsuppliestoGermanyattheirownexpense.Theaidfacilitatedthecountry’sreturntoself-sufficiency.TheriftbetweentheUSSRandtheWesternpowerscontinuedtowiden.Western

occupationgovernmentswantedtoencouragedemocracyandallowedpoliticalpartiestoforminpreparationforfutureGermanelections.By1947,theWesternpowerscombinedtheadministrationsintheirthreeregionstofurtherencourageeconomicgrowth.RussianpremierJosephStalin,incontrast,wantedtosafeguardhisregimebycontrollingneighboringcountries,includingtheSovietzoneinGermany.HeandtheSovietoccupierspressuredGermany’smoderateSocialDemocratstomergewiththeCommuniststoensureaCommunistvictoryinelectionsheldintheSovietzone.Overtime,thesedevelopmentsledtotheevolutionoftwoGermannations.

DenazificationofGermanyInSeptember1945,theAlliedControlCouncilofficiallyabolishedtheNaziParty.Soonafter,thegroupissuedseveraldirectivesdesignedtoremoveNazisfrompositionsofauthorityandtoeliminateNaziorganizationsandtheirideas.TheAlliesalsotookcontrolofthepress,radio,andmovies.TheAmericansclosedGermanschools,destroyedtextbooks,removedandretrainedteachers,andcreatednewcurricula.ThenextstepintheprocesswastoprosecuteNaziswhowereclassifiedasthewar’s“major

offenders.”

PostwarRecoveryTheAlliescarriedouttheirplansforthepostwarworld.TheypartitionedGermany,occupiedJapan,andplannedwartrialswhileworkingtoestablishdemocraticgovernments.Warwearybutoptimistic,50nationsgatheredtocreatetheUnitedNations.

APRIL

APRIL12PresidentRooseveltdiedofacerebralhemorrhage,andTrumanwassworninaspresidentthaesameday.

MAY

MAY7GermanysurrenderedtotheAllies,endingthewarinEurope.

JUNE

JUNE5GermanyandBerlinweredividedintofourzonescontrolledbyU.S.,British,French,andSovietmilitary.

OCTOBER

OCTOBER24TheUnitedNationswasestablished.

NOVEMBER

NOVEMBER20TheNurembergTrialsbegan.

TheBerlinAirlift:OperationVittles

WestBerlinchildreneagerlyawaitedtheplanesbringingfoodandcandy.

WhenBerlinwaspartitioned,theSovietstookcontroloftheeasternhalfofthecityandtheotherAlliesoccupiedthewesternsectors.Bylate1947,theBritish,Americans,andFrenchhadmergedtheirzones.ThisnewWesterncoalition,andespeciallytheprospectofaunifiedWestBerlin,worriedtheSoviets.StartingJune24,1948,theSovietsbegansealingoffallrailway,highway,andbargeaccesstoWestBerlin,creatingablockade.TheAlliesbegantoshipsuppliestoBerlinbyairplane.IntheinitialphaseoftheBerlinAirlift,Alliedplanesdeliveredabout5,000tonsoffoodandothergoodsdaily.Thatamountsoonincreasedto8,000tonsaday.BythetimetheSovietsendedtheblockadeinMay1949,atotalof2.3milliontonsofsupplieshadbeenairliftedintoBerlin.TheAlliescontinuedtosendfoodandothersuppliestothecityviaplaneuntilSeptember,hopingtocreateasurplusincasetheSoviets

decidedtoreinstatetheblockade.

TheNurembergWarTrialsJUSTICEWOULDBESERVED,BUTITWOULDNEVERMAKEUPFORETHOSEWHOLOSTTHEIRLIVES.

NazileadersweretriedinRoom600ofthePalaceofJustice.Courtroomproceedingswererecorded,andsomewerebroadcastinradioreports.ItwasthefirsttimemostpeoplelearnedoftheNaziatrocities,theconcentration

camps,andthegaschambers.

“Thewrongswhichweseektocondemnandpunishhavebeensocalculated,somalignant,andsodevastating,thatcivilizationcannottoleratetheirbeingignored,becauseitcannotsurvivetheirbeingrepeated.”

—JusticeRobertJackson,November21,1945

EvenbeforeGermanysurrendered,theAllieshadplannedtoestablishcourtstotryNazimilitaryandpoliticalleadersfortheiractionsduringthewar.OnMay2,1945,PresidentHarryTrumanselectedAssociateSupremeCourtJusticeRobertJacksontoorganizetheproceedingsandtorepresenttheUnitedStatesinthem.JacksonstartedbydevelopingtheLondonCharter,whichestablishedthe

InternationalMilitaryTribunalandtheproceduresforthetrials.TheAlliedsignatoriesagreedtoholdthetrialsinNuremberg,wheretheNazishadstagedtheirannualrallies,asthecourtofrecord.Muchofthecitywasseverelydamaged,butthehugePalaceofJusticeandaprisonremainedintact.OnNovember20,theNurembergWarTrialsbegan.Inthefirsttrial,22Nazisfaced

oneormorechargesofwarcrimes,crimesagainstpeace,orcrimesagainsthumanity.

ThedefendantsincludedLuftwaffecommanderHermannGöring,AdolfHitler’sdeputyRudolfHess,andtheFührer’ssuccessorAdmiralKarlDönitz.Eachmorning,guardsmarchedthemenfromtheprisontothecourtroom.Overthenexttenmonths,prosecutorsofferedevidencethatincludedGermanpropagandamovies,filmsofconcentrationcampliberations,andphysicalevidencefromthecamps,aswellaseyewitnesstestimony.The250journalistsattendingthetrialswereoftenheardweepinginthecourtroom.OnOctober1,1946,thecourthandeddowntheverdicts.Twelvehigh-rankingmen,includingGöring,weresentencedtodeathbyhanging.Threereceivedlifesentences,fourgotprisontermsoftento20years,andthreelesserpoliticalfigureswereacquitted.Between1945and1949,morethan100otherdefendantsweretriedatNuremberg.

HermannGöringconferredwithhisGermanlawyer.

TopNazileaderswerethefirsttobetriedinthetrialofthemajorwarcriminals.Defendantsseatedinthedockwere,frontrow(lefttoright):HermannGöring(takingnotes),RudolfHess,JoachimvonRibbentrop,GeneralWilhelmKeitel;backrow(lefttoright):AdmiralKarlDönitz,AdmiralErichRaeder,BaldurvonSchirach,and

FritzSauckel.

ThesecaseswerenotablebecausetheyattemptedtoadministerjusticefortheNazi

atrocitiesandbecausetheyestablisheduniversalstandardsofhumanrightsandconductduringwar.In1945,theUnitedNationsestablishedtheInternationalCourtofJusticetodecidelegaldisputesbetweennationsonavoluntarybasis.IntheyearsfollowingWorldWarII,theinternationalcommunitywouldalsosignagreementsonhumanrights,genocide,andlawsofwar.

RobertJackson:WorkofaLifetimeInOctober1941,SupremeCourtJusticeRobertJacksonposedforaformalphotographinhisnewjudicial

role.

AssociateSupremeCourtJusticeRobertJackson(1892–1954)wasaneminentattorneyandjuristwholeftasignificantlegacyasthearchitectofthetrialsatNuremberg.HewasborninSpringCreek,Pennsylvania,andsoonmovedwithhisfamilytoFrewsburg,NewYork.Afterapprenticingtoanattorneyandattendingoneyearoflawschool,JacksonpassedtheNewYorkStateBarexam.Hethenpursuedasuccessfullegalcareerandbecameactiveinlocalpolitics.PresidentFranklinRooseveltnamedJacksonU.S.solicitorgeneralin1938,andthreeyearslater,U.S.attorneygeneral.In1941,JacksonwasappointedtotheU.S.SupremeCourt,whereheserveduntilhisdeathin1954.JacksonlatersaidthatdevelopingtheInternationalMilitaryTribunalanditslegalprecedentswasthemostimportantworkofhislife.

HopesforaPeacefulWorldTHEUNITEDNATIONSPROVIDEDAFORUMFORRESOLVINGINTERNATIONALDISPUTES.

GardenersatSanFrancisco’sGoldenGateParkcreatedaspecialdisplayofflowerstowelcomethedelegatestotheconference.

Afteryearsofconflict,devastation,andprivation,therewasashareddeterminationtoavoidanotherworldwar.Gradually,thisdeterminationevolvedintoaction.TheseedsoftheeffortdatedtoAugust1941,whenRooseveltandPrimeMinisterWinstonChurchillissuedtheAtlanticCharter,astatementthatlistedtheirpostwargoalsforinternationalsecurity.ThesegoalsappearedagaininJanuary1942,when26AlliednationssignedtheUnitedNationsDeclaration,whichboundthemtoacommonpurposeofvictoryovertheAxispowers.Italsoresolvedtoprotectlibertyandhumanrightsandtorespecttheself-determinationofallpeoples.InApril1945,withtheendofthewarinsight,representativesof50nationsmetattheSanFranciscoConferencetowriteacharterfortheneworganization.

ThetitlepageoftheCharteroftheUnitedNationsfeaturedtheorganization’semblem.ItisamapoftheworldwiththeNorthPoleatitscenter,surroundedbyawreathofolivebranches,asymbolofpeace.

“...tosavesucceedinggenerationsfromthescourgeofwar...toreaffirmfaithinfundamentalhumanrights...”

—fromtheUNCharter

EdwardStettinius,chairoftheU.S.delegationtotheUnitedNationsconferenceinSanFrancisco,signedtheUNCharterfortheUnitedStateswhilePresidentHarryTruman(secondfromleft)andotherslookedon.

ThecharterestablishedthestructureoftheUnitedNationsandoutlineditsguidingprinciples:topreventwar,toaffirmfundamentalhumanrights,tofacilitateinternationalpeaceandsecurity,topromoteimprovedlivingstandards,andtosupportsocialprogressandeconomicadvancements.TheUnitedStates,Britain,andtheUSSRweretheprimarydesignersofthedecision-makingstructure.TheGeneral

Assemblyconsistedofrepresentativesofallmembercountries.TheSecurityCouncil,whichwasresponsibleforinternationalpeaceandsecurity,originallyhad11members,sixofwhichwereelectedtotwo-yearterms.Five—theUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,theSovietUnion,France,andtheRepublicofChina—werepermanentmembers,andeachhadvetopoweronSecurityCouncilresolutions.

SecretaryofStateJamesByrnes(right)watchedasTrumansignedthedocumentbywhichheratifiedtheCharteroftheUnitedNations.

DisagreementsbasedonnationalinterestsplaguedthediscussionsattheAprilconference,buttheydidnotpreventtheformationoftheUnitedNations.TheUSSRinsistedonindividualmembershipsforeachofthecountriesalongtheSovietborderineasternEurope.Britaingotassurancesthatduetotheprincipleofself-determination,noneofitscolonieswouldbeputunderUNcontrol.TherealsowasconsiderabledebateaboutthevotingprocessandvetopowerintheSecurityCouncil.FinallyonJune25,thedelegatesunanimouslyadoptedthecharter,andthenextdaytheyallsignedthedocument.AfterthepermanentmembersoftheSecurityCouncilandmostoftheothermembersratifiedthecharter,theUnitedNationswasofficiallyestablishedonOctober24,1945.Theworldhadenteredanewperiodofinternationalcollaboration.

HonoringThoseWhoServedTHEWORLDWARIIMEMORIALINWASHINGTON,D.C.ISATRIBUTETOALLTHEMENANDWOMENOFTHE“GREATESTGENERATION”WHOSACRIFIEDTOBRINGVICTORYTOOURNATION.

TheRainbowPoolinthecenterofthemonument’splazaopenstovistasofboththeLincolnMemorialandtheWashingtonMonument.

“Whenitmatteredmost,anentiregenerationofAmericansshowedthefinestqualitiesofournationandofhumanity.Onthisday,intheirhonor,wewillraisetheAmericanflagoveramonumentthatwillstandaslongasAmericaitself.”

—GeorgeW.Bush,May29,200

SixteenmillionAmericansservedduringWorldWarII,andonMay29,2004,amemorialhonoringtheircommitmentandsacrificeswasdedicatedinthenation’scapital.Theeventfeaturedafour-daycelebration,withspecialmuseumexhibitsandservicesintheNationalCathedral.Almosteveryfeatureanddetailoftheseven-acrememorial,situatedintheNational

Mall,issymbolic.Aceremonialentranceisflankedby24bronzebas-reliefsculpturesthatprovideglimpsesintotheAmericanexperienceathomeandonthebattlefield.Inside,thememorialisanchoredbytwopavilions—oneproclaimingvictoryintheAtlanticTheatre,theothersuccessinthePacific.Fifty-sixgranitepillarsrepresentthestates,federalterritories,andtheDistrictofColumbia.Thecolumnsarelinkedwithbronzeropestoreflectthenation’sunityduringthewarandadornedwithtwobronzewreaths,oneofwheat,representingtheUnitedStates’agriculturalstrength,andoneinoak,signifyingthemightofanationthatsupplieditsowntroopsandthoseofitsallies.ThesitealsofeaturestheFreedomWalldecoratedwith4,048goldstars,honoring

themilitarypersonnelwholosttheirlivesduringthewarorwhoremainmissingin

action.Carvedatthebottomarethewords:“Herewemarkthepriceoffreedom.”

Fourmillionvisitorscometothememorialeachyeartopaytributetofallencomradesandtohonorallthosewhosacrificedduringthewar.Manyleaveflagsandflowerstocommemoratetheevent.

Visitorscanfindhiddentreasuresinthesite,includingthefamous“Kilroywashere”graffitithatisfamiliartoeveryWorldWarIIveteran.AlsocarvedintothememorialarethesewordsfromPresidentTruman:“Ourdebttotheheroicmenandvaliantwomenintheserviceofourcountrycanneverberepaid.Theyhaveearnedourundyinggratitude.Americawillneverforgettheirsacrifices.”

FoureaglessitinsidetheAtlanticpavilion.Eachbirdhasawingspanof11feetandisperchedonitsown18-foot-tallbronzecolumn.Thefourjointogethertoholdalaurelvictorywreath.Carvingsatthebaseofthepavilionslist

manyofthemajorWorldWarIIbattlefields.

WarDeathsbyCountryCountry:FranceMilitaryDeaths:218,000TotalCivilianandMilitaryDeaths:568,000

Country:GermanyMilitaryDeaths:5.5millionTotalCivilianandMilitaryDeaths:6.6million–8.8millionCountry:ItalyMilitaryDeaths:300,000TotalCivilianandMilitaryDeaths:457,000

Country:SovietUnionMilitaryDeaths:8.8million–10.7millionTotalCivilianandMilitaryDeaths:24millionCountry:UnitedKingdomMilitaryDeaths:

384,000TotalCivilianandMilitaryDeaths:451,000

Country:UnitedStatesMilitaryDeaths:417,000TotalCivilianandMilitaryDeaths:419,000

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93.Bottom:©Hulton-DeutschCollection/CORBIS94.Top:©JonHicks/Corbis94.Bottom:©JonHicks/Corbis95.©RichardGreen/Commercial/AlamyStockPhotoThenumbersinthissectionreferencethepagenumbersoftheprintversionofthistext.

NumerousGermansoldierscapturednearthewar’sendwerekeptinruralcampsinAllied-occupiedGermany.

“IadmitthatGermanyisdefeated.”—HeinrichHimmler,April23,1945

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