time under tension

8/10/2019 Time Under Tension

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Abstract Mechanical stimuli have often been suggested to

be the major determinant of resistance training adaptations;

however, some studies suggested that metabolic changes also

play an important role in the gains of muscle size and strength.

Several resistance training methods (RTM) have been

employed with the purpose of manipulating mechanical and

metabolic stimuli; however, information about their

physiological effects are scarce. The objective of this study

was to compare the time under tension (TUT) and blood

lactate responses among four different RTM reported in the

literature. The four RTM were performed in a knee extension

machine at 10 repetition maximum (RM) load by 12

recreationally trained young men. The RTM tested were:

10RM, super-slow (SL—subjects performed one 60-second

repetition with 30 seconds for eccentric and 30 seconds for

concentric phase), functional isometrics (FI—in eachrepetition, a five-second maximal isometric contraction was

executed with the knees fully extended) and adapted vascular

occlusion (VO—subjects performed a 20-second maximal

isometric contraction with the knees fully extended and

immediately proceeded to normal isoinertial lifts). According

to the results, all RTM produced significant increases in blood

lactate levels. However, blood lactate responses during FI

(4.481.57mM) and VO (4.231.66mM) methods were

higher than the SL method (3.411.14mM). The TUT for SL

(60 s), FI (56.336.46 s), and VO (53.084.76s) methods

were higher than TUT for 10RM (42.083.18 s). Additionally,

TUT for the SL method was higher than TUT during the VOmethod. Therefore, the SL method may not be recommended if

one wants to provide a high metabolic stimulus. The FI method

appeared to be especially effective in promoting both type of

stimuli. J Physiol Anthropol 25(5): 339–344, 2006 http://

www.jstage.jst.go.jp/browse/jpa2

[DOI: 10.2114/jpa2.25.339]

Keywords: muscle strength, muscle hypertrophy, acute

responses, work

Introduction

Resistance training has a fundamental role in physical

activity programs, and has been recommended by many major

health organizations in order to increase general health and

fitness (American College of Sports Medicine; 1998; Fletcher

et al., 1995; Kraemer et al., 2002; Pollock et al., 2000; U.S.

Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). Two of the

most common goals of resistance training are to obtain

increases in muscle size and strength, for aesthetic, athletic or

health purposes in chronic conditions such as sarcopenia and

AIDS (Fairfield et al., 2001; Kotler et al., 2004; Yarasheski et

al., 2003; Zinna et al., 2003).

Mechanical stimuli have often been suggested to be the

major determinant of the resistance training adaptations

(Folland et al., 2002; Kraemer et al., 2002; McDonagh and Davies, 1984; Mikesky et al., 1989; Pincivero et al., 1997).

However, some studies suggested that metabolic changes may

play an important role in the gains of muscle size and strength

(Kawada, 2005; Schott et al., 1995; Smith and Rutherford,

1995). With the purpose of manipulating metabolic and

mechanical stimuli, several resistance training methods (RTM)

have been developed; amongst them are super-slow, functional

isometrics and modified vascular occlusion.

The super-slow (SL) method involves performing the

exercise at slow velocities, taking 10 to 60 seconds to complete

a repetition (Fleck and Kraemer, 2004). Hunter et al. (2003)

compared the metabolic responses between SL (8 repetitions performed at 28% of one repetition maximum - 1RM) and

traditional resistance training (8 repetitions at 65% of 1RM)

and reported higher blood lactate responses for the traditional

training. On the other hand, Keogh et al. (1999) did not report

significant differences in blood lactate response between one

set of the SL method performed at 55% of 1RM and one set of

6 repetition maximum (6RM). With regard to time under

tension (TUT), Keogh et al. (1999) reported that the SL

method elicited greater TUT than 6RM. However, the SL

method was performed at a lower resistance than 6RM, which

limits the comparison between mechanical stimuli.

Time under Tension and Blood Lactate Response during Four Different

Resistance Training Methods

Paulo Gentil1), Elke Oliveira1) and Martim Bottaro2)

1) College of Health Sciences, University of Brasilia, Brazil

2) College of Physical Education and Exercise Science, University of Brasilia, Brazil



The Functional Isometrics (FI) method entails performing

dynamic actions with an isometric contraction at the point of

maximal effort in each repetition (Fleck and Kraemer, 2004).

In a previous study, Keogh et al. (1999) did not find significant

differences in the blood lactate response and TUT when

comparing the FI method with 6RM. However, the isometric

actions in the FI method lasted only two seconds while hasoften been suggested to perform the isometric actions for five

to seven seconds (Fleck and Kraemer, 2004).

Several studies have found that the utilization of vascular

occlusion has a positive effect on muscle strength and

hypertrophy (Burgomaster et al., 2003; Shinohara et al., 1998;

Takarada et al., 2000). This strategy has been shown to

increase blood lactate concentration (Takarada et al., 2000) and

was proposed to induce a preferential activation of the fast

twitch (FT) fibers and to increase the amplitude of the changes

from hypoxia to hyperoxia during exercise (Kawada, 2005;

Moritani et al., 1992; Takarada et al., 2000). According to this

evidence, some weight trainers have employed a maximal

isometric contraction prior to normal dynamic lifts in order to

simulate vascular occlusion (Gentil, 2005). The rationale for

this practice lies in the finding that isometric actions interrupt

blood flow and leads to metabolites accumulation, as shown by

Koba et al. (2004) and Hietanen et al. (1984). However, it is

not known if this practice would have any benefit in

accumulating metabolites or providing higher mechanical

stimuli than traditional resistance training with maximum

repetitions. Thus, due to the contradictions in the literature

with regard to the SL method, as well as the lack of studies

comparing physiologic stimuli among other RTM, the purpose

of the present study was to compare the blood lactate

responses and TUT among four different RTM.

Methods

Experimental procedures

Twelve subjects were tested in all situations. Blood lactate

concentrations were measured in order to assess metabolic

stress, similar to previous studies (i.e., Kraemer et al., 1990;

Keogh et al., 1999; Hunter et al., 2003). Blood was collected

from the right ear lobule immediately before and three minutes

after each RTM. Therefore, a 42 (RTMtime) within-within

design was employed. Due to the unique characteristics of the

RTM tested (controlled velocity at the SL method and isometric moments at the FI and VO methods), it would be

difficult to compare total work volume for the RTM. Hence, as

load was kept constant, TUT was used as an estimate of the

mechanical load imposed to the muscle. Additionally, previous

studies have found a strong correlation between TUT and

skeletal muscle adaptations (Mikesky et al., 1989).

Subjects

Twelve recreationally weight-trained men with experience in

all the RTM tested volunteered to participate in this study. The

minimum overall resistance training experience required to

enter the study was two years. All subjects were informed of

the risks and benefits of the experiment and signed a consent

form before participating in the study. The experiment was

approved by the University of Brasília Institutional Review

Board. The characteristics of the subjects are presented in

Table 1.

Testing procedures

Tests were conduced using a leg extension machine

(HN1030, Righetto Fitness Equipment, São Paulo-Brazil).During the week before the experiment, the 10RM load for

each subject was assessed according to the procedures reported

by Simão et al. (2005). Data were analyzed by Pearson product

moment correlations to estimate day-to-day 10RM reliability

(r 0.96).

All subjects executed the four RTM in a randomized order

with at least 24 hours between each one. Subjects were

instructed to avoid any type of resistance training involving the

quadriceps muscles 72 hours prior to the beginning of tests.

In all RTM, except the SL method and the specific

isometrics moments during the FI and VO methods, subjects

were instructed to maintain a constant velocity of two secondsin the concentric phase and two seconds in the eccentric phase,

with no pause between phases. The concentric phase started at

100° of knee flexion and ended with the knees fully extended.

A metronome was used to control contraction velocity.

Resistance training methods (RTM)

All RTM were performed with the same knee extension

machine used during the load tests. The four RTM were

performed with the load equivalent to 10RM. SL was the

exception, here the RTM were performed until concentric

failure, characterized when the subject was not able to

340 Acute Response of Resistance Training Methods

Table 1 Characteristics of the subjects (MeanSD)

Characteristic Values

Age (years) 24.833.27

Weight (kg) 78.948.13

Heigth (cm) 177.835.96

10RM load (kg) 109.5816.58

Table 2 Time under tension and number of repetitions performed during

different resistance training methods (MeanSD)

RTM RepetitionsTime under

tension (s)

10RM 10.330.49#,†,‡ 42.083.18

Super-slow (SL) 1.000.00 60.000.00*,#

Adapted vascular occlusion (VO) 7.171.11†,‡ 53.084.76*

Functional isometrics (FI) 6.581.00‡ 56.336.46*

# significantly higher than adapted vascular occlusion ( p0.05)

† significantly higher than super-slow ( p0.05)

‡ significantly higher than functional isometrics ( p0.05)

* significantly higher than 10RM ( p0.05)



completely extend the knees during two consecutive

repetitions. The mean number of repetitions performed during

each RTM are presented in Table 2.

The four RTM analyzed in this study were:

1) Ten maximum repetitions method (10RM): Normal

isoinertial lifts were performed until concentric failure at the

load obtained during the 10RM test.2) Functional isometrics method (FI): In each repetition, a

five-second maximal isometric contraction was executed with

the knees fully extended.

3) Adapted vascular occlusion (VO): subjects performed a 20-

second maximal isometric contraction with the knees fully

extended and immediately preceded to normal isoinertial lifts.

4) Super-slow method (SL): subjects performed one 60-

second repetition consisting of 30 seconds for the eccentric

phase and 30 seconds for the concentric phase. To control for

muscle contraction velocity, time was given every five seconds.

Blood lactate measurements

A small sample of blood (25 m l) was taken from the right ear

lobule immediately before (T0) and three minutes (T3) after

the completion of each RTM. Blood from these incisions was

allowed to flow into a Brand NH4 heparinized capillary tube.

From the capillary tube, the blood was added to a labeled

Eppendorf tube filled with buffer (1% sodium fluoride) at a

ratio of 1 : 3 (blood to buffer). These samples were then placed

in refrigeration at approximately 4°C to be transported to the

laboratory and then put in a refrigerator. Blood samples were

analyzed using the YSI 1500 Lactate Analyzer (Yellow Springs

Instrument Co., Yellow Springs, OH).

Time under tensionTime under tension (TUT) was defined as the total time in

which the muscles were applying force to the implement.

The same pair of investigators recorded the times of all tests

using a digital chronometer. Data were analyzed by Pearson

product moment to estimate the correlations between the

measurements of the two investigators (r 0.98). The mean of

the two measures was used in the analysis.

Statistical analyses

Standard statistical methods were used for the calculation of

means and standard deviations (SD). Before parametric

analyses were done, the normality of distribution of the datawas assessed with Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests. Differences in

blood lactate responses during the RTM were assessed using a

two way ANOVA 42 (RTMtime). TUT and repetitions

among the RTM were compared with one-way ANOVA.

Multiple comparisons with adjustment of confidence interval

by the Bonferroni method were used for post-hoc comparisons.

The p0.05 criterion was used for establishing statistical

significance.

Results

Table 2 shows the values of TUT and repetitions performed

during the different RTM. The total number of repetitions

performed were significantly different among RTM [f

(3,33)441.136, p0.001]. Repetitions performed during the

10RM were higher than those in the SL, FI and VO methods

( p0.01). Repetitions performed during the FI and VO

methods were higher than during the SL method ( p0.01).

Repetitions performed during the VO method were higher than

during the FI method ( p0.05).

There were significant differences in TUT among RTM [f

(3,33)43.670, p0.01]. TUT for the SL, FI and VO methods

were higher than 10RM ( p0.01). TUT for the SL method was

higher than that for the VO method ( p0.01).

There was a significant effect of time on blood lactate [f (1,11)40.048, p0.01]. When all RTM were considered, the

blood lactate concentrations at T3 were significantly higher

than at T0 ( p0.01).

There were significant differences in blood lactate responses

among RTM [f (3,33)7.466, p0.01]. Blood lactate

Gentil, P et al. J Physiol Anthropol, 25: 339–344, 2006 341

Fig. 1 Blood lactate level in different RTM, expressed as means and standard deviation. Analysis were done before (T0) and three minutes after

the end (T3) of each RTM. 10RM, SL (super-slow), FI (functional isometrics), VO (adapted vascular occlusion).

* significantly higher than SL.



concentrations at T0 were not significantly different among

RTM ( p0.05). However, blood lactate concentrations at T3

were higher for the VO and FI methods than for the SL method

( p0.05). The results of the lactate concentrations are

presented in Fig. 1.

Discussion

There is a consensus that mechanical load is crucial for

gains in muscle size and strength (Kraemer et al., 2002;

McDonagh and Davies, 1984). Based on this paradigm few

would have been predicted that healthy subjects could obtain

gains in muscle strength and hypertrophy after three weeks of

walking, as was recently reported by Abe et al. (2006). There

are several reports showing that metabolic stress results in

increases in muscle size and strength (Schott et al., 1995;

Kawada and Ishii, 2005). Some authors suggested that the

recommendation of high load to induce hypertrophy may be

derived from an association between load and metabolic stress

(Meyer, 2006).

It has been recognized that intracellular metabolic changes

may be an important signal for muscle hypertrophy, but the

mechanisms by which acute changes in lactate or other

metabolites are linked to the hypertrophic signaling cascade is

unknown. In the present study lactate was not used based on a

cause-effect relationship. However, although lactate may not be

a direct promoter of muscle adaptations it may be used as a

marker of metabolic stress. This assumption was based on

previous findings that reported elevated responses of lactate

and other metabolites in interventions that promoted increases

in muscle size and/or strength (Kawada and Ishii, 2005; Schott

et al., 1995; Takarada et al., 2000; Tanimoto and Ishii, 2005).Previous studies have reported positive effects of tourniquet

vascular occlusion in muscle strength and hypertrophy (Abe et

al., 2006; Burgomaster et al., 2003; Shinohara et al., 1998;

Takarada et al., 2000). However, direct vascular occlusion is a

very specialized procedure that should be used with careful

monitoring of occlusive pressure and blood flow, therefore,

other strategies should be used as alternatives. According to

Tanimoto and Ishii (2005), exercises with sustained force

generation would be one of these alternatives.

With regard to the SL method, the present findings showed

that blood lactate response to this RTM was similar to 10RM,

and lower than the VO and FI methods. Previous studiescomparing blood lactate response between traditional

resistance training and the SL method have yielded conflicting

results. Keogh et al. (1999) compared the stress profile of one

set of six different RTM with traditional resistance training

(6RM) during the bench press exercise in 12 resistance-trained

men and reported no significant differences in blood lactate

response between the SL method and 6RM.

However, Hunter et al. (2003) found opposite results when

comparing the metabolic effects of a resistance training session

involving the SL method or traditional resistance training in

seven resistance-trained men. The SL session involved one set

of eight repetitions at 28% of 1RM, performed in a slow

cadence (10 seconds for concentric and 5 seconds for eccentric

muscle actions). The traditional resistance training session

consisted of two sets of eight repetitions at 65% of 1RM,

taking approximately 30 seconds to complete each set.

Contrary to the present study’s findings, the authors reported a

50% higher blood lactate response during the traditional

resistance training session.

The discrepancy between the present results and those of

Hunter et al. (2003) could be due to methodological

differences. The load used during the SL method in the

experiment of Hunter et al. (2003) was less than half the load

used during traditional resistance training (28% vs. 65% of

1RM), while the present study equated the loads in both

conditions. Moreover, Hunter et al. (2003) compared

resistance-training sessions with multiple sets, and traditional

resistance training involved twice the number of sets than the

SL session of the present study which compared the effects of

a single set of each method.

According to our results, blood lactate responses were

higher for the VO and FI methods than the SL method, but no

significant differences were found between the VO and FI

methods and 10RM. In a previous study, Keogh et al. (1999)

did not report significant differences in blood lactate responses

between the FI method and maximum repetitions (6RM),

which does not conflict with the present results. With regard to

the VO method, it is difficult to compare our results with

previous findings because similar studies could not be found in

the literature. During the FI and VO methods, isometric

contractions were performed as an attempt to induce ischemia.

However, it is not known if these RTM would obtain chronic

results comparable with those obtained by means of constantvascular occlusion as reported by Takarada et al. (2000),

Burgomaster et al. (2003) and Shinohara et al. (1998).

The differences in blood lactate responses among the RTM

may not be explained solely by mechanical factors (TUT,

repetitions or work). If it is assumed that repetitions or total

work was the sole determinant of blood lactate responses, it

would be expected that 10RM would produce the highest blood

lactate response among the RTM tested, however, this was not

observed. On the other hand, if TUT exerted a major influence

on blood lactate, SL would be related to the higher blood

lactate responses rather than VO and 10RM. Therefore, it is

suggested that the differences observed in the present studywere probably caused by the unique characteristics of the RTM

tested, specifically, the isometric moments at the FI and VO

methods.

In a study of Moritani et al. (1992), the subjects performed

repeated contractions at 20% of MVC (maximal voluntary

contraction) for 2 seconds followed by 2 seconds of rest for 4

minutes. Vascular occlusion was induced between the first and

second minute by a pressure cuff inflated to 200 mmHg.

According to their findings, blood lactate concentrations

showed a large increase shortly after the release of arterial

occlusion and it remained significantly elevated during the




following contractions. Therefore, it is possible that the

isometric contractions at VO and FI may have caused a

temporary vascular occlusion that resulted in a higher lactate

concentration when blood flow was reestablished.

According to the stimulus-tension theory, the intensity

(%RM) and duration of the muscular tension are responsible

for neural and morphological adaptations (Crewther et al.,2005). As load was kept constant across RTM, TUT was used

to provide an insight into this parameter. Additionally, some

authors consider TUT an important factor for strength and

hypertrophic adaptation, especially when associated with high

loads (Crewther et al., 2005; Mikesky et al., 1989). In the

present study, the SL, FI and VO methods provided higher

TUT than 10RM, despite using the same load. Therefore, it is

feasible to suggest that the VO, FI and SL method could be

used with the purpose of increasing muscle adaptations.

However, one should be cautious when prescribing SL to

promote increases in muscle power due to the velocity

specificity (Kanehisa et al., 1983; Neils et al., 2005).

Previous studies have reported that the FI method was

superior to traditional strength training programs for increasing

muscle strength (Jackson et al., 1995, O’Shea and O’Shea,

1989), especially in stronger subjects (Giorgi et al., 1998). In

addition to strength gains in specific joint angles (Fleck and

Kraemer, 2004) and a higher level of concentric force (Keogh

et al., 1999), this could be caused by the higher TUT achieved

with this RTM when compared with traditional approaches

(10RM), as observed in the present study.

The findings that some RTM are more effective in

promoting metabolic stimuli is of particular interest, because

metabolic stress may be associated with increases in muscle

strength and size (Schott et al., 1995; Smith and Rutherford,1995). In this regard, the FI and VO methods have shown to be

superior to the SL method. Another point of interest is the

exposure of muscle to mechanical overload. Since resistance

was kept constant across RTM, a greater TUT would mean that

muscle was more mechanically stimulated. According to the

present findings, the SL, FI and VO methods provided greater

mechanical stress than 10RM; and the SL method provided

greater TUT than the VO method.

In conclusion, our results showed that the FI and VO

resistance training methods may provide more metabolic stress

than the SL method. Moreover, the SL, FI and VO methods

grant higher mechanical stimuli than the 10RM method, and the SL method appeared to be superior to the VO method.

Future studies should use other methods to measure both

physiologic (i.e., muscle protein synthesis and specific RNAm

of proteins of interest) and mechanic characteristics of the

RTM. Additionally, long-term studies are needed to evaluate

the chronic adaptations of different RTM to test if the acute

differences in selected physiological parameters reflect an

increase in muscle size and/or strength.

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Received: April 26, 2006

Accepted: July 28, 2006

Correspondence to: Paulo Gentil, SQS 203 bl.J apt.606,

Brasília, DF 70.233-100, BrazilPhone:55–61–8118–4732

Fax:55–61–3322–7972

e-mail: [email protected]


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