timesaving tools teaching transparencies · read the excerpt below from bertolt brecht’s play...

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Chapter 17 ResourcesTimesaving Tools

• Interactive Teacher Edition Access your Teacher Wraparound Edition andyour classroom resources with a few easy clicks.

• Interactive Lesson Planner Planning has never been easier! Organize yourweek, month, semester, or year with all the lesson helps you need to maketeaching creative, timely, and relevant.

™ Use Glencoe’sPresentation Plus!multimedia teacher tool to easily present

dynamic lessons that visually excite your stu-dents. Using Microsoft PowerPoint® you can customize the presentations to create your ownpersonalized lessons.

The following videotape programs are available from Glencoe as supplements to Chapter 17:

• Sir Isaac Newton: Gravity of Genius(ISBN 1–56501–982–2)

• Mozart (ISBN 1–56501–590–8)• George Washington: Founding Father

(ISBN 1–56501–377–8)• The American Revolution (ISBN 1–56501–436–7)

To order, call Glencoe at 1–800–334–7344. To findclassroom resources to accompany many of thesevideos, check the following home pages:A&E Television: www.aande.comThe History Channel: www.historychannel.com

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TEACHING TRANSPARENCIESTEACHING TRANSPARENCIESChapter Transparency 17 L2

Graphic Organizer StudentActivity 17 Transparency L2

Graphic Organizer 3:

Web Diagram CHAPTER TRANSPARENCY 17

Revolution and Enlightenment (1550–1800)

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European Claims in the Americas

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In Chapter 17, you read about the reac-tion of the Catholic Church to Galileo’sideas, which conflicted with Church teach-ings. Galileo’s hypothesis that the earth wasnot the center of the universe threatened to

★ Enrichment Activity 17 ★★

undermine the religious world-view thatpervaded every aspect of European society.Read the excerpt below from BertoltBrecht’s play Galileo.

The Commotion Galileo Caused

DIRECTIONS: Answer the questions below in the space provided.

1. Write a one-sentence summary of the message the Ballad Singer tries to convey._________

2. Write your own ballad, poem, or short play about either Copernicus or Diderot and thepersecution either man faced for expressing his views. If necessary, use a separate sheetof paper. _______________________________________________________________________

Around the corner from the market place aBALLAD SINGER and his WIFE, who is costumed

to represent the earth in a skeleton globe madeof thin bands of brass, are holding the attentionof a sprinkling of representative citizens, somein masquerade, who were on their way to seethe carnival procession. From the market placethe noise of an impatient crowd.

BALLAD SINGER (accompanied by his WIFE on theguitar):When the Almighty made the universeHe made the earth and then he made the sun.Then round the earth he bade the sun to turn—That’s in the Bible, Genesis, Chapter One.And from that time all beings here belowWere in obedient circles meant to go:

Around the pope the cardinalsAround the cardinals the bishopsAround the bishops the secretariesAround the secretaries the aldermenAround the aldermen the craftsmen

Around the craftsmen the servantsAround the servants the dogs, thechickens, and the beggars.

A conspicuous reveller—henceforth called theSPINNER—has slowly caught on and is exhibiting hisidea of spinning around. He does not lose dignity,he faints with mock grace.

BALLAD SINGER:Up stood the learned GalileoGlanced briefly at the sunAnd said: “Almighty God was wrongIn Genesis, Chapter One!”

Now that was rash, my friends, it is nomatter small:

For heresy will spread today like fouldiseases.

Change Holy Writ, forsooth? What willbe left at all?

Why: each of us would say and do justwhat he pleases!

Primary Source Reading 17 L2

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Of the Encyclopedia

Voltaire was one of the most influential philosophers of theEnlightenment. A man with a sharp tongue and an even sharper pen,he was twice imprisoned in the Bastille for his comments. He spent

two years in England, where he was impressed by England’s greater freedomof thought. Back in France, he wrote philosophy and satire and, through theinfluence of Madame de Pompadour, was made a member of the FrenchAcademy.

In the passage below, Voltaire ridicules French responses to Diderot’sEncyclopedia, to which Voltaire himself was a contributor.

Guided Reading In this selection, read to learn why Diderot’s Encyclopedia was banned in France and whyit should not have been.

A servant of Louis XV told me that while hismaster, the king, was dining one day at Trianonwith a small group, the conversation turned firston hunting and then on gun powder. Someonesaid that the best powder is made with equalparts of saltpeter, sulphur and coal. The Duke deLa Vallière, who knew better, argued that tomake good gun powder all you needed was onepart of sulphur and one of coal to five parts ofsaltpeter that had been well filtered, well evapo-rated, and well crystallized.

“It is funny,” said the Duke de Nivernois,“that we amuse ourselves daily by killing par-tridges in the park at Versailles, and sometimesby killing men or by being killed ourselves at thefrontier, without knowing exactly with what wekill.”

“Alas! We are reduced to that state for mostthings of this world,” answered Madame dePompadour; “I do not know what the rouge Iput on my cheeks is made of, and I should bevery much embarrassed if someone asked mehow the silk hose I am wearing is made.”

“It is a pity,” the Duke de La Vallière thensaid, “that His Majesty confiscated our encyclo-pedic dictionaries, each of which cost us a hun-dred gold pieces: there we would quickly findthe answer to all our questions.”

The king justified the confiscation: he hadbeen warned that the twenty-one folio volumesthat were found on all the ladies’ dressing tableswere the most dangerous thing in the world forthe French kingdom; and he wanted to know forhimself if this were true before allowing anyone

to read this work. At the end of the dinner hesent three of his servants for a copy, each ofwhom returned carrying seven volumes withgreat difficulty.

They saw at the article “Powder” that theDuke de La Vallière was right; and soonMadame de Pompadour learned the differencebetween the old Spanish rouge that the ladies ofMadrid used to color their cheeks, and the rougeof Parisian ladies. She learned that Greek andRoman ladies were painted with purple thatcame from seashells, and that consequently ourscarlet was the purple of the ancients; shelearned that there was more saffron in Spanishrouge, and more cochineal in the French.

She saw how her stockings were manufac-tured; and the operation of this processdelighted her with wonder. “Oh, the fine book!”she exclaimed. “Sire, did you confiscate thisstorehouse of useful things so as to possess italone and be the only wise man of your king-dom?”

They all jumped at the volumes like thedaughters of Lycomedes at Ulysses’ jewels;every one found at once what he was lookingfor. Those who had lawsuits were surprised tofind there the judgment of their cases. The kingread all the rights of the crown. “But really,” hesaid, “I don’t know why I was told so many badthings about this work.”

“Well, don’t you see, Sire,” said the Duke deNivernois, “it’s because it is very good? Men donot attack the mediocre and the dull of whateversort. If women try to ridicule a new comer, it is

P R I M A R Y S O U R C E R E A D I N G 17

APPLICATION AND ENRICHMENTAPPLICATION AND ENRICHMENTHistory SimulationActivity 17 L1

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HANDOUT MATERIAL

Science on Trial—Planning Form

Galileo _____________________________________________________________________________

Church Members __________________________________________________________________

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Jury Members _____________________________________________________________________

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Research Notes:

Information about Galileo:

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Information about the Church:

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Most important points to make:

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17H I S T O R Y

S I M U L A T I O N

AC T I V I T Y

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The basic freedoms enjoyed by Americansfor more than 200 years—freedom ofspeech, freedom of the press, freedom ofreligion, and freedom of assembly—comefrom the Bill of Rights, which became partof the Constitution in 1791. These freedomsare such a basic part of American life thatsometimes we take them for granted. Yet

billions of people in countries around theworld do not enjoy the freedoms thatAmericans have considered sacred for 200 years.

The Bill of Rights contains ten amend-ments to the Constitution. The FirstAmendment reads as follows:

Historical Significance Activity 17

The First Amendment

!

DIRECTIONS: In the space below, describe the story from your life that best expresses themeaning of the First Amendment to you.

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, orprohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech

or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and topetition the government for a redress of grievances.

Cooperative LearningActivity 17 L1/ELL

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Ideas that Changed the World

★ Cooperative Learning Activity 17 ★★

BACKGROUNDArtistic and conceptual creations, discoveries, and revelations marked the Age ofEnlightenment. These ideas and discoveries changed people’s views of the universeand their role in it. Exclusive reliance on ancient authorities gave way to new formsof inquiry. New political, scientific, philosophical, and artistic theories emerged andestablished the basis of a modern worldview based on rationalism and secularism.By focusing on some of these ideas that changed the world, you will better appreci-ate the energy and momentum of the Age of Enlightenment and the IndustrialRevolution in the West from 1550 to 1800.

GROUP DIRECTIONS1. This activity combines research skills with computer skills. You and your group

will conduct research and then prepare a multimedia slide show about a lead-ing figure of the Age of Enlightenment.

2. Use your textbook and library resources or the Internet to learn about key indi-viduals of the Enlightenment.

3. Use a software presentation tool like PowerPoint® with its bank of clip art tocreate slides for each Enlightenment figure and list his or her accomplishments,personal data, and impact on the age. The information should define why his orher contribution was significant.

4. Use your multimedia slides as the basis of oral presentations to the class oneach person showcased.

5. Choose from the following individuals or present your group’s suggested figureto your teacher for approval.

Margaret Cavendish Jean-Jacques RousseauMaria Winkelman Mary WollstonecraftRené Descartes Adam SmithBlaise Pascal Johann Sebastian BachFrancis Bacon George Frederick HandelMontesquieu Wolfgang Amadeus MozartVoltaire Franz Joseph HaydnDenis Diderot John Wesley

ORGANIZING THE GROUP1. Decision Making Decide in your groups which person to study. Your teacher

may re-assign topics if a large number of groups opt for the same individual,depending on research resource availability.

2. Group Work/Decision Making Meet with your group and brainstorm the kindsof information and clip art you want to include in your multimedia slide showand oral presentation. Be sure to include some personal data on the individual

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Chapter 17 Resources

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

INTERDISCIPLINARY ACTIVITIESINTERDISCIPLINARY ACTIVITIES

REVIEW AND REINFORCEMENTREVIEW AND REINFORCEMENT

Vocabulary PuzzleMaker CD-ROMInteractive Tutor Self-AssessmentCD-ROMExamView® Pro Testmaker CD-ROMAudio ProgramWorld History Primary SourceDocument Library CD-ROM

MindJogger VideoquizPresentation Plus! CD-ROMTeacherWorks CD-ROMInteractive Student Edition CD-ROMThe World History Video Program

MULTIMEDIAMULTIMEDIAThe following Spanish language materialsare available:

• Spanish Guided Reading Activities• Spanish Reteaching Activities• Spanish Quizzes and Tests• Spanish Vocabulary Activities• Spanish Summaries• Spanish Reading Essentials and Study Guide

SPANISH RESOURCESSPANISH RESOURCES

Linking Past and PresentActivity 17 L2

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Name ____________________________________ Date ________________ Class __________

Then Because many things are impossible tosee with the naked eye, people who livedbefore and during the Middle Ages had mis-taken concepts about material reality. Theycould not see the eggs that fleas and lice laid.Therefore, they believed that such verminsprang from nonliving matter. Since the germsthat cause diseases are even tinier than insecteggs, they supposed that a mysterious vaporbrought plague.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) didnot change these mistaken ideas during hislifetime. However, he did make discoveriesthat eventually helped to correct them.Leeuwenhoek was a fabric merchant whoexperimented with the microscope, which had been invented around 1595. Two scien-tists, Robert Hooke of England and JanSwammerdam of the Netherlands, had made microscopes and used them beforeLeeuwenhoek. Robert Hooke’s book,Micrographia, turned Leeuwenhoek’s attentionto the microscopic world.

Leeuwenhoek developed a lens that magni-fied objects to appear 200 times larger. He usedthe lens on ordinary things, such as pondwater and the tartar from his own teeth. Inthese, he discovered fabulous creatures that hecalled animalcules. He was the first to observesuch things as bacteria, sperm cells, bloodcells, rotifers, and nematodes. Leeuwenhoek’swork led to the understanding of the composi-tion of blood and the development of ways tocontrol diseases caused by microbes.

Now Biology is the science most deeplyindebted to Leeuwenhoek’s discoveries. Its principle tool remains the microscope. This instrument has, of course, advanced far beyond the simple device used in the sixteenth-century. Stereoscopic microscopesallow scientists to dissect extremely smallspecimens by showing these specimens inthree dimensions. Electron microscopes magni-fy images of objects over one million times.With these and other new instruments andtechniques, modern biologists are probingeven more deeply into the mysteries of life.Some of the more recent—and most exciting—medical discoveries follow.

Some of biology’s most exciting advanceshave been in genetics, or the study of genes.Genes determine the essence and appearanceof living organisms. Scientists have learned tomanipulate them to modify living organisms.For example, they can change the geneticstructures of plants to make them more resis-tant to disease.

The manipulation of genes has led to a pro-cess called cloning. In 1997 Ian Wilmut, aScottish scientist, cloned a sheep; that is, hereproduced a sheep from one cell of the ani-mal. Biologists hope that cloning will lead tocreating animals whose organs can be used toreplace damaged human organs.

In 1999 members of the Human GenomeProject decoded virtually all the genetic infor-mation in a human cell. This knowledge willenable doctors and scientists to help people ina number of ways. For example, a doctor couldidentify whether a patient has a gene thatmakes that person susceptible to a particulardisease.

Linking Past and Present Activity 17

Leeuwenhoek and Modern Biology

Critical Thinking

Directions: Answer the following questionson a separate sheet of paper.1. Drawing conclusions: Why do you think

Leeuwenhoek was interested in the micro-scope?

2. Making inferences: Why might it be help-ful for people to learn that they have a gene

that makes them susceptible to a disease? 3. Extending prior knowledge: How do you

think Leeuwenhoek’s work led to the con-trol of disease? Do research in the libraryand on the Internet to learn about scientistswho fought microbes. Write a brief report ofyour findings.

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Time Line Activity 17

Revolution and EnlightenmentDIRECTIONS: During the Scientific Revolution, ideas changed the world. Look at the eventslisted on the time line. Write each event in the box next to the field of study it affected. Thendescribe the significance of the event. Events may be placed in more than one box.

1600 1700 1800 1900

Significance of Historical EventsField Event Significance

Science/Mathematics

Government/Politics

Philosophy/Religion

The Arts

1687 Newton publishes hisbook Principia.

1690 Locke publishes his TwoTreatises of Government.

1750 Rousseau’s Discourse on the Effect of the Artsand Sciences on Morals makes him famous.

1751 Diderot publishes the Encyclopédie.

1776 The American Revolution begins.

c. 1690–1778 The Enlightenment occurs.

1740–1780 Maria Theresa rules Austria.1740–1786 Frederick II rules Prussia.

1790–1850 Romantic movement occurs.

Reteaching Activity 17 L1

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Revolution and Enlightenment

In the Age of Enlightenment, innovative ideas in astronomy, physics, mathematics, medi-cine, chemistry, and philosophy changed the way people viewed the physical and socialworld. New theories and beliefs based on the scientific method and on reason replaced oldbeliefs based on magic, mysticism, and ancient writings.

DIRECTIONS: The outline below lists fields that changed tremendously in the Age ofEnlightenment and people who initiated or contributed to these changes. In the space pro-vided, record the discoveries, contributions, or ideas of these individuals.

Reteaching Activity 17‘

Name Date Class

I. Astronomy, Physics, and Mathematics

A. Copernicus

B. Kepler

C. Galileo

D. Newton

II. Biology

A. Vesalius

B. Harvey

III. Chemistry

A. Boyle

B. Lavoisier

IV. Government

A. Rousseau

B. Montesquieu

V. Literature

A. Voltaire

B. Diderot

Vocabulary Activity 17 L1

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Revolution and Enlightenment: 1550–1800DIRECTIONS: Match each term with its definition by writing the correct letter on the blank.

Vocabulary Activity 17f

A. geocentric

B. philosophe

C. separation ofpowers

D. federal system

E. ellipses

F. scientific method

G. natural law

H. rationalism

I. deism

J. enlightenedabsolutism

K. mulatto

L. heliocentric

M. social contract

N. salon

1. religious philosophy based on reason and natural law

2. reliance on reason as the best guide for belief and action

3. oval paths in which planets move around the sun

4. system by which rulers tried to govern by Enlightenment principles while maintaining their royal powers

5. universal moral law that Enlightenment thinkers believed could be understoodthrough reason

6. social gathering in which ideas of the Enlightenment were discussed

7. relating to a reference system based at the center of the sun

8. intellectual thinker in the Age of Enlightenment

9. power shared between the national government and the state governments

10. offspring of Africans and Europeans

11. entire society agrees to be governed by its general will

12. executive legislative and judicial branches of the government limit and controleach other in a system of checks and balances

13. places Earth at the center of the universe

14. means of attaining knowledge by repeated observation and experimentation

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DIRECTIONS: Matching Match each item in Column A with the items in Column B.Write the correct letters in the blanks. (4 points each)

Column A

1. belief that the universe is a series of concentric sphereswith Earth at the center

2. first European to make regular observations of the heavensusing a telescope

3. the intellectuals of the Enlightenment

4. “I think, therefore I am.”

5. blank mind

6. doctrine that says the state should not interfere with theeconomy

7. architect who designed the Residence and the Church ofthe Fourteen Saints

8. commander in chief of the Continental Army

9. the American nation’s first constitution

10. ten amendments that guaranteed certain freedoms to thecitizens of the new American nation

DIRECTIONS: Multiple Choice Choose the item that best completes each sentence or answers each question. Write the letter of the item in the blank to the left of thesentence. (4 points each)

11. was the first to argue that the Sun, not the Earth, was the center ofthe universe.A. Ptolemy C. Johannes KeplerB. Nicholas Copernicus D. Isaac Newton

12. Isaac Newton’s universal law of gravitationA. was denounced by the Catholic Church as the work of the Devil.B. refuted Galileo Galilei’s theory of universal movement.C. was laughed at by Galileo, Kepler, and Copernicus, who thought an invisible

force was ridiculous.D. showed that one law, mathematically proved, could explain all motion in the

universe.

Name �� Date �� Class ��

Score✔ ScoreChapter 17 Test, Form A

Column B

A. BalthasarNeumann

B. tabula rasa

C. Bill of Rights

D. René Descartes

E. Ptolemaic system

F. Articles ofConfederation

G. Galileo Galilei

H. laissez-faire

I. GeorgeWashington

J. philosophes

Chapter 17 TestForm B L2

Performance AssessmentActivity 17 L1/ELL


Use with Chapter 17.

Revolution and Enlightenment

BACKGROUNDDuring the scientific revolution, fierce controversies erupted as discoveries

occurred more quickly than people could absorb them. Philosophers and othersstrove to make sense of the implications of modern science for human life.

TASKYou are a writer and printer during the scientific revolution. You and several

friends will create a newsletter that reports on and analyzes the “new” developmentsin science and thought and various groups’ responses to these developments. Whencreating your newsletter, think about present-day reactions to such advances asgenetic engineering, internet technologies, and virtual reality. Analyze present-dayreactions and compare them to what people must have felt during the fast-pacedchanges of the scientific revolution.

AUDIENCEYour audience is your classmates, teacher, and other interested adults.

PURPOSEYour purpose is to help your audience understand the scientific revolution and its

implications for religion, politics, and the arts.

PROCEDURES1. With your group, brainstorm articles to include in the newsletter. Consider a vari-

ety of article types, such as news reports, special features, science articles, editori-als, and political cartoons. Have each group member select one article to writeand/or illustrate.

2. Review Chapter 17 and, if time permits, library resources for information toinclude in your article.

3. Prepare a rough draft of your article. Photocopy or prepare sketches of illustrations.

4. Meet with your group to give and receive feedback on one another’s work.

5. Revise your article, making sure you include your group’s suggestions in yourrevision. Prepare final versions of any illustrations.

6. With your group, create a layout for your newsletter using either paper or a computer.

7. Prepare and distribute copies of your newsletter.

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★ Performance Assessment Activity 17

ExamView® ProTestmaker CD-ROM

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The Age of RevolutionBetween 1500 and 1830, a revolution in scientific thinking spread across Europe.This scientific revolution affected politics, religion, philosophy, and the arts.

DIRECTIONS: The map below of present-day Europe shows places where signifi-cant developments in the scientific revolution and the Age of the Enlightenmentoccurred. Use the map to complete the activities that follow.

Mapping History Activity 17

1. Identify three nations shownon the map that did not existin the Age of Enlightenment.

2. Identify three or more citieson the map that existedwhen the scientific revolu-tion began, around 1500.

3. On the map, mark and labelthe city or country where thefollowing developments in the scientific revolution and the Age ofEnlightenment occurred:

Copernicus begins his scientific career;

Galileo stands trial for his heretical ideas;

Charles II establishes the Royal Society;

Madame de Pompadour draws together enlightened thinkers in salons;

choosing exile from his native France over imprisonment, Voltaire beginsa new phase of his career.

NETHERLANDS

GERMANYPOLAND

SWITZER-LAND

LUXEMBOURG

ITALY

CZECH REPUBLIC

AUSTRIA

SLOVENIA

DENMARK

SWEDEN

IRELAND

UNITEDKINGDOM

SPAIN

FRANCE

BELGIUM

SLOVAKIA

ALBANIA

GREECE

MONTE-NEGRO

BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA

CROATIA

HUNGARY

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YUGO-SLAVIA

London

Paris

Madrid

WarsawBerlin

Kraków

Rome

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Mediterranean Sea

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Present-Day Europe

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John Singleton Copley (1738–1815) had two artistic careers. He spent mostof the first half of his life in prerevolutionary Boston as a respected portraitpainter. At the peak of his fame, he moved to London, where he painted largehistorical paintings.

DIRECTIONS: Read the passage below about this expatriate artist. Then answerthe questions in the space provided.

to work to help support his family, and so hebecame a printer and engraver.

It was common at the time for an artist to studyand copy the work of other artists. At first, the worksavailable to Copley were not very accomplished, so

John Singleton Copley

WoWorld Art and Music Activity 17

(continued)

Copley was born in Boston in 1738. As a youngboy, he was already drawing and painting. His

stepfather was an engraver who exposed the youngCopley to prints of English paintings and taught himto engrave and paint. At age 13 he was forced to go

John Singleton Copley, The Copley Family, oil on canvas (1776–1777)

History and GeographyActivity 17 L2

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HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY ACTIVITY 17★

In 1543, Polish astronomer NicolausCopernicus lay dying when his friendsplaced the first bound copy of his book, Onthe Revolutions of Celestial Spheres, in his frailhands. Copernicus stared at the book andthen at his friends and said nothing. No oneknew if Copernicus realized what he held.Who could have known that the ideas inthe book would forever change people’sthinking about the universe?

During the time of Copernicus, Europeanideas about the universe had come from theteachings of ancient Greeks—teachings thathad been formulated nearly 1,400 yearsearlier. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy hadtaught that the earth stood still at the centerof the universe and that all other spheresrevolved around it. The Catholic Churchreinforced this view. According to theChurch, the earth, where humans lived,

Where Is the World?

Copernicus’s UniverseIn the middle of everything is the sun.For in this most beautiful temple, whowould place this lamp in another orbetter position than that from which itcan light up the whole thing at the sametime? . . . Thus indeed, as though seatedon a royal throne, the sun rules thefamily of planets revolving around it.

—Nicolaus Copernicus, in On theRevolutions of Celestial Spheres, 1543

This diagram illustrates Copernicus’s radical new view of theuniverse

was the greatest planet in God’s universe;all other planets revolved around it.

Copernicus’s studies of the movement ofplanets led him to challenge this theory. Hecame to believe that the sun, not the earth,

People in World History Activity 17 L2

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In the beginning we should remark that the world is likea globe . . . especially suitable for comprehending andconserving all things

From On the Revolutions of the HeavenlySpheres (1543) by Nicholas Copernicus

In the late 1400s and early 1500s, mostpeople believed Ptolemy’s theory of theuniverse. More than 1,000 years earlier, theGreek astronomer had concluded that theearth was the center of the universe.According to Ptolemy, the earth was sta-tionary, and all the other planets movedaround it in complicated paths, or orbits.Copernicus, however, dared to disagreewith his theory.

Born in Torún, Poland, Copernicus beganhis studies at the University of Kraków. Hisuncle was a prelate, a powerful church offi-cial. When Copernicus was 24 years old, hisuncle used his influence to have himappointed a canon, an official of the cathe-dral in Frombork, Poland. Copernicus usedthe income from this position to finance hisstudies in mathematics, astronomy, andmedicine in Italy. When he was 33 yearsold, Copernicus earned a doctorate fromthe University of Ferrara. His studies com-plete, he returned to Poland and his posi-tion as church canon.

While finishing his formal education,Copernicus became aware of serious prob-lems within the Ptolemaic theory of the uni-verse. Most significantly, Ptolemy’s theory ofthe planets’ movement in the galaxy seemed

too complicated.Looking for a wayto make sense ofthis defectivelogic, Copernicusbegan to reviewother theories ofthe universe.

After years ofcareful study,Copernicus cameto believe that the sun is stationary andlocated near the center of the universe.Further, he theorized that the earth is aplanet like all the other planets in the sky.As a result, the earth must move like theother planets. Copernicus believed theearth to be in the third planetary orbitaround the sun.

Disturbing fixed ideas about the universe was a dangerous thing.Copernicus’s theory of the universe notonly challenged Ptolmey’s theory; it alsorefuted the Church’s view of the universe.If Copernicus’s theory became known, hecould have been severely punished.Copernicus, however, was careful, and heshared his ideas only with those peoplewith whom he could trust his life.Nonetheless, news of his thesis spread rap-idly. Copernicus’s masterpiece, On TheRevolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, was published right before his death in 1543.For his achievements, Copernicus is consid-ered the founder of modern astronomy.

Nicholas Copernicus (1473–1543)

People in WoWorld History: Activity 17 Profile 1

REVIEWING THE PROFILE

Directions: Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.

1. What was Ptolemy’s theory of the universe?

2. How was Copernicus’s theory of the universe different from Ptolemy’s theory?

Critical Thinking SkillsActivity 17 L2

Copyright ©

by The M

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ompanies, Inc.

Name Date Class

Critical Thinking Skills Activity 17 Identifying Central Issues

You can better remember informationpresented in a reading by identifying thecentral issues that the writer examines. Thecentral issues are the main points or ideasthe writer presents and supports withdetails. Turn to the chapter themes listed on

the opening page of Chapter 17 of yourtextbook. These themes suggest the centralissues of Chapter 17: the immediate impactand long-term effects of the scientificrevolution.

1. What human right is the central issue of the first paragraph?

2. What question does Rousseau attempt to answer in the second paragraph?

3. What advice does Rousseau give to the those who are under the “yoke of restraint”?

4. Read the cover story in a weekly newsmagazine. On a separate sheet of paper, identifythe central issues in the story. If you have difficulty, review the story’s beginning.Journalists usually introduce the central issues in the first one or two paragraphs, knownas the “lead.”

DIRECTIONS: Read the following excerpt from Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Treatise on the SocialCompact: or, the Principles of Political Law. Then answer the questions that follow.

Man is born free, and yet is universally enslaved. At the same time anindividual frequently conceives himself to be the lord and master over

others, though only more eminently deprived of liberty. Whence can thischange arise? Are there any means by which it may be rendered lawful? Theformer question I cannot answer, though I imagine myself capable of resolv-ing the latter.

If I took into consideration only the existence and effects of power, Ishould say, So long as a people are compelled to obey, they do well to beobedient; but, as soon as they are in a capacity to resist, they do better tothrow off the yoke of restraint: for, in recovering their liberty on the sameplea by which they lost it, either they have a just right to reassume it, orthose could have none who deprive them of it. But there is an inviolableright founded on the very nature of society, which serves as the basis of allothers. Man doth not derive this right, however, immediately from nature; itis founded on mutual convention.

Standardized Test PracticeWorkbook Activity 17 L2

Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

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ompanies, Inc.

Standardized Test Practice

Name __________________________________ Date ____________________ Class ____________

Reading Objective 4: The student will perceive relationships and recognize outcomes in a variety of writtentexts.Reading Objective 5: The student will analyze information in a variety of written texts in order to makeinferences and generalizations.

An educated guess, or hypothesis, is based on evidence that a person has about a situation, aproblem, or a puzzle. Forming a hypothesis is a step in the scientific method. To prove or disprove ahypothesis, you must organize and analyze data and draw conclusions that are relevant to the situation.

★ Practicing the SkillRead the selection below and complete the activity that follows.

★ Learning to Make and Test HypothesesUse the following guidelines to help you in perceiving cause and effect relationships:

• Observe and ask a detailed question aboutyour observation. Ask questions such as why,how, where, when, who, which, and if.

• Form a hypothesis by making an educatedguess to answer the question.

• Gather and analyze data to prove or disproveyour hypothesis.

• Challenge your hypothesis by testing anddiscarding irrelevant data.

• Modify your conclusion and retest.• Interpret results and draw conclusions, giving

facts to prove or disprove it.

ACTIVITY 17Forming Hypotheses

The development of the scientificmethod swept away all theinaccurate and outmodedideas of earlier philosophers

and scientists. One of the firstthinkers to question ancienttraditions was the scientist GalileoGalilei. His writings challenged

long-held beliefs about theuniverse that were endorsed by the Church. In1615 Galileo stated: “I do not feel obliged tobelieve that the same God who has endowed uswith senses, reason, and intellect has intended usto forgo their use.”

Two other thinkers responsible fordeveloping the scientific method were Francis

Bacon and René Descartes. In their writings,Bacon and Descartes stated that truth must bereached through reason. Bacon claimed that ideasbased solely on tradition or unproven facts shouldbe discarded completely. Descartes began hissearch for knowledge by doubting everythingexcept his own existence. He believed that he hadfound one self-evident truth in the statement, “Ithink, therefore I am.” Isaac Newton used thescientific method as he studied mathematics andscience. He said, “Asking the correct question ishalf the problem. Once the question is formulatedthere remains to be found only proof. . . .” Theapplication of the scientific method tounderstanding the world was probably the mostimportant discovery in the 1600s.

The Scientific Method

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Column A

1. believed the universe was heliocentric

2. long considered the greatest genius of the ScientificRevolution

3. created the scientific method

4. argued that every person was born with a tabula rasa, orblank mind

5. well known for his criticism of Christianity and his strongbelief in religious toleration

6. believed members of a society should be forced to follow asocial contract

7. composer of the Messiah

8. made Great Britain the world’s greatest colonial power

9. first country to grant diplomatic recognition to the newAmerican state

10. created a federal system in which power would be sharedbetween the national government and the state governments

DIRECTIONS: Multiple Choice Choose the item that best completes each sentence or answers each question. Write the letter of the item in the blank to the left of thesentence. (4 points each)

11. According to the Ptolemaic system, A. the Sun is the center of the universe, and the Earth and stars revolve around it.B. the Earth revolves around the Moon, and the Moon revolves around the Sun.C. the universe is a series of concentric spheres with Earth fixed at the center.D. the Sun, Earth, and Moon all revolve around Heaven.

12. Galileo’s observations seemed to indicate thatA. Copernicus and Kepler were wrong in their beliefs about the nature of the

universe.B. the Catholic Church’s beliefs about the heavens were correct.C. Ptolemy was correct about the way the planets were arranged.D. the heavenly bodies were composed of material substance just like Earth, not

pure orbs of light.


Score✔ ScoreChapter 17 Test, Form B

Column B

A. France

B. Voltaire

C. NicholasCopernicus

D. George FrederickHandel

E. Jean-JacquesRousseau

F. Francis Bacon

G. Constitution ofthe United Statesof America

H. Treaty of Paris in 1763

I. Isaac Newton

J. John Locke


508C


Blackline Master

Poster

DVD

Videocassette

CD-ROM

Audio Program

*Also Available in Spanish

Daily Objectives Reproducible Resources Multimedia Resources

SECTION RESOURCES

SECTION 1The Scientific Revolution1. Discuss how the Scientific

Revolution gave Europeans a newway to view humankind’s place inthe universe.

Reproducible Lesson Plan 17–1Daily Lecture and Discussion Notes 17–1Guided Reading Activity 17–1*Section Quiz 17–1*Reading Essentials and Study Guide 17–1*

Daily Focus Skills Transparency 17–1Interactive Tutor Self-Assessment CD-ROMExamView® Pro Testmaker CD-ROM*Presentation Plus! CD-ROM

SECTION 3The Impact of the Enlightenment1. Discuss how Enlightenment beliefs

were reflected in the art, music, andliterature of the time.

2. Summarize how Enlightenmentthought influenced the politics ofEurope in the eighteenth century.



SECTION 4Colonial Empires and the American Revolution1. Explain how the colonies of Latin

America and British North Americawere developing in ways that dif-fered from their European mothercountries.

2. Analyze why the American coloniesrevolted against Great Britain andformed a new nation.

Reproducible Lesson Plan 17–4Daily Lecture and Discussion Notes 17–4Guided Reading Activity 17–4*Section Quiz 17–4*Reteaching Activity 17*Reading Essentials and Study Guide 17–4*


SECTION 2The Enlightenment1. Describe how eighteenth-century

intellectuals used the ideas of theScientific Revolution to reexamine allaspects of life.

2. Relate how people gathered insalons to discuss the ideas of thephilosophes.



Assign the Chapter 17 Reading Essentials and Study Guide.

Transparency

Music Program


508D


Teacher’s Corner

The following articles relate to this chapter:

• “The Hubble Telescope,” by William R. Newcott, April 1997.• “Sir Joseph Banks,” by T.H. Watkins, November 1996.• “Information Revolution,” by Joel L. Swerdlow, October

1995.• “Humboldt’s Way,” by Loren McIntyre, September 1985.• “Two Revolutions,” by Charles McCarry, July 1989.• “Yorktown Shipwreck,” by John D. Broadwater, June 1988.• “James Madison, Architect of the Constitution,” by Alice J.

Hall, September 1987.

INDEX TONATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY PRODUCTS

To order the following, call National Geographic at 1-800-368-2728:

• PictureShow: Story of America’s Library (CD-ROM)

Access National Geographic’s new dynamic MapMachineWeb site and other geography resources at:www.nationalgeographic.comwww.nationalgeographic.com/maps

KEY TO ABILITY LEVELS

Teaching strategies have been coded.

L1 BASIC activities for all studentsL2 AVERAGE activities for average to above-average

studentsL3 CHALLENGING activities for above-average students

ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNER activitiesELL

Susan TuftsRockville High SchoolVernon, Connecticut

Parisian SalonsDiscuss with students the role of salons during the

Age of Enlightenment. Then explain that Madame deGeoffrin, a noted salonnière and patron, has invited agroup of major philosophes, artists, writers, andmusicians to her salon at the Hôtel de Rambouillet.

Have each student choose an Enlightenment figure to research and then portray at the salon.Although there were a number of well-knownwomen in the Enlightenment era, such as MaryWollstonecraft and Madame de Pompadour, girlsmay play the parts of men, if they wish. As teacher,you should also portray a character so that you canfacilitate the conversation when necessary. Studentsshould focus on the setting of the salon, groupdynamics, and the ideas that would have beenexchanged.

After the salon simulation, have students discusswhat impact the free flow of ideas had on Europeand what effect those ideas have on the world today.

From the Classroom of…

WORLD HISTORY

Use our Web site for additional resources. All essential content iscovered in the Student Edition.

You and your students can visit , theWeb site companion to Glencoe World History. This innovativeintegration of electronic and print media offers your students awealth of opportunities. The student text directs students to theWeb site for the following options:

• Chapter Overviews • Self-Check Quizzes

• Student Web Activities • Textbook Updates

Answers to the Student Web Activities are provided for you in theWeb Activity Lesson Plans. Additional Web resources andInteractive Tutor Puzzles are also available.

www.wh.glencoe.com

MEETING SPECIAL NEEDSMEETING SPECIAL NEEDSIn addition to the Differentiated Instruction strategies found ineach section, the following resources are also suitable foryour special needs students:

• ExamView® Pro Testmaker CD-ROM allows teachers totailor tests by reducing answer choices.

• The Audio Program includes the entire narrative of thestudent edition so that less-proficient readers can listen tothe words as they read them.

• The Reading Essentials and Study Guide provides thesame content as the student edition but is written twograde levels below the textbook.


http://wh.glencoe.com

http://www.nationalgeographic.com

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/maps

508

The Impact TodayPoint out to students that scientists con-tinually advance knowledge throughexperimentation in many areas. Manynew findings and discoveries have far-ranging implications for science and forsociety. Ask students to generate lists of scientific breakthroughs that haveoccurred during the past five years. Alsoask them to speculate on potential dis-coveries and innovations.

508

Revolution andEnlightenment

1550–1800

Key EventsAs you read this chapter, look for the key events in the history of the Scientific

Revolution and the Enlightenment.• The ideas of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment laid the foundation for

a modern worldview based on rationalism and secularism.• Enlightenment thought led some rulers to advocate such natural rights as equality

before the law and freedom of religion.• The American colonies formed a new nation and ratified the Constitution of the

United States.

The Impact TodayThe events that occurred during this time period still impact our lives today.

• Scientists use research techniques that are based on the scientific method.• The intellectuals of the Enlightenment advocated the rights of the individual, paving

the way for the rise of democracy.• Montesquieu’s idea of separation of powers strongly influenced the writing of the

Constitution of the United States.

World History Video The Chapter 17 video, “New Scientific Thinking,” chronicles the origins of the Scientific Revolution in Europe and its impact on scientific thinking worldwide.

1550 1575 1600 1625 1650 1675

1543Nicholas Copernicuspresents a new viewof the universe

1620Francis Baconpublishes theNovum Organum

1633The ChurchcondemnsGalileo’steachings

1687Isaac Newtonpublishes thePrincipia

1666Royal Academy ofScience foundedin France

Francis Bacon

Engraving of Copernican system, 1661

IntroducingChapter 17IntroducingChapter 17

Refer to Activity 17 in thePerformance AssessmentActivities and Rubrics booklet.

PerformanceAssessment

The World HistoryVideo ProgramTo learn more about the ScientificRevolution, students can view theChapter 17 video, “New ScientificThinking,” from The World HistoryVideo Program.

MindJogger VideoquizUse the MindJogger Videoquiz topreview Chapter 17 content.

Available in VHS.

STUDENT EDITIONSUNSHINE STATE STANDARDS

PURPOSE FOR READING

Read and Say Something Have students read the selection “Galileo on Trial” on page 510. Havethem turn to a partner and discuss the passage. Students should focus on their reactions to ideas,descriptions, images, and confusing information found in the reading. Ask them to write down themain points of their discussion. Solicit information from the entire class about what each pair dis-cussed. Tell students they will be studying Galileo and the revolutions in science in this chapter. L1

Refer to Inclusion for the High School Social Studies Classroom Strategies and Activitiesin the TCR.

0508-0543 C17 TE-860703 3/11/04 1:27 PM 08

Dinah Zike’s Foldables are three-dimensional, interactive graphicorganizers that help students practice basic writing skills, reviewkey vocabulary terms, and identifymain ideas. Have students completethe foldable activity in the DinahZike’s Reading and Study Skills Foldables booklet.

1700 1725 1750 1775 1800 1825

1751Diderot becomeseditor of theEncyclopedia

1763The SevenYears’ Warends

1788The Constitution of theUnited States is ratifiedby nine states

1759James Wolfe diesin battle outsideQuebec, Canada

1776American coloniesdeclare indepen-dence from Britain

1792Mary Wollstonecraftpublishes A Vindicationof the Rights of Women

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

and click on Chapter 17–ChapterOverview to preview chapter information.

wh.glencoe.com

Louis XIV at the French Royal Academy of Sciences

Denis Diderot

British general,James Wolfe

509

509

IntroducingChapter 17IntroducingChapter 17

The Academy of Science Louis XIV became king of France in 1643 at age four. He was anabsolute monarch who called himself the Sun King because he believed he was a source of lightto all his people. He supported building campaigns and the arts, including the founding of theRoyal Academy of Science in 1666. The academy was built so that a group of French scientistswho had been meeting informally for several years could hold regular meetings. Construction ofthe academy’s observatory began in 1667. Today, the academy building in Paris is headquarters of the International Time Bureau, which sets standard time for the world’s observatories.

MORE ABOUT THE ART

Chapter ObjectivesAfter studying this chapter, students should be able to:1. describe the impact of

scientific advances;2. identify and describe condi-

tions that led to the Enlight-enment;

3. explain new philosophies andthe social changes that aroseduring the Enlightenment;

4. describe the causes of the Warof the Austrian Successionand the Seven Years’ War;

5. explain the reasons for Euro-pean exploration;

6. describe the impact of colo-nization;

7. explain the roots of revo-lution.

Time Line Activity

As students read the chapter, havethem review the time line on pages508 to 509. Ask them to explain thesignificance of 1633. (The CatholicChurch condemned Galileo’s ideasbecause he challenged the belief thatthe universe was geocentric.) L1

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewIntroduce students to chaptercontent and key terms by havingthem access Chapter Overview17 at .wh.glencoe.com

0508-0543 C17 TE-860703 3/11/04 1:28 PM Page 509



510

510

Galileo on Trialhe Italian scientist Galileo found himself in troublewith the authorities of the Catholic Church. Galileo

believed in a new worldview. He explained to a friend, “Ihold the Sun to be situated motionless in the center of therevolution of the celestial bodies, while . . . Earth rotates onits axis and revolves about the Sun.” Moreover, “nothingphysical that sense-experience puts before our eyes . . . oughtto be called in question (much less condemned) upon the tes-timony of passages from the Bible.”

The Catholic Church had a different view. In 1632, Galileo,68 years old and in ill health, was called before the dreadedInquisition in Rome. He was kept waiting for two monthsbefore he was tried and found guilty of heresy and disobedi-ence. The report of the Inquisition said: “The view that theSun stands motionless at the center of the universe is foolish,philosophically false, and utterly heretical, because contraryto Holy Scripture.”

Completely shattered by the experience, Galileo recanted in 1633: “With a sincere heart I curse and detest the saiderrors contrary to the Holy Church, and I swear that I willnevermore in future say or assert anything that may give riseto a similar suspicion of me.” Legend holds that when he leftthe trial room, Galileo muttered to himself, “And yet it [Earth]does move!”

T

Galileo sitsbefore theInquisition in Rome.

Why It MattersGalileo was one of the scientists ofthe seventeenth century who set theWestern world on a new path. Thatpath, known as the Scientific Revo-lution, developed a new way ofviewing the universe.

In the eighteenth century, a groupof intellectuals used the ideas of theScientific Revolution to reexamineall aspects of life and began whatcame to be called the Age ofEnlightenment. The ideas of theEnlightenment helped foster theAmerican and French Revolutions.

History and You The philoso-pher Adam Smith used Enlighten-ment ideas to identify economiclaws. Read the front page, businesssection, and classifieds of a newspa-per. Create a poster with articlesand advertisements reflectingSmith’s economic principles.

TEACHIntroducing A Story That MattersDepending on the ability levelsof your students, select from thefollowing questions to reinforcethe reading of A Story ThatMatters.• Have students debate the

choice between self-respectand self-preservation thatGalileo was forced to makeby leaders of the CatholicChurch. What do studentsbelieve they would havedone in Galileo’s situation?(Answers will vary.)

• Have students identify reli-gious and ethical conflictsthat scientific advancementshave created in recent years.(Answers will vary.) L2

About the ArtAsk students to look at theimage on this page. Have stu-dents locate Galileo in the paint-ing. In a class discussion, havestudents describe how Galileomay have felt. Ask students tointerpret what is happening inthe foreground. Have studentsdecide if the artist was recordingthe event or interpreting theevent.

HISTORY AND YOUGalileo’s theories caused people to question the nature of the universe and challenged the views of the CatholicChurch. At the time he proposed his ideas, most people believed that Earth was at the center of the universe, andthe moon and stars consisted of pure, unblemished, heavenly materials. It is popular to say that Galileo versusthe Church is a case of science versus religion. In reality, the Church had paved the way for Galileo. Scholasticismand Thomas Aquinas insisted on the rationality of creation. Jesuit astronomers confirmed many of Galileo’s dis-coveries. Some historians believe that Galileo angered the Church by insisting that the Church’s interpretation of Scripture was wrong, not by insisting that his scientific theories were correct. By challenging accepted views,Galileo threatened the authority of the Church and laid the groundwork for rebellion. His beliefs formed thebeginning of secular, rational thought—the hallmark of the Enlightenment.

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511

1543Vesalius publishes On theFabric of the Human Body

1610Galileo’s discoveriesare published

Preview of Events

1637Descartes publishes Discourse on Method

1632Galileo facesthe Inquisition

✦1545 ✦1560 ✦1575 ✦1590 ✦1605 ✦1620 ✦1635

The Scientific Revolution

In 1610, Galileo described what he had observed with his newly devised telescope:

“Now let us review the observations made during the past two months. . . . Let usspeak first of that surface of the Moon which faces us. For greater clarity I distinguishtwo parts of this surface, a lighter and a darker. . . . [T]he darker part makes the Moonappear covered with spots. . . . From observation of these spots . . . I have been led tothe opinion and conviction that the surface of the Moon is not smooth, uniform, andprecisely spherical as a great number of philosophers believe it and the other heavenlybodies to be, but is uneven, rough, and full of cavities, not unlike the face of . . . Earth,relieved by chains of mountains and deep valleys.”

—Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo, Stillman Drake, ed., 1957

Galileo’s observations helped to create a new view of the universe in the seven-teenth century.

Background to the RevolutionIn the Middle Ages, many educated Europeans took an intense interest in the

world around them. However, these “natural philosophers,” as medieval scien-tists were known, did not make observations of the natural world. These scientistsrelied on a few ancient authorities—especially Aristotle—for their scientificknowledge. A number of changes in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries caused

Voices from the Past

CHAPTER 17 Revolution and Enlightenment 511

Copernicus

Kepler

Galileo

Newton

Guide to ReadingMain Idea• The Scientific Revolution gave

Europeans a new way to viewhumankind’s place in the universe.

Key Termsgeocentric, Ptolemaic system, heliocentric,universal law of gravitation, rationalism,scientific method, inductive reasoning

People to IdentifyPtolemy, Nicholas Copernicus, GalileoGalilei, Isaac Newton, Robert Boyle, Margaret Cavendish, Maria Winkelmann,René Descartes, Francis Bacon

Places to LocatePoland, Padua

Preview Questions1. How did the Scientific Revolution begin?2. What is the scientific method?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Use a tablelike the one below to chart the contribu-tions of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, andNewton to a new concept of the universe.

1628Harvey publishes On theMotion of the Heart and Blood

Chapter 17Section 1, 511–517


Project transparency and havestudents answer questions.

DAILY FOCUS SKILLSTRANSPARENCY 17-1

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ANSWERS1. observation 2. change it, discard it, or let it stand as is3. an unproved theory


UNIT

3Chapter 17

What is the first step in thescientific process?

What are the possibilitiesfollowing testing of a hypothesis?

What is a hypothesis?1 2 3

Observation

FormulateHypothesis

ChangeHypothesis,Discard It,or Let It Stand As Is

Test theHypothesis

�

� � �

�

1

23

4

B E L L R I N G E RSkillbuilder Activity

Daily Focus Skills Transparency 17–1

SECTION RESOURCESSECTION RESOURCES

Reproducible Masters• Reproducible Lesson Plan 17—1• Daily Lecture and Discussion Notes 17—1• Guided Reading Activity 17—1• Section Quiz 17—1• Reading Essentials and Study Guide 17—1

Transparencies• Daily Focus Skills Transparency 17—1

MultimediaInteractive Tutor Self-Assessment CD-ROMExamView® Pro Testmaker CD-ROMPresentation Plus! CD-ROM

1 FOCUSSection OverviewThis section explores how theScientific Revolution changedhumankind’s view of the universe.


1

Guide to Reading

Answers to Graphic:Copernicus:Solar system is sun-centered; Kepler:Planets move around Sun in ellipses;Galileo: Heavenly bodies are com-posed of material substance, likeEarth; Newton: Three laws of motiongovern planetary bodies as well asobjects on Earth.

Preteaching VocabularyExplain rationalism. (Rationalism is asystem of thought initiated by Frenchphilosopher René Descartes thatclaims reason is the chief source ofknowledge.) L2

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512

2 TEACH

512 CHAPTER 17 Revolution and Enlightenment

EarthMoon

MercuryVenus

Sun

Mars

Jupiter

Saturn

Fixed StarsPrime Mover

Ptolemaic Universe

the natural philosophers to abandon their old viewsand develop new ones.

Renaissance humanists had mastered Greek aswell as Latin and thus had access to newly discoveredworks by Ptolemy (TAH•luh•mee), Archimedes, andPlato. These writings made it obvious that someancient thinkers had disagreed with Aristotle andother accepted authorities of the Middle Ages.

Other developments also encouraged new ways ofthinking. Technical problems that required carefulobservation and accurate measurements, such as cal-culating the amount of weight that ships could hold,served to stimulate scientific activity. Then, too, theinvention of new instruments, such as the telescopeand microscope, made fresh scientific discoveriespossible. Above all, the printing press helped spreadnew ideas quickly and easily.

Mathematics played a very important role in thescientific achievements of the sixteenth and seven-teenth centuries. The study of mathematics was pro-moted in the Renaissance by the rediscovery of theworks of ancient mathematicians. Nicholas Coper-nicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Isaac

Newton were all great mathematicians whobelieved that the secrets of nature were written inthe language of mathematics. After studying and,sometimes, discarding the ideas of the ancientmathematicians, these intellectuals developed newtheories that became the foundation of the ScientificRevolution.

Evaluating What changes in the fif-teenth and sixteenth centuries helped the natural philosophersdevelop new views?

A Revolution in AstronomyEspecially significant in the Scientific Revolution

were discoveries in astronomy. These discoverieswould overturn the conception of the universe heldby Westerners in the Middle Ages.

The Ptolemaic System Ptolemy, who lived in thesecond century A.D., was the greatest astronomer ofantiquity. Using his ideas, as well as those of Aristotleand of Christianity, the philosophers of the Middle

Reading Check

These astronomers, Ptolemy (left) and Copernicus (shown onpage 513), were separated in time by approximately 1,400 years.Both men had a major impact on the way people viewed theirplace in the universe. What elements in the two illustrationshelp to convey to the viewer the importance of the two menand their scientific discoveries?

History



Daily Lecture and Discussion Notes 17–1

I. Background to the Revolution (pages 511–512)

A Medieval scientists known as “natural philosophers ” did not make observations of

Daily Lecture and Discussion Notes

Chapter 17, Section 1

Did You Know? Upon entering the University of Pisa in 1581,Galileo Galilei intended to study medicine; almost immediately,however, he began to focus on mathematics and philosophy.Although he left the school in 1585 without having obtained adegree, his unconventional academic past did not stop Galileo frombecoming the chair of mathematics at the university four years later.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Answer: Humanists made availablenew works of Ptolemy, Archimedes,and Plato; invention of new instru-ments allowed accurate measure-ments; printing press spread ideas.

Answer: Both are dressed in richclothing and hold models of the universe.

History

EXTENDING THE CONTENTEXTENDING THE CONTENTEXTENDING THE CONTENTCopernicus The writings of Nicholas Copernicus are said to have triggered what is now knownas the Copernican Revolution. However, there are several ironies associated with Copernicus.While he is credited with starting his eponymous revolution, he himself missed it. His theorieswere published shortly before he died, and his book was largely ignored until the next century.Furthermore, he thought that he would best be remembered for his theory of circularity, which isthat the planets rotate in near-perfect circles. This theory was later proven incorrect. Nor was hethe first person to suggest that Earth revolves around the Sun. That honor goes to Aristarchus, an ancient philosopher. Given these facts, why is Copernicus considered an important scientist?

Microscope and TelescopeTwo new instruments, the microscopeand the telescope, made many of thediscoveries of the Scientific Revolutionpossible. Since the 1600s, manyimprovements have been made inboth. Have students research andreport to the class on new types ofmicroscopes developed in the twenti-eth century, including the electronmicroscope and the scanning tunnel-ing microscope. You could also havestudents report on twentieth-centurytelescopes, such as camera telescopesand radio telescopes. L2

Who?What?Where?When?

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213

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513

513CHAPTER 17 Revolution and Enlightenment

Ages had constructed a model of the universe knownlater as the Ptolemaic (TAH•luh•MAY•ik) system.This system is called geocentric because it placesEarth at the center of the universe.

In the Ptolemaic system, the universe is a series ofconcentric spheres—spheres one inside the other.Earth is fixed, or motionless, at the center of thesespheres. The spheres are made of a crystal-like, trans-parent substance, in which the heavenly bodies—pure orbs of light—are embedded. For example, theMoon is embedded in the first sphere, Mercury in thesecond, Venus in the third, and the Sun in the fourth.The rotation of the spheres makes these heavenlybodies rotate about the earth and move in relation toone another.

The tenth sphere in the Ptolemaic system was the“prime mover,” which moved itself and gave motionto the other spheres. Beyond the tenth sphere wasHeaven, where God and all the saved souls resided.God was at one end of the universe, then, andhumans were at the center. Humans had been givenpower over the earth, but their real purpose was toachieve salvation.

SunMercury

VenusEarth

Moon

Mars

JupiterSaturn

Fixed Stars

Copernican Universe

Copernicus and Kepler In May 1543, NicholasCopernicus, a native of Poland, published hisfamous book, On the Revolutions of the HeavenlySpheres. Copernicus, a mathematician, felt that thegeocentric system was too complicated. He believedthat his heliocentric, or sun-centered, conception ofthe universe offered a more accurate explanationthan did the Ptolemaic system.

Copernicus argued that the Sun, not Earth, was atthe center of the universe. The planets revolvedaround the Sun. The Moon, however, revolvedaround Earth. Moreover, according to Copernicus,the apparent movement of the Sun around Earth wasreally caused by the daily rotation of Earth on its axisand the journey of Earth around the Sun each year.

The next step in destroying the Ptolemaic systemwas taken by the German mathematician JohannesKepler. Kepler used detailed astronomical data toarrive at his laws of planetary motion. His observa-tions confirmed that the Sun was at the center of theuniverse and also added new information. In his firstlaw, Kepler showed that the orbits of the planetsaround the Sun were not circular, as Copernicus

Compare the illustrations of two different models of the universe on the previous page and this page, then answer the questions below.

1. Compare and Contrast Identify as many spe-cific similarities and differences as you can find in the two models.

2. Explaining Explain the changes in the way peopleviewed the universe that resulted from the discov-eries of Copernicus.



EnrichHave students evaluate thisstatement: “The Scientific Revo-lution largely resulted from thework of a handful of great intel-lectuals.” Divide the class intogroups and ask each group toevaluate the following alter-native statement: “Changes inEuropean civilization encour-aged the development of newideas that became the basis forthe Scientific Revolution.” Thequestion is, did the people makethe times or did the times makethe people? L3

Answers:1. Ptolemaic model: Earth at the cen-

ter, with Moon, planets, Sun, moreplanets, fixed stars, and “primemover” rotating around it; Coper-nican model: Sun at center, withplanets revolving around it andfixed stars beyond, Moon revolvesaround Earth, no “prime mover”

2. The Sun, not Earth, was now seenas the center of the universe.Many people, including popes,considered this heretical since itseemed to contradict the Bible. Inthe Ptolemaic universe, the “primemover” (God) had a place; heavenwas beyond the planets and stars.In the Copernican universe, therewas seemingly no room for God or heaven. The Copernican modelalso introduced the notion thatcertain parts of the Bible might notbe the literal truth.

EXTENDING THE CONTENTCreating a Dramatic Presentation Organize the class into four groups. Have the members ofthree groups prepare five scenes each from Bertolt Brecht’s The Life of Galileo to read dramaticallyto the class. Have the members of the fourth group make an intensive study of the facts ofGalileo’s life. After the three groups have completed their classroom reading of the entire play,have members of the fourth group participate in a panel discussion comparing Brecht’s dramatictreatment of characters and events with their actual historical models. L3

For grading this activity, refer to the Performance Assessment Activities booklet.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING ACTIVITYCOOPERATIVE LEARNING ACTIVITY

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had thought. Rather, the orbits were elliptical (egg-shaped), with the Sun toward the end of theellipse instead of at the center. This finding, known as Kepler’s First Law, contradicted the circular orbits and crystal-like spheres that were central to the Ptole-maic system.

Galileo Scientists could now think in terms of plan-ets revolving around the Sun in elliptical orbits.Important questions remained unanswered, how-ever. What are the planets made of? How does oneexplain motion in the universe? An Italian scientistanswered the first question.

Galileo Galilei taught mathematics. He was thefirst European to make regular observations of theheavens using a telescope. With this tool, Galileomade a remarkable series of discoveries: mountainson the Moon, four moons revolving around Jupiter,and sunspots.

Galileo’s observations seemed to destroy yetanother aspect of the Ptolemaic conception. Heav-enly bodies had been seen as pure orbs of light.Instead, it appeared that they were composed ofmaterial substance, just as Earth was.

Galileo’s discoveries, published in The Starry Mes-senger in 1610, did more to make Europeans aware ofthe new view of the universe than did the works ofCopernicus and Kepler. In the midst of his newfoundfame, however, Galileo found himself under suspi-cion by the authorities of the Catholic Church.

The Church ordered Galileo to abandon theCopernican idea. The Copernican system threatenedthe Church’s entire conception of the universe andseemed to contradict the Bible. In the Copernicanview, the heavens were no longer a spiritual worldbut a world of matter. Humans were no longer at thecenter of the universe, and God was no longer in aspecific place.

In spite of the Church’s position, by the 1630s and1640s, most astronomers had come to accept theheliocentric conception of the universe. However, theproblem of explaining motion in the universe had notbeen solved, and the ideas of Copernicus, Kepler, andGalileo had yet to be tied together. This would bedone by an Englishman who has long been consid-ered the greatest genius of the Scientific Revolution.

Newton Born in 1642, Isaac Newton showed fewsigns of brilliance until he attended Cambridge Uni-versity. Later, he became a professor of mathematicsat the university and wrote his major work, Mathe-matical Principles of Natural Philosophy. This work isknown simply as the Principia, by the first word of itsLatin title.

In the first book of the Principia, Newton definedthe three laws of motion that govern the planetarybodies, as well as objects on Earth. Crucial to his wholeargument was the universal law of gravitation. Thislaw explains why the planetary bodies do not go off instraight lines but instead continue in elliptical orbitsabout the Sun. The law states, in mathematical terms,that every object in the universe is attracted to everyother object by a force called gravity.


Isaac Newton analyzing light rays

Galileo displays his drawings to the clergy.



Science Ask students to relate thefollowing factors to the ScientificRevolution in the sixteenth and sev-enteenth centuries during a classdiscussion: the telescope, Latin as a European intellectual language,the movable type printing press, and the rediscovery of mathematics.Which do students believe weremost important? Which were leastimportant? Are there other impor-tant factors they would include? L2

EXTENDING THE CONTENTEXTENDING THE CONTENTEXTENDING THE CONTENTGalileo traveled to Rome in 1615 to ask Pope Paul V if he could teach the ideas of Copernicus. The pope said no. To circumvent the pope’s ruling, Galileo wrote a book in which two laymen dis-cussed the world views of Copernicus and Aristotle. Galileo took no position but spoke through hischaracters. The adherent of Aristotle was a fool, while the believer in Copernicus was a wise man.Galileo even took writings from the new pope, Urban VIII, and had them spoken by the fool. Thenew pope felt that Galileo had mocked him and broken his word. In 1992, Pope John Paul IIadmitted that the Catholic Church erred in persecuting Galileo. Have students discuss the possiblereasons the Catholic Church admitted its error and why it took nearly four centuries to do so.

Guided Reading Activity 17–1

Name Date Class


DIRECTIONS: Answer the following questions as you read Section 1.

1. What did the writings of Ptolemy and Archimedes make obvious?

2. What new invention helped to spread new scientific ideas quickly and easily?

3. Where is Earth placed in the universe according to the Ptolemaic system?

4. Contrary to Ptolemy, what did Copernicus argue concerning the construction of the

universe?

Guided Reading Activity 17-1

Turning Points in World HistoryThe ABC News videotapeincludes a segment on theScientific Revolution.

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Answer: Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo,Newton

Answer: By dissecting humansrather than animals, Vesalius wasable to present a careful and accu-rate view of the individual organsand general structure of the humanbody, which enabled him to over-throw some of Galens’s most glaringerrors. Harvey showed that the heart,not the liver, was the beginning pointfor the circulation of blood in thebody and proved that the sameblood flows in veins and arteries andmakes a complete circuit as it passesthrough the body.

Critical ThinkingWhy was Newton’s thinkingimportant in the Scientific Revo-lution? (Newton’s work suggestedthat precise mathematical formulascould be used to describe an orderlyuniverse. This idea greatly influ-enced the thinking of his time andall later scientific thought.) L2

A science of chemistry also arose in the seven-teenth and eighteenth centuries. Robert Boyle wasone of the first scientists to conduct controlled

experiments. His pioneering work on the properties of gases led to Boyle’s Law.This generalization states that the vol-ume of a gas varies with the pressureexerted on it. In the eighteenth century,

Antoine Lavoisier invented asystem of naming the chemicalelements, much of which is stillused today. He is regarded bymany as the founder of modernchemistry.

DescribingHow did Vesalius and Harvey disprovemany of Galen’s theories?

Women and the Origins of Modern Science

Women as well as men were involved in the Scientific Revolution.One of the most promi-nent female scientists ofthe seventeenth century,Margaret Cavendish,came from an aristocraticfamily. She wrote a num-ber of works on scientificmatters, including Obser-vations Upon ExperimentalPhilosophy.

In her work, Cavendish was especially critical ofthe growing belief that humans, through science,were the masters of nature: “We have no power at allover natural causes and effects . . . for man is but asmall part, his powers are but par-ticular actions of Nature, and hecannot have a supreme andabsolute power.”

In Germany, many of thewomen who were involved inscience were astronomers.These women had receivedthe opportunity to becomeastronomers from working infamily observatories, wherethey had been trained by their

Reading Check

Newton had shown that one universal law, math-ematically proved, could explain all motion in theuniverse. At the same time, Newton’s ideas created anew picture of the universe. It was now seen as onehuge, regulated, uniform machine that workedaccording to natural laws. Newton’s world-machineconcept dominated the modern worldview until thetwentieth century, when Albert Einstein’s concept ofrelativity created a new picture of the universe.

Identifying Name the fourgreat mathematicians who had a profound impact onastronomy.

Breakthroughs in Medicine and Chemistry

A revolution in medicine alsobegan in the sixteenth century.Medicine in the Late MiddleAges was dominated by theteachings of the Greek physicianGalen, who had lived in the sec-ond century A.D. Galen hadrelied on animal, rather thanhuman, dissection to arrive at apicture of human anatomy, andhe was wrong in many instances.

The new anatomy of the six-teenth century was based on thework of Andreas Vesalius. In his1543 book, On the Fabric of theHuman Body, Vesalius discussedwhat he had found when dis-secting human bodies while hewas a professor of surgery at theUniversity of Padua.

Vesalius presented a careful and accurate exami-nation of the individual organs and general structureof the human body. His “hands-on” approachenabled him to overthrow some of Galen’s theories.Nevertheless, Vesalius still clung to Galen’s erro-neous idea that two kinds of blood flowed in theveins and arteries.

William Harvey’s reputation rests on his book Onthe Motion of the Heart and Blood, published in 1628.Harvey’s work was based on close observations andexperiments. Harvey showed that the heart—not theliver, as Galen had thought—was the beginning pointfor the circulation of blood in the body. He also provedthat the same blood flows in both veins and arteries.Most important, he showed that the blood makes acomplete circuit as it passes through the body.

Reading Check


Margaret Cavendish

Drawings such as this from Vesalius’s On the Fabricof the Human Body did much to revolutionizeknowledge of human anatomy and medicine.



Science Assign students to prepareillustrated posters that include threetypes of information: key contribu-tors to the Scientific Revolution,examples of their contributions at thetime, and modern machines thatmay have resulted from their work.(Example: Galileo, telescope, HubbleSpace Telescope) Display completedposters in the classroom. L1 ELL

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READING THE TEXT

Writing a Paragraph In the seventeenth century, Peter Chamberlen invented a device to moreeasily remove a child from the womb during birth. His metal forceps clamped onto a baby’s headand helped pull the child through the birth canal. He earned the title “man-midwife” (obstetrician)for this feat. Chamberlen’s son formed a business to sell forceps, and it became impossible toobtain a medical license in Amsterdam without paying an enormous sum to purchase this device.Have students research other medical devices used in the seventeenth century, explain how theywere distributed, choose one that they think is most important, and write a paragraph explainingwhy. L2 FCAT SC.H.3.4.2

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DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTIONDIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTIONAt-Risk Students To help students organize and remember information about people discussed inthis section, have them list the names of the people in the section. Then tell them that things areeasier to remember if they are classified. Next to each name, students should write the scientificfield in which the person was involved. Divide the class into pairs and have one student read a sci-entist’s name and another state his or her scientific field. For example: “Who was Boyle?”, “Boylewas a chemist.” After students learn the names and classifications, add one more fact about eachperson, and then quiz again. For example: “Who was Boyle?”, “Boyle was a chemist who is oftencalled the founder of modern chemistry.” L1 ELL

516

Answer: Cavendish wrote Observa-tions Upon Experimental Philosophy.She was critical of the belief thathumans were the masters of nature;for her, humans were but a smallpart of the universe. Winkelmann discovered a comet.

3 ASSESSAssign Section 1 Assessment ashomework or as an in-classactivity.

Have students use InteractiveTutor Self-Assessment CD-ROM.

fathers or husbands. Between 1650 and 1710, womenmade up 14 percent of all German astronomers.

The most famous of the female astronomers in Ger-many was Maria Winkelmann. She received trainingin astronomy from a self-taught astronomer. Herchance to be a practicing astronomer came when shemarried Gottfried Kirch, Prussia’s foremost astron-omer, and became his assistant.

Winkelmann made some original contributions toastronomy, including the discovery of a comet. Herhusband described the discovery:

“Early in the morning (about 2:00 A.M.) the skywas clear and starry. Some nights before, I hadobserved a variable star, and my wife (as I slept)wanted to find and see it for herself. In so doing, shefound a comet in the sky. At which time she wokeme, and I found that it was indeed a comet. . . . I wassurprised that I had not seen it the night before.”

When her husband died, Winkelmann applied fora position as assistant astronomer at the Berlin Acad-emy. She was highly qualified, but as a woman—

with no university degree—she was denied the post.Members of the Berlin Academy feared that theywould set a bad example by hiring a woman.“Mouths would gape,” they said.

Winkelmann’s problems with the Berlin Academyreflect the obstacles women faced in being acceptedas scientists. Such work was considered to be chieflyfor males. In the view of most people in the seven-teenth century, a life devoted to any kind of scholar-ship was at odds with the domestic duties womenwere expected to perform.

Summarizing What did MargaretCavendish and Maria Winkelmann contribute to the ScientificRevolution?

Descartes and ReasonThe new conception of the universe brought about

by the Scientific Revolution strongly influenced theWestern view of humankind. Nowhere is this moreevident than in the work of the seventeenth-centuryFrench philosopher René Descartes (day•KAHRT).Descartes began by thinking and writing about thedoubt and uncertainty that seemed to be everywherein the confusion of the seventeenth century. He endedwith a philosophy that dominated Western thoughtuntil the twentieth century.

The starting point for Descartes’s new system wasdoubt. In his most famous work, Discourse on Method,written in 1637, Descartes decided to set aside all thathe had learned and to begin again. One fact seemedto him to be beyond doubt—his own existence:

“But I immediately became aware that while I wasthus disposed to think that all was false, it wasabsolutely necessary that I who thus thought shouldbe something; and noting that this truth I think,therefore I am, was so steadfast and so assured . . . I concluded that I might without scruple accept it as being the first principle of the philosophy I wasseeking.”

Descartes emphasized the importance of his ownmind and asserted that he would accept only thosethings that his reason said were true.

From his first principle—“I think, therefore Iam”—Descartes used his reason to arrive at a secondprinciple. He argued that because “the mind cannotbe doubted but the body and material world can, thetwo must be radically different.”

From this idea came the principle of the separationof mind and matter (and of mind and body).

Reading Check

516

René Descartes is pictured here with QueenChristina of Sweden, who invited Descartes to her court. What philosophical principlesdid Descartes establish in his famous workDiscourse on Method?

History



Answer: The concept of separation ofmind and matter; reason is the chiefsource of knowledge.

History

Section Quiz 17–1


Column A

1. sun-centered model of the universe

2. egg-shaped

3. law of universal attraction

4. his observations suggested that planets had substance

5. he developed laws of planetary motion

DIRECTIONS: Multiple Choice In the blank, write the letter of the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. (10 points each)

6. The scientific method was all of the following EXCEPTA. a systematic procedure.


Score✔ ScoreChapter 17

Section Quiz 17-1

Column B

A. Galileo

B. Kepler

C. elliptical

D. gravity

E. heliocentric

Reading Essentials andStudy Guide 17–1

Reading Essentials and Study GuideChapter 17, Section 1

For use with textbook pages 511–517

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

KEY TERMS

geocentric (Earth-centered) placing Earth at the center of the universe (page 512)

Ptolemaic system a model of the universe constructed by philosophers of the Middle Ages thatwas based on the ideas of Ptolemy, a second-century astronomer (page 512)

heliocentric (sun-centered) placing the Sun at the center of the universe (page 512)

universal law of gravitation a law of nature defined by Isaac Newton that states that everyobject in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity (page 514)

rationalism a system of thought based on the belief that reason is the chief source of knowledge (page 516)

scientific method a systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence (page 516)

Name Date Class

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1. Key terms are in blue. 2. Ptolemy (p. 512); Nicholas Coper-

nicus (p. 513); Galileo Galilei (p. 514); Isaac Newton (p. 514);Cambridge University (p. 514);Robert Boyle (p. 515); MargaretCavendish (p. 515); Maria Winkel-mann (p. 516); René Descartes (p. 516); Francis Bacon (p. 517)

3. See chapter maps.

4. Ptolemaic system: Earth is the cen-ter of the universe; Copernicansystem: the Sun is the center of theuniverse.

5. Robert Boyle, Antoine Lavoisier 6. for violating church authority 7. heliocentric universe: threw doubt

on literal interpretation of Bible;laws of motion, gravitation: concept

of the universe as a machine; dis-section of humans: better medicalcare; reason over faith: rationalism;scientific method: evolution of sci-ence

8. He may be presenting his theory.Answers will vary.

9.Students will write essays.

517

Answer: It allowed scientists to viewmatter as dead or inert, somethingtotally detached from themselves thatcould be investigated independentlyby reason.

Answer: It is a systematic procedurefor collecting and analyzing evidence.Scientists should proceed from theparticular to the general. Systematicobservations and carefully organizedexperiments to test hypotheses willlead to correct general principles.

Reteaching ActivityAsk students to identify the con-tributions of significant scientistsintroduced in this section suchas Robert Boyle. L1

4 CLOSEWrite the words Before and Afteron the chalkboard. Have stu-dents take turns choosing a per-son mentioned in this sectionand describing an accepted the-ory before and after this person’swork. For example, having cho-sen Copernicus, a student woulddescribe astronomy before andafter Copernicus’s work. L2

ELL

scientists should pro-ceed from the particularto the general. System-atic observations andcarefully organizede x p e r i ments to testhypotheses (theories)would lead to correctgeneral principles.

Bacon was c learabout what he believedhis scientific method could accomplish. He statedthat “the true and lawful goal of the sciences is noneother than this: that human life be endowed withnew discoveries and power.” He was much moreconcerned with practical matters than pure science.

Bacon wanted science to benefit industry, agricul-ture, and trade. He said, “I am laboring to lay thefoundation, not of any sect or doctrine, but of humanutility and power.”

How would this “human power” be used? Baconbelieved it could be used to “conquer nature inaction.” The control and domination of naturebecame an important concern of science and the tech-nology that accompanied it.

Summarizing What are the charac-teristics of the scientific method?

Reading Check

Descartes’s idea that mind and matter were com-pletely separate allowed scientists to view matter asdead or inert—as something that was totallydetached from themselves and that could be investi-gated independently by reason.

Descartes has rightly been called the father ofmodern rationalism. This system of thought is based on the belief that reason is the chief source ofknowledge.

Explaining What is the significanceof Descartes’s principle of the separation of mind and matter?

The Scientific MethodDuring the Scientific Revolution, people became

concerned about how they could best understand the physical world. The result was the creation of ascientific method—a systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence. The scientificmethod was crucial to the evolution of science in themodern world.

The person who developed the scientific methodwas actually not a scientist. Francis Bacon, an Eng-lish philosopher with few scientific credentials,believed that instead of relying on the ideas ofancient authorities, scientists should use inductivereasoning to learn about nature. In other words,

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Define geocentric, Ptolemaic system,

heliocentric, universal law of gravita-tion, rationalism, scientific method,inductive reasoning.

2. Identify Ptolemy, Nicholas Copernicus,Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, Cam-bridge University, Robert Boyle, Mar-garet Cavendish, Maria Winkelmann,René Descartes, Francis Bacon.

3. Locate Poland, Padua.

4. Contrast the Ptolemaic system of theuniverse to the one developed byCopernicus.

5. List the pioneers of modern chemistrywho lived during the seventeenth andeighteenth centuries.

Critical Thinking6. Analyze Why did the Catholic Church

condemn the work of Galileo in theseventeenth century?

7. Identifying Information Use a dia-gram to identify examples of new ideasin the form of mathematical discover-ies, scientific discoveries, or technologi-cal innovations that appeared duringthe 1500s and 1600s. Then show in thediagram the changes produced bythese discoveries or innovations.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the painting of Galileo on

page 514. Why do you think thatGalileo is showing his drawings to theclergyman standing beside him? Whymight the other man be lookingthrough Galileo’s telescope? Based onwhat you have read in this section, doyou think these men will supportGalileo’s views? Why or why not?

New Scientific Ideas

idea idea idea idea idea

changechangechangechangechange

Scientific advances helped to produce a vaccine for smallpox.

9. Expository Writing Do someresearch and then write an essayabout either Copernicus, Galileo, orNewton. For the scientist you choose,discuss that person’s individual con-tributions to the Scientific Revolutionand how his ideas have influencedthe development of modern society.



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1702The first daily newspaperis published in London

1762Rousseau publishesThe Social Contract

1776Adam Smith publishesThe Wealth of Nations

Guide to Reading

The Enlightenment

Preview of Events

1748Baron de Montesquieu pub-lishes The Spirit of the Laws

✦1700 ✦1715 ✦1730 ✦1745 ✦1760 ✦1775 ✦1790

Main Ideas• Eighteenth-century intellectuals used the

ideas of the Scientific Revolution toreexamine all aspects of life.

• People gathered in salons to discuss theideas of the philosophes.

Key Termsphilosophe, separation of powers, deism,laissez-faire, social contract, salon

People to IdentifyJohn Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, DenisDiderot, Adam Smith, Jean-JacquesRousseau, Mary Wollstonecraft, JohnWesley

Places to LocateParis, London

Preview Questions1. What was the Enlightenment?2. What role did religion play during

the Enlightenment?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Use a dia-gram like the one below to list some ofthe main ideas introduced during theEnlightenment.


Major Ideas of the Enlightenment

1763Voltaire writes hisTreatise on Toleration

The French intellectual Voltaire attacked religious intolerance in The IgnorantPhilosopher:

“I say, there is scarce any city or borough in Europe, where blood has not beenspilled for religious quarrels; I say, that the human species has been perceptibly dimin-ished, because women and girls were massacred as well as men. I say that Europewould have a third larger population if there had been no theological disputes. In fine,I say, that so far from forgetting these abominable times, we should frequently take a view of them, to inspire an eternal horror for them. . . . It is for our age to makeamends by toleration, for this long collection of crimes, which has taken place throughthe lack of toleration during sixteen barbarous centuries.”

—From Absolutism to Revolution 1648–1848, Herbert H. Rowen, ed., 1963

Religious toleration was one of the major themes of the Enlightenment.

Path to the EnlightenmentThe Enlightenment was an eighteenth-century philosophical movement of

intellectuals who were greatly impressed with the achievements of the ScientificRevolution. One of the favorite words of these intellectuals was reason. By this,they meant the application of the scientific method to an understanding of all life.They hoped that by using the scientific method, they could make progress towarda better society than the one they had inherited. Reason, natural law, hope, progress—these were common words to the thinkers of the Enlightenment.

The Enlightenment was especially influenced by the ideas of two seventeenth-century Englishmen, Isaac Newton and John Locke. To Newton, the physical





Reproducible Masters• Reproducible Lesson Plan 17—2• Daily Lecture and Discussion Notes 17—2• Guided Reading Activity 17—2• Section Quiz 17–2• Reading Essentials and Study Guide 17—2

Transparencies• Daily Focus Skills Transparency 17—2




Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ANSWERS1. that he might have taken scientific experimentation and/ortheory to another level 2. that he built upon the work ofother scientists, and that without them, he would not havebeen able to develop his work 3. gravity

The Enlightenment

UNIT

3Chapter 17

What do you think Newtonmeant by “If I have seenfurther (than others)”?

What do you think he meantby “standing upon theshoulders of giants?”

What theory—shown by thefalling apple—did Newtonfirst state?

1 2 3

“If I have seen further (than others) it is bystanding upon the shoulders of giants.”—Sir Isaac Newton



1 FOCUSSection OverviewThis section explores how theideas of the Scientific Revolutionled to the Enlightenment andnew philosophies that pervadedall aspects of life.


1

Guide to Reading

Answers to Graphic: Major Ideas of the Enlightenment: reason, deism,religious toleration, separation ofpowers, laissez-faire, natural law,social contract, progress

Preteaching VocabularyExplain the significance of separationof powers. (The concept comes fromthe way England’s government func-tioned with three separate branchesthat limited and controlled eachother. It formed the model for thegovernment of the United States.) L2

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2 TEACH

Philosophes and Their IdeasThe intellectuals of the Enlightenment were

known by the French name philosophe (FEE•luh•ZAWF), meaning “philosopher.” Not all philosopheswere French, however, and few were philosophers inthe strict sense of the term. They were writers, pro-fessors, journalists, economists, and above all, socialreformers. They came chiefly from the nobility andthe middle class.

Most of the leaders of the Enlightenment wereFrench, but even the French would have acknowl-edged that the English had provided the philosophi-cal inspiration for the Enlightenment. It wasdefinitely these French philosophes, however, whoaffected intellectuals elsewhere and created a move-ment that influenced the entire Western world. TheEnlightenment was a truly international movement.

To the philosophes, the role of philosophy was tochange the world. One writer said that thephilosophe is one who “applies himself to the studyof society with the purpose of making his kind betterand happier.” One conducts this study by using rea-son, or an appeal to facts. A spirit of rational criticismwas to be applied to everything, including religionand politics.

world and everything in it was like a giant machine(the Newtonian world-machine). If Newton coulddiscover the natural laws that governed the physicalworld, then by using his methods, the intellectuals ofthe Enlightenment thought they could discover thenatural laws that governed human society.

John Locke’s theory of knowledge also greatlyaffected eighteenth-century intellectuals. In his EssayConcerning Human Understanding, Locke argued thatevery person was born with a tabula rasa, or blankmind:

“Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say,white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas. How comes it to be furnished? Whence has itall the materials of reason and knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, from experience. . . . Ourobservation, employed either about external sensibleobjects or about the internal operations of our mindsperceived and reflected on by ourselves, is thatwhich supplies our understanding with all thematerials of thinking.”

Locke’s ideas suggested that people were moldedby the experiences that came through their sensesfrom the surrounding world. If environments werechanged and people were exposed tothe right influences, then people couldbe changed and a new society created.

How should the environment bechanged? Using Newton’s meth-ods, people believed that theycould discover the natural lawsthat all institutions should followto produce the ideal society.

ExplainingWhat was Newton’s main contributionto Enlightenment thought?

Reading Check

Leaders of the American Revolution, such as Franklin,Adams, and Jefferson (pictured here left to right), weregreatly influenced by the ideas of John Locke (shownabove) and eighteenth-century Enlightenment thinkers.By what means or methods did Locke believe a newsociety could be created?

History




I. Path to the Enlightenment (pages 518–519)

A. The Enlightenment was an eighteenth-century philosophical movement built off theachievements of the Scientific Revolution. The Enlightenment philosophers hoped tomake a better society by applying the scientific method and reason to social problems.They talked a lot about reason, natural law, hope, and progress.

B. Enlightenment philosophers thought that society was governed by natural laws just asthe Newtonian physical universe was.

C. John Locke’s theory of knowledge greatly influenced Enlightenment thinkers. Heargued that people are born with a mind that is a tabula rasa, or blank slate, and thatknowledge comes to it through the five senses. This meant that the right influencescould create a new kind of society by creating a new way of understanding.

D. Enlightenment thinkers hoped to discover with the scientific method the laws that allinstitutions should follow to produce the ideal society.

Discussion QuestionAre methods of understanding that work in the physical world applicable to the socialworld? (Answers will vary. Accept relevant, thoughtful answers. The affirmative view empha-sizes that humans are physical beings like the rest of nature. The negative view emphasizes thatnon-human nature is ordered by causality in a way that the social world is not. The social worldemerges from freedom, reflection, and purpose.)

II. Philosophes and Their Ideas (pages 519–521)

A. The Enlightenment intellectuals were called by the French name philosophe (“philoso-pher”) Most were writers, professors, economists, journalists and social reformers.

B. The ideas of the philosophes influenced the entire Western world. To them ideas wereh h ld b h i l i i i f f d b li f i ll i l di



Did You Know? The German Enlightenment philosopherImmanuel Kant maintained his regimen so reliably that people settheir clocks according to his daily walk along the street inKönigsberg named for him, “The Philosopher’s Walk.” He is said tohave missed this walk for only one short period: while readingRousseau’s Émile, he stayed at home for several days.


Answer: the idea that natural lawsexisted and that institutions could follow these laws to produce theideal society

Answer: By changing the environ-ment and exposing people to the rightinfluences, people and society couldbe changed.

History

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITYCRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITYAnalyzing Information Although there is no single scientific method, you might suggest that stu-dents use the following procedure to conduct an investigation: 1) Identify a problem or ask a ques-tion; 2) develop a few hypotheses or educated guesses; 3) predict what will occur; 4) devise waysto test the accuracy of predictions based on the hypotheses; 5) check accuracy of tests; 6) repeattests or devise new tests; 7) report results and conclusions objectively. Ask students if this methodcould be used to investigate nonscientific things. Then ask them to list things that they would testusing this method. L3

Writing ActivityAsk students to evaluate Locke’stheory that people are born witha blank mind. Do the studentsbelieve people are more a prod-uct of nature (genes) or nurture(environment)? Ask students towrite a paragraph supportingtheir viewpoints. L1

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Critical ThinkingHave students describe some ofthe different ways specific peoplereacted to Enlightenment ideas.During a class discussion, askthem to consider the reactions ofLocke, Diderot, Voltaire, Becca-ria, and Rousseau. L2

The philosophes often disagreed. The Enlighten-ment spanned almost a century, and it evolved overtime. Each succeeding generation became more radi-cal as it built on the contributions of the previous one.A few people, however, dominated the landscape.We begin our survey of the ideas of the philosophesby looking at the three French giants—Montesquieu(MAHN•tuhs•KYOO), Voltaire, and Diderot (dee•DROH).

Montesquieu Charles-Louis de Secondat, the Baronde Montesquieu, came from the French nobility. Hismost famous work, The Spirit of the Laws, was pub-lished in 1748. In this study of governments, Mon-tesquieu tried to use the scientific method to find thenatural laws that govern the social and political rela-tionships of human beings.

Montesquieu identified three basic kinds of gov-ernments: (1) republics, suitable for small states; (2) despotism, appropriate for large states; and (3) monarchies, ideal for moderate-size states. Heused England as an example of a monarchy.

Montesquieu believed that England’s governmenthad three branches: the executive (the monarch), thelegislative (parliament), and the judicial (the courts

of law). The government functioned through a sepa-ration of powers. In this separation, the executive,legislative, and judicial powers of the governmentlimit and control each other in a system of checks andbalances. By preventing any one person or groupfrom gaining too much power, this system providesthe greatest freedom and security for the state.

Montesquieu’s analysis of the system of checksand balances through separation of powers was hismost lasting contribution to political thought. Thetranslation of Montesquieu’s work into English madeit available to American philosophes, who took hisprinciples and worked them into the United StatesConstitution.

Voltaire The greatest figure of the Enlightenmentwas François-Marie Arouet, known simply asVoltaire. A Parisian, Voltaire came from a prosperousmiddle-class family. He wrote an almost endlessstream of pamphlets, novels, plays, letters, essays,and histories, which brought him both fame andwealth.

Voltaire was especially well known for his criti-cism of Christianity and his strong belief in religioustoleration. He fought against religious intolerance inFrance. In 1763, he penned his Treatise on Toleration, inwhich he reminded governments that “all men arebrothers under God.”

Throughout his life, Voltaire championed deism,an eighteenth-century religious philosophy based onreason and natural law. Deism built on the idea of theNewtonian world-machine. In the Deists’ view, a


History through Art

Madame de Geoffrin’s Salon by AnicetLemonnier shows the first reading of one of Vol-taire’s works. Describe the different reactions toVoltaire’s ideas that you might hear from a typi-cal Parisian eighteenth-century salon audience.



Answer: Answers will vary. Somemembers of the audience—otherphilosophes—would probablyapprove whole-heartedly, while themore conservative members—suchas nobles—would probably be scan-dalized.

History through Art

Philosophy Ask students to dis-cuss why Descartes’s conviction of his own existence should beregarded as an important philosophi-cal realization. Ask students toexplain what this statement had todo with the idea called Cartesiandualism. Do students believe thisphilosophical point of view wasvalid? Ask them to explain the rea-sons for their ideas. (Answers willvary.) L3

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITYCRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITYDrawing Conclusions The Enlightenment’s ideals of reason, natural law, hope, and progress werethe philosophical beliefs that led to the American Revolution and the creation of the United States.The Declaration of Independence and American Revolution were signals to Europeans that, for thefirst time, enlightened ideas were being put into action. Americans wanted the right to think freelyand the right to express their opinions without fear of repression or censorship. Ask students ifthese ideals are still important to Americans. Have students explain why they think this is or is notso. You might also ask them to write a short essay expressing their opinions. L2

Writing ActivityAsk students to write a briefpaper identifying changes thatresulted from the Scientific Revolution.

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INTERDISCIPLINARY CONNECTIONS ACTIVITYINTERDISCIPLINARY CONNECTIONS ACTIVITYEconomics Adam Smith stated that government had three basic roles: protecting society frominvasion, defending citizens from injustice, and engaging in public works that private industry couldnot afford. During a class discussion, ask students to support or oppose Smith’s vision of govern-ment and state their reasons why. Then ask students to research the basic platforms of the majorU.S. political parties: Democratic, Republican, Independent, Libertarian, Peace and Freedom, andGreen. In which party would Smith have been most comfortable? Ask students to write paragraphsthat answer this question and explain why this would have been a good fit. L2

521

Answer: Montesquieu analyzed theidea of separation of powers to pro-vide checks and balances; Voltaireadvocated religious toleration anddeism; Diderot edited the Encyclope-dia, or Classified Dictionary of theSciences, Arts, and Trades.

mechanic (God) had created the universe. To Voltaireand most other philosophes, the universe was like aclock. God, the clockmaker, had created it, set it inmotion, and allowed it to run without his interfer-ence, according to its own natural laws.

Diderot Denis Diderot went to the University ofParis to fulfill his father’s hopes that he would be alawyer or pursue a career in the Church. He did nei-ther. Instead, he became a freelance writer so that hecould study and read in many subjects and lan-guages. For the rest of his life, Diderot remained ded-icated to new ideas.

Diderot’s most famous contribution to the Enlight-enment was the Encyclopedia, or Classified Dictionary ofthe Sciences, Arts, and Trades, a 28-volume collection ofknowledge that he edited. Published between 1751and 1772, the purpose of the Encyclopedia, according toDiderot, was to “change the general way of thinking.”

The Encyclopedia became a major weapon in thephilosophes’ crusade against the old French society.Many of its articles attacked religious superstition andsupported religious toleration. Others called forsocial, legal, and political improvements that wouldlead to a society that was more tolerant and morehumane. The Encyclopedia was sold to doctors, clergy-men, teachers, and lawyers, thus spreading the ideasof the Enlightenment.

Comparing What were the majorcontributions of Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot to theEnlightenment?

Reading Check

Toward a New Social ScienceThe philosophes, as we have seen, believed that

Newton’s methods could be used to discover the nat-ural laws underlying all areas of human life. This ledto what we would call the social sciences—areassuch as economics and political science.

Economics The Physiocrats and Scottish philoso-pher Adam Smith have been viewed as the foundersof the modern social science of economics. The Phys-iocrats, a French group, were interested in identify-ing the natural economic laws that governed humansociety. They maintained that if individuals were freeto pursue their own economic self-interest, all societywould ultimately benefit.

The state, then, should not interrupt the free playof natural economic forces by imposing governmentregulations on the economy. The state should leavethe economy alone. This doctrine became known byits French name, laissez-faire (LEH•SAY FEHR),meaning “to let (people) do (what they want).”

The best statement of laissez-faire was made in1776 by Adam Smith in his famous work The Wealthof Nations. Like the Physiocrats, Smith believed thatthe state should not interfere in economic matters.Indeed, Smith gave to government only three basicroles: protecting society from invasion (the army);defending citizens from injustice (the police); andkeeping up certain public works, such as roads andcanals, that private individuals could not afford.


History through Art

Port of Marseille by Claude-JosephVernet, 1754 Vernet was commissionedby the French king to paint the militaryand commercial seaports of France.What characteristic activities of a com-mercial port are included here? Whatinformation about the past could histo-rians learn from this painting?



Critical ThinkingAsk students if they believe that a philosopher is one who“applies himself to the study of society with the purpose ofmaking his kind better and happier.” Were Voltaire’s andDiderot’s criticisms of Christian-ity intended to make peoplehappier? (Answers will vary.) L2

Answer: Workers are unloadingboats; merchants have come toinspect and buy goods. The wharf is a busy commercial center. Historianscan determine how goods wereshipped (in barrels), how trade wasconducted, how goods were unloadedfrom the ships.

History through Art


Name Date Class

The Enlightenment

DIRECTIONS: Fill in the blanks below as you read Section 2.

The (1) was an eighteenth-century philosophical move-

ment of intellectuals who were greatly impressed with the achievements of the

(2) Revolution. (3) , natural law, hope,

and (4) were common words to the thinkers of the

Enlightenment.

Montesquieu's analysis of the system of checks and (5)

through separation of powers was his most lasting contribution to political thought.

Voltaire was especially well known for his criticism of (6) and

his strong belief in religious toleration. Diderot's most famous contribution to the


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Answer: The state should not inter-fere in economic matters.

Answer: The Social Contract: Societyagreed to be governed by its generalwill and individuals must be forced toabide by the general will; Emile: Edu-cation should foster, not restrict, chil-dren’s natural instincts.

Connecting Across TimeAsk students to evaluate the ideaof Mary Wollstonecraft thatwomen should have equal rightswith men in education as well asin economic and political life.Why was she not taken seriouslyby many people during her life?How are the role and educationof women during the Enlighten-ment reflected in today’s soci-ety? L1

EnrichTo help students see the relation-ship between Enlightenmentthought and today’s politicalbeliefs, have students list asmany ideas as they can from thediscussion of Enlightenment phi-losophy that are part of our cur-rent political, economic, andsocial systems. L3

Critical ThinkingAsk students to describe the ori-gins of the Scientific Revolutionin sixteenth-century Europe.Then have students explain theimpact of the revolution on sci-entific thinking worldwide. L2

Beccaria and Justice By the eighteenth century,most European states had developed a system ofcourts to deal with the punishment of crime. Punish-ments were often cruel. The primary reason forextreme punishments was the need to deter crime inan age when a state’s police force was too weak toensure the capture of criminals.

One philosophe who proposed a new approach tojustice was Cesare Beccaria. In his essay On Crimesand Punishments, written in 1764, Beccaria arguedthat punishments should not be exercises in brutality.He also opposed capital punishment. He did notbelieve that it stopped others from committingcrimes. Moreover, it set an example of barbarism: “Isit not absurd, that the laws, which punish murder,should, in order to prevent murder, publicly commitmurder themselves?”

Explaining What is the concept oflaissez-faire?

The Later EnlightenmentBy the late 1760s, a new generation of philosophes

had come to maturity. Most famous was Jean-JacquesRousseau (ru•SOH). The young Rousseau wanderedthrough France and Italy holding various jobs.Eventually he made his way to Paris, where he was

Reading Check

introduced into the circle of the philosophes. He didnot like city life, however, and often withdrew intolong periods of solitude.

In his Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality ofMankind, Rousseau argued that people had adoptedlaws and government in orderto preserve their privateproperty. In the process,they had become enslavedby government. What,then, should people do toregain their freedom?

In his famous workThe Social Contract, pub-lished in 1762, Rousseaupresented his concept of thesocial contract. Through asocial contract, an entiresociety agrees to be governed by its general will.Individuals who wish instead to follow their ownself-interests must be forced to abide by the generalwill. “This means nothing less than that [they] will beforced to be free,” said Rousseau. Thus, liberty isachieved by being forced to follow what is best for“the general will,” because the general will repre-sents what is best for the entire community.

Another important work by Rousseau is Emile.Written in the form of a novel, the work is a generaldiscussion “on the education of the natural man.”Rousseau argues that education should foster, andnot restrict, children’s natural instincts.

Unlike many Enlightenment thinkers, Rousseaubelieved that emotions, as well as reason, wereimportant to human development. He sought a bal-ance between heart and mind, between emotions andreason.

Rousseau did not necessarily practice what hepreached. His own children were sent to orphanages,where many children died at a young age. Rousseaualso viewed women as being “naturally” differentfrom men: “To fulfill her functions, . . . [a woman]needs a soft life. . . . How much care and tendernessdoes she need to hold her family together.” ToRousseau, women should be educated for their rolesas wives and mothers by learning obedience and thenurturing skills that would enable them to provideloving care for their husbands and children. Noteveryone in the eighteenth century agreed withRousseau, however.

Summarizing What were Rousseau’sbasic theories as presented in The Social Contract and Emile?

Reading Check


Mary Wollstonecraft1759–1797—English writer

Mary Wollstonecraft is consideredby many to be the founder of theEuropean and American movementsfor women’s rights. Wollstonecraftwas largely self-educated. For a while,she earned a living as a governess butsoon moved to a writing career and worked fora magazine publisher.

All along, Wollstonecraft continued to develop herideas on education and women’s rights. She wrote in1792: “Make women rational creatures, and free citizens,and they will quickly become good wives; that is—ifmen do not neglect the duties of husbands and fathers!”

Mary Wollstonecraft married the philosopher WilliamGodwin in 1797. She died shortly after the birth of theirdaughter—Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin Shelley—whowrote the famous novel Frankenstein.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau



EXTENDING THE CONTENTRole-Playing Organize the class into two groups to plan a gathering in a salon. Remind studentsthat salons were places where writers, artists, and educated people could mingle with the nobility.Have each student in one group select a favorite individual from this chapter. Have students in theother group choose roles as members of the middle class or the nobility. Students should researchthe individuals, the lifestyles of the different social classes, and the salons. Then have them planthe setting and select a topic for the gathering. To stimulate conversation, you may wish to visit thesalon in the guise of a noble person. L1 L2

For grading this activity, refer to the Performance Assessment Activities booklet.


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Answer: She argued that the Enlight-enment was based on an ideal of rea-son in all human beings; if womenhave reason, then they are entitled to equal rights.

Connecting Across TimeAsk students whether theybelieve it is appropriate or desir-able for governments to supportthe arts as was the practice dur-ing the Enlightenment. Studentsshould debate the cost of artisticendeavors against the possibilitythat the government could con-trol artistic expression throughwhat it chose to support. Do stu-dents believe that our govern-ment should support artisticactivity with public funds? Whatis their opinion of the NationalEndowment for the Arts? L2

Critical ThinkingHave students write an essay inwhich they analyze how ideassuch as Judeo-Christian ethicsand the rise of secularism andindividualism in Western civi-lization, beginning with theEnlightenment, have influencedinstitutions and societies. L2

Rights of WomenFor centuries, male intellectuals had argued that

the nature of women made them inferior to men andmade male domination of women necessary. By theeighteenth century, however, female thinkers beganto express their ideas about improving the conditionof women. The strongest statement for the rights ofwomen was advanced by the English writer MaryWollstonecraft. Many see her as the founder of themodern European and American movement forwomen’s rights.

In A Vindication of the Rights of Women, Woll-stonecraft identified two problems with the views ofmany Enlightenment thinkers. She noted that thesame people who argued that women must obeymen also said that government based on the arbitrarypower of monarchs over their subjects was wrong.

Wollstonecraft pointed out that the power of menover women was equally wrong.

Wollstonecraft further argued that the Enlighten-ment was based on an ideal of reason in all humanbeings. Because women have reason, then they areentitled to the same rights as men. Women, Woll-stonecraft declared, should have equal rights in edu-cation, as well as in economic and political life.

Evaluating How did Mary Woll-stonecraft use the Enlightenment ideal of reason to advocaterights for women?

Social World of the EnlightenmentThe Enlightenment was not a movement belonging

exclusively to the nobles and aristocrats. For example,philosophes such as Diderot and Rousseau came from

Reading Check


Magazines, Then and NowBookstores and newsstands carry thousands of mag-

azines that appeal to an enormous variety of interests.We can find magazines on fishing, car racing, fashion,politics, television, furniture making, tourism, wrestling,and a host of other subjects.

The first magazines in Europe were a product of agrowing reading public in the seventeenth and eight-eenth centuries, especially among the middle classes.The first magazine was published in Germany in 1633. Itcontained poems and articles on religion, the chief inter-est of its editor, Johann Rist.

Many early magazines had serious goals. JosephAddison and Richard Steele’s Spectator, begun in 1711,aimed to “bring Philosophy out of the closets andlibraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs andassemblies, at tea-tables and coffeehouses.” It did notlast long.

Some publishers began to broaden the appeal oftheir magazines. One goal was to attract women read-ers. Ladies’ Mercury, published in Britain, providedadvice on marriage and child rearing as well as sewingpatterns and gossip. Its success brought forth a host ofsimilar magazines.

Many early magazines failed because customers didnot always pay for them on time. Isaiah Thomas, editorof the Worcester Magazine, became so desperate thathe wrote: “The editor requests all those who areindebted to him formagazines, to makepayment—butter willbe received in smallsums, if brought withina few days.”

Pretend you are an eighteenth-century magazine edi-tor assigned to write an article for the next edition.Choose a person or an event discussed in Chapter 17to be the subject of your article (use outsideresources if necessary). You could also select oneEnlightenment idea and present it to your readers.

Argentine magazine stand

�



Answer: Answers will vary. Studentsshould use visuals to accompany theirpresentations.

SS.A.3.4.5


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READING THE TEXT

Comparing and Contrasting After they have read Magazines, Then and Now, ask students to listas many magazines as they can. Ask them to visit a newsstand or store and list twenty currentmagazines as homework. Then divide the class into three groups, and ask each group to compile alist of all its magazines. Have the groups compare lists in class, and create a master list with noduplicates. Then have students interpret the database they have created. Ask students: How manytitles are on the list? What topics are covered? How do today’s magazines compare to early maga-zines (topics, content, cost, number of pages, frequency of publication, type of paper, graphics,photographs, use of color)? L2 FCAT MA.E.1.4.1

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new reading public of the middle classes, whichincluded women and urban artisans.

An important aspect of the growth of publishingand reading in the eighteenth century was the devel-opment of magazines for the general public. In GreatBritain, an important center for the new magazines,25 periodicals were published in 1700, 103 in 1760,and 158 in 1780.

Along with magazines came daily newspapers.The first was printed in London in 1702. Newspaperswere relatively cheap and were even provided free inmany coffeehouses.

The Salon Enlightenment ideas were also spreadthrough the salon. Salons were the elegant drawingrooms of the wealthy upper class’s great urbanhouses. Invited guests gathered in these salons andtook part in conversations that were often centered onthe new ideas of the philosophes. The salons broughtwriters and artists together with aristocrats, govern-ment officials, and wealthy middle-class people.

The women who hosted the salons found them-selves in a position to sway political opinion andinfluence literary and artistic taste. At her fashion-able home in Paris, for example, Marie-Thérèse de


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The intellectuals of the Enlightenment created a movementthat influenced the entire Western world.

1. Interpreting Maps Examine the keys of the two maps.What kind of information does each map contain?

2. Applying Geography Skills Pose and answer twoquestions about the geographic distributions shown on one of the maps on this page. Create a thematicchart that represents the same information.

Academy of science

University

Observatory

Palace inspired by Versailles

Publication of scientificor philosophical journals

CatholicEastern Orthodox ChristianEastern Orthodox Christianminorities

MuslimProtestantProtestant minorities

the lower middle class. The movement did, however,have its greatest appeal with the aristocrats and upperclasses in the larger cities. The common people, espe-cially the peasants, were mostly unaware and littleaffected by the Enlightenment.

The Growth of Reading Of great importance to theEnlightenment was the spread of its ideas to the lit-erate elite of European society. Especially noticeablein the eighteenth century was the growth of bothpublishing and the reading public. The number oftitles issued each year by French publishers rose from300 in 1750 to about 1,600 in the 1780s. Books hadpreviously been aimed at small groups of the edu-cated elite. Now, many books were directed at the

Dominant Religions



Answers:1. One key contains places of learn-

ing, the other denotes religions.

2. Students’ work should be gradedon depth and clarity of thoughtand quality of the charts.

Section Quiz 17–2


Column A

1. philosophers, writers, economists, social reformers

2. system of political limits and controls

3. to let (people) do (what they want)

4. idea that God lets the universe run by its own laws

5. interests of the Physiocrats and Adam Smith



✔ ScoreChapter 17

Section Quiz 17-2

Column B

A. laissez-faire

B. philosophes

C. deism

D. natural economiclaws

E. separation ofpowers


DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Imagine that you are hosting a gathering of famous musicians, artists, writers, andpoliticians. Who would you ask to the gathering? Why?

In the last section, you read about the Scientific Revolution during the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries. In the eighteenth century, intellectuals used the ideas of the



THE ENLIGHTENMENT

KEY TERMS

philosophe an intellectual of the Enlightenment (page 519)

separation of powers the division of a government into executive, legislative, and judicialbranches that limit and control each other in a system of checks and balances (page 520)

deism an eighteenth-century religious philosophy based on the idea that the world is amachine and that God is a mechanic who created the world and allows it to run without hisinterference, according to its own natural laws (page 520)

laissez-faire (“to let [people] do [what they want]”) the belief that government should notinterfere in economic matters (page 521)

social contract in the theories of philosophers such as Locke and Rousseau, an agreementamong individuals that they will be governed by the general will (page 522)

salon elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy upper class, in which writers, artists, aristocrats,and government officials gathered to take part in conversations that were often centered onthe ideas of the philosophes (page 524)

Name Date Class

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITYCRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITYDrawing Inferences Ask students to do further research on the Parisian salons. Then ask studentsto analyze the information thay have found by drawing inferences. Who were the women whoorganized the salons? What were the political and social ties of these women? Why did they spendtime and money organizing these evening affairs? Was this simply a passing social fad, or was itsomething more fundamental to the society and culture? Students might enjoy debating the extentto which these salon affairs provided political influence for a select group of women. L2

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1. Key terms are in blue. 2. John Locke (p. 518); Montesquieu

(p. 520); Voltaire (p. 520); DenisDiderot (p. 521); Adam Smith (p. 521); Jean-Jacques Rousseau (p. 522); Mary Wollstonecraft (p. 523); John Wesley (p. 525)

3. See chapter maps.

4. Newton: Natural laws govern soci-ety; Locke: People are molded byexperiences.

5. writers, professors, journalists,economists, social reformers

6. Answers should show understand-ing of Rousseau’s ideas.

7. growth of publishing and reading;writings of philosophers and other

Enlightenment thinkers; discussionin salons

8. busy commercial port; representscapitalist economy; goods are soldto those who need and want them

9. Answers should demonstrateunderstanding of women’s rights.

525

Answer: The salons helped tospread the ideas of the Enlighten-ment. They brought writers andartists together with aristocrats. Thewomen who hosted them foundthemselves in a position to swaypolitical opinion and influence liter-ary and artistic taste.

Answer: appealed to the lowerclasses; attempted to “lower religionto the level of the lowest people’scapacities”; provided spiritual experi-ence; good works; gave lower andmiddle classes a sense of purposeand community; stressed importanceof hard work and encouraged behav-iors that led to spiritual contentment,which took the place of politicalequality

Reteaching ActivityHave students list the names ofall the people discussed in thissection and state their contribu-tions to their fields of endeavor.L1

4 CLOSEHave students write their reac-tions to the Enlightenment. Askthem to imagine how they mighthave felt in the 1700s when facedwith these new ideas. Collect thepapers and read students’ ideasaloud. Using the students’ ideasas guidelines, review the wayspeople of the time reacted to theideas of the Enlightenment.(Answers will vary.) L2

Geoffrin, wife of a wealthy merchant, held gatheringsthat became the talk of France and of all Europe. Dis-tinguished foreigners competed to receive invita-tions. These gatherings helped spread the ideas of theEnlightenment.

Examining What was the importanceof the salons?

Religion in the EnlightenmentAlthough many philosophes attacked the Chris-

tian churches, most Europeans in the eighteenth cen-tury were still Christians. Many people also sought adeeper personal devotion to God.

The Catholic parish church remained an importantcenter of life. How many people went to church reg-ularly is unknown, but 90 to 95 percent of Catholicpopulations went to mass on Easter Sunday.

After the initial religious fervor that createdProtestantism in the sixteenth century, Protestantchurches settled into well-established patterns con-trolled by state authorities. Many Protestant churcheswere lacking in religious enthusiasm. The desire ofordinary Protestants for greater depths of religiousexperience led to new religious movements.

In England, the most famous new religiousmovement—Methodism—was the work of JohnWesley, an Anglican minister. Wesley had a mysticalexperience in which “the gift of God’s grace” assuredhim of salvation. This experience led him to become

Reading Check

a missionary to the Eng-lish people to bring themthe “glad tidings” of sal-vation.

Wesley preached to themasses in open fields. Heappealed especially to thelower classes. He tried, hesaid, “to lower religion tothe level of the lowestpeople’s capacities.”

His sermons oftencaused people to haveconversion experiences.Many converts thenjoined Methodist societies to do good works. Onenotable reform they influenced was the abolition ofthe slave trade in the early 1800s. Christian reformerswere also important in the American movement toabolish slavery.

Wesley’s Methodism gave the lower and middleclasses in English society a sense of purpose andcommunity. Methodists stressed the importance ofhard work and spiritual contentment rather thandemands for political equality. After Wesley’s death,Methodism became a separate Protestant group.Methodism proved that the need for spiritual experi-ence had not been eliminated by the eighteenth-cen-tury search for reason.

Describing What are some of thecentral ideas of Methodism?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Define philosophe, separation of pow-

ers, deism, laissez-faire, social contract,salon.

2. Identify John Locke, Montesquieu,Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Adam Smith,Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Mary Woll-stonecraft, John Wesley.

3. Locate Paris, London.

4. Explain the influence of Isaac Newtonand John Locke on Enlightenmentthinkers.

5. List the primary occupations of thephilosophes.

Critical Thinking6. Discuss What did Rousseau mean

when he stated that if any individualwants to pursue his own self-interestsat the expense of the common good,“He will be forced to be free”? Do youagree or disagree with Rousseau’sideas? Why?

7. Summarizing Information Use a dia-gram like the one below to identify fac-tors that helped spread Enlightenmentideas throughout Europe.

Analyzing Visuals8. Describe the scene in the painting

shown on page 521. What activitiesdepicted in the painting are related toeconomics? What elements of the pic-ture illustrate the economic principle of laissez-faire?

Factors that SpreadEnlightenment

John Wesley

9. Persuasive Writing Mary Woll-stonecraft argued that women areentitled to the same rights as men.Do you believe this to be true? Doyou believe women are accordedequal rights today? Present yourargument in an essay with evidence.



SS.A.3.4.5


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1 FOCUSSection OverviewThis section explores the impactof the Enlightenment on politicsand the arts.

1730sRococo style spreadsthrough Europe

1748The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle is signed

1756The Seven Years’War erupts

1762Catherine the Greatbecomes ruler of Russia

Guide to Reading

The Impact of theEnlightenment

Preview of Events

1763The Treaty ofParis is signed

1740War of the AustrianSuccession begins

✦1735 ✦1740 ✦1745 ✦1750 ✦1755 ✦1760 ✦1765

Main Ideas• Enlightenment beliefs were reflected

in the art, music, and literature of thetime.

• Enlightenment thought impacted thepolitics of Europe in the eighteenthcentury.

Key Termsrococo, enlightened absolutism

People to IdentifyBach, Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Frederickthe Great, Maria Theresa, Catherine theGreat

Places to LocatePrussia, Austria, Russia, Silesia

Preview Questions1. What innovations in the arts occurred

during the eighteenth century?2. What were the causes and results

of the Seven Years’ War?

Reading StrategyDescribing Use a chart like the onebelow to list the conflicts of the SevenYears’ War. Include the countries involvedand where the conflicts were fought.

Conflicts of the Seven Years’ War

The eighteenth-century Prussian king Frederick II once said:

“[The services a monarch must provide for his people] consisted in the maintenanceof the laws; a strict execution of justice; . . . and defending the state against its ene-mies. It is the duty of this magistrate to pay attention to agriculture; it should be hiscare that provisions for the nation should be in abundance, and that commerce andindustry should be encouraged. He is a perpetual sentinel, who must watch the actsand the conduct of the enemies of the state. . . . If he be the first general, the first min-ister of the realm, it is not that he should remain the shadow of authority, but that heshould fulfill the duties of such titles. He is only the first servant of the state.”

—The Western Tradition, Eugen Weber, 1972

These comments reveal the impact of the ideas of the Enlightenment on the rulersof the period.

The ArtsThe ideas of the Enlightenment also had an impact on the world of culture.

Eighteenth-century Europe witnessed both traditional practices and importantchanges in art, music, and literature.

Architecture and Art The palace of Louis XIV at Versailles, in France, had madean enormous impact on Europe. The Austrian emperor, the Swedish king, and






Reproducible Masters• Reproducible Lesson Plan 17–3• Daily Lecture and Discussion Notes 17–3• Guided Reading Activity 17–3• Section Quiz 17–3• Reading Essentials and Study Guide 17–3

Transparencies• Daily Focus Skills Transparency 17–3




Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ANSWERS1. 4 2. Peter III 3. 1762–1796

The Impact of the Enlightenment

1

2

3

How many femaleczars are shown inthis table?

Which czar wasmurdered by nobles?

When was CatherineII, the Great, czar?

UNIT

3Chapter 17

RULERS OF RUSSIAPERIOD OF RULE CZAR

1613–1645 Michael

1689–1725 Peter I, the Great

1725–1727 Catherine I

1730–1740 Anna

1740–1741 Ivan VI

1741–1762 Elizabeth

1762 Peter III

1762–1796 Catherine II, the Great

1796–1801 Paul

1801–1825 Alexander I

1825–1855 Nicholas I

1855–1881 Alexander II

1881–1894 Alexander III

1894–1917 Nicholas II




1

Guide to Reading

Answers to Graphic: Conflicts of theSeven Years’ War: British and Prus-sians fought against the Austrians,Russians, and French; Britain andFrance fought in India; British andFrench fought over the waterways ofthe Gulf of St. Lawrence and the OhioRiver Valley.

Preteaching VocabularyExplain how enlightened absolutismaffected European governments.(rulers tried to govern by Enlighten-ment principles, were reluctant torelinquish power, did not become“enlightened” leaders) L2

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2 TEACH

other rulers also built grandiose residences. Thesepalaces were modeled more on the Italian baroquestyle of the 1500s and 1600s than they were on theseventeenth-century French classical style of Ver-sailles. Thus, a unique architectural style was created.

One of the greatest architects of the eighteenth cen-tury was Balthasar Neumann. Neumann’s two master-pieces are the Church of the Fourteen Saints insouthern Germany and the Residence, the palace of theprince-bishop of Würzburg. In these buildings, secularand spiritual become one, as lavish and fanciful orna-ment, light, bright colors, and elaborate detail greet thevisitor. Inside the church, a pilgrim in search of holi-ness is struck by the incredible richness of detail.

The baroque and neoclassical styles that had domi-nated seventeenth-century art continued into the eigh-teenth century. By the 1730s, however, a new artisticstyle, known as rococo, had spread all over Europe.

Unlike the baroque style, which stressed grandeurand power, rococo emphasized grace, charm, andgentle action. Rococo made use of delicate designscolored in gold with graceful curves. The rococo stylewas highly secular. Its lightness and charmspoke of the pursuit of pleasure, happiness,and love.

Rococo’s appeal is evident in the work ofAntoine Watteau. In his paintings, gentlemenand ladies in elegant dress reveal a world ofupper-class pleasure and joy. Underneaththat exterior, however, is an element of sad-ness, as the artist suggests the fragility andpassing nature of pleasure, love, and life.

Another aspect of rococo was a sense ofenchantment and enthusiasm, especially evi-dent in the work of Giovanni BattistaTiepolo. Many of Tiepolo’s paintings came toadorn the walls and ceilings of churches andpalaces. His masterpiece is the ceiling of thebishop’s residence at Würzburg, a massivescene representing the four continents.

Music The eighteenthcentury was one of thegreatest periods in the history of Europeanmusic. In the first half ofthe century, two com-posers—Johann Sebas-tian Bach and GeorgeFrederick Handel—standout as musical geniuses.

Bach, a renowned org-anist as well as a com-poser, spent his entire life in Germany. While he wasmusic director at the Church of Saint Thomas inLeipzig, he composed his Mass in B Minor and otherworks that gave him the reputation of being one ofthe greatest composers of all time.

Handel was a German who spent much of hiscareer in England. He is probably best known for hisreligious music. Handel’s Messiah has been called arare work that appeals immediately to everyone andyet is a masterpiece of the highest order.


HISTORY

Web Activity Visitthe Glencoe WorldHistory Web site at

andclick on Chapter 17–Student Web Activity to learn more about therococo style.

wh.glencoe.com

History through Art

Danse dans un Pavillon by Antoine WatteauWatteau began his career as an interior decorator androse to become the court painter to King Louis XV. Whatdetails in this painting by Watteau are examples ofthe rococo style of painting?




I. The Arts (pages 526–528)

A. The Enlightenment had a large impact on culture.

B. European monarchs tried to emulate Versailles, but in the Italian baroque style, not theFrench classical. They created a new kind of architecture. In the 1730s a new artisticstyle—rococo— emerged. While the baroque style stressed grandeur and power, therococo style emphasizes grace, charm and gentle action. It was highly secular, valuingthe pursuit of pleasure, happiness, and love. The greatest rococo painter was AntoineWatteau.

C. Enchantment and enthusiasm are also part of rococo, as is evident in the painting ofGiovanni Battista Tiepolo. Much of his work is in churches and palaces. His master-piece is the ceiling of the Bishop Palace at Würzburg, a huge scene representing thefour continents.

D. The eighteenth century was one of the greatest in European history in music. JohannSebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel, both German, were the two baroquestandouts at the beginning of the century. Bach was a great organist and composer.Mass in B Minor is one of his famous works. Handel is most known for his Messiah.

E. Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart were the two standouts of theclassical style in the second half of the eighteenth century. Hayden’s Creation is one ofhis greatest works. Mozart was a child prodigy, known for symphonies, concerti, andoperas. His perpetual poverty made his life miserable. Haydn once said to Mozart’sfather that “Your son is the greatest composer known to me.”

F. The novel developed in Europe in the eighteenth century. Henry Fielding wrote novelsabout people with no morals surviving by their wits, such as The History of Tom Jones, aFoundling. His characters reflect real types in eighteenth-century England.

Discussion QuestionWho are some important twentieth-century composers of classical music? (SergeiProkofiev, Anton Bruckner, Benjamin Britten, and Aaron Copland are some.)

239



Did You Know? Some Enlightenment thinkers believed thathuman reason was so powerful that one day human beings wouldbe able to predict the condition of the entire universe in the nextmoment.

turn



Copyright ©

by The M

cGraw

-Hill C

Name Date Class

The Impact of the Enlightenment


I. The Enlightenment brought important changes in art, and

literature.

A. By the 1730s a new artistic style known as had spread over

Europe.

B. The eighteenth century was one of the greatest periods in the history of

music.

1. Johann Sebastian was one of the greatest composers of all

time.

2. Wolfgang Amadeus was a true child prodigy of the age.

C. The eighteenth century was important in the development of the European

.

II. Enlightenment thought had an effect on life in European states.

A. Frederick II of was well-versed in the ideas of the

Enlightenment

B. Joseph II of Austria said, “Philosophy is the of my empire.”

C. Catherine II of Russia said Diderot's theories “would have

turned everything in my kingdom upside down.”

III. The philosophes war as a foolish waste of life and resources.

A. In 1740 a major war broke out in connection with the succession to the

throne.

B. The Years' War had three major areas of conflict: Europe, India

and North America.

C. The struggle between Britain and France in the rest of the world, known as the

, was fought in India and North America.


Answer: The painting’s theme ishappy and light. It is a fanciful work;the dance emphasizes the grace of thewoman.

History through Art

DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTIONDIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTIONGifted and Talented Listening to authentic musical pieces will help students with a sensitivity toharmony, melody, rhythm, and tone better understand the different musical styles of the Age ofEnlightenment. Play some works from the baroque period (1600–1750) by Bach or Handel andthen some from the classical period (1750–1820) by Haydn or Mozart. Ask students to describesome of the ways the two styles differ. (Answers may include the following: the use of repetition inbaroque music, and the balance and contrast among movements of classical works.) L3

Refer to Inclusion for the High School Social Studies Classroom Strategies and Activities in the TCR.

L1/ELL


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Answer: emphasized grace, charm,and gentle action; made use of deli-cate designs colored in gold withgraceful curves; highly secular; senseof enchantment and enthusiasm

Bach and Handel perfected the baroque musicalstyle. Two geniuses of the second half of the eigh-teenth century—Franz Joseph Haydn and WolfgangAmadeus Mozart—were innovators who wrotemusic called classical rather than baroque.

Haydn spent most of his adult life as musicaldirector for wealthy Hungarian princes. Visits toEngland introduced him to a world where musicianswrote for public concerts rather than princelypatrons. This “liberty,” as he called it, led him towrite two great works, The Creation and The Seasons.

Mozart was truly a child prodigy. His failure to geta regular patron to support him financially made his life miserable. Nevertheless, he wrote music passionately. His The Marriage of Figaro, The MagicFlute, and Don Giovanni are three of the world’s great-est operas. Haydn remarked to Mozart’s father,“Your son is the greatest composer known to me.”

Literature The eighteenth century was also impor-tant in the development of the European novel. Thenovel was especially attractive to a growing numberof middle-class readers.

The Englishman Henry Fielding wrote novelsabout people without morals who survive by theirwits. Fielding’s best-known work is The History ofTom Jones, a Foundling, which describes the adven-tures of a young scoundrel. In a number of hilariousepisodes, Fielding presents scenes of English life


from the slums of London to the country houses ofthe English aristocracy. His characters reflect realtypes in eighteenth-century English society.

Identifying What are the character-istics of the rococo style?

Enlightenment and Enlightened Absolutism

Enlightenment thought had an effect on the polit-ical life of European states in the eighteenth century.The philosophes believed in natural rights for allpeople. These rights included equality before thelaw; freedom of religious worship; freedom ofspeech; freedom of the press; and the right to assem-ble, hold property, and pursue happiness. As theAmerican Declaration of Independence expressed,“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all menare created equal; that they are endowed by their cre-ator with certain unalienable rights; that among theseare life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.”

How were these natural rights to be establishedand preserved? Most philosophes believed that peo-ple needed to be governed by enlightened rulers.What are enlightened rulers? They allow religioustoleration, freedom of speech and of the press, andthe rights of private property. They nurture the arts,sciences, and education. Above all, enlightened

Reading Check

In this painting, c. 1763, a seven-year-old Mozart is shownwith his father and sister. Above is the original manuscriptof Mozart’s first attempt at writing choral music. What is a child prodigy? Do you know anyone who could bedescribed as a child prodigy?

History



Answer: A child prodigy is a personwho displays extraordinary talent atan early age. Answers to second ques-tion will vary.

History

Connecting Across TimeDuring the War of the AustrianSuccession and the Seven Years’War, countries shifted theiralliances in order to achievepolitical goals. This practice hascontinued to the present. Duringa class discussion, ask students ifthese decisions to shift allianceswere made by wise monarchs orwere simply signs of disloyaltyand ingratitude. Have studentssupport their viewpoints withconcrete examples from the pastand the present. L2

INTERDISCIPLINARY CONNECTIONS ACTIVITYINTERDISCIPLINARY CONNECTIONS ACTIVITYArt Many artistic styles flourished during the Enlightenment, including baroque, classical, andrococo. Assign students to write individual reports on an artist, writer, or musician of the seven-teenth or eighteenth century whose work exemplifies one of these styles. Ask students to includeexamples and illustrations of their subject’s work and to explain his or her contribution to theperiod. Their subjects might include artists Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Peter Paul Rubens, Caravaggio;musicians Handel, Haydn, Liszt, Mozart, J.S. Bach; writers Voltaire, Diderot, Fielding. Have studentspresent their reports to the class orally. L2 L3

Music Play a brief selection ofmedieval religious music and ofMozart’s The Magic Flute for yourclass. (See question 9, page 534.)Have students describe their reac-tions to and feelings for each selec-tion. How does Mozart’s musicreflect the values of the Age ofEnlightenment? L2


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Critical ThinkingAsk students to discuss why theAustrian monarchy, unlike thatof Prussia, never became a cen-tralized, absolutist state. (statecomposed of many different nationalgroups, each with its own laws andpolitical life) L1

rulers obey the laws and enforce them fairly for allsubjects. Only strong, enlightened monarchs couldreform society.

Many historians once assumed that a new type ofmonarchy emerged in the later eighteenth century,which they called enlightened absolutism. In thesystem of enlightened absolutism, rulers tried to gov-ern by Enlightenment principles while maintainingtheir royal powers.

Did Europe’s rulers, however, actually follow theadvice of the philosophes and become enlightened?To answer this question, we can examine threestates—Prussia, Austria, and Russia.

Prussia: Army and Bureaucracy Two able Prus-sian kings, Frederick William I and Frederick II,made Prussia a major European power in the eight-eenth century. Frederick William I strove to maintaina highly efficient bureaucracy of civil service work-ers. The supreme values of the bureaucracy wereobedience, honor, and, above all, service to the king.As Frederick William asserted: “One must serve theking with life and limb, . . . and surrender all exceptsalvation. The latter is reserved for God. But every-thing else must be mine.”

Frederick William’s other major concern was thearmy. By the end of his reign in 1740, he had doubledthe army’s size. Although Prussia was tenth in phys-ical size and thirteenth in population in Europe, ithad the fourth largest army after France, Russia, andAustria. The Prussian army, because of its size and itsreputation as one of the best armies in Europe, wasthe most important institution in the state.

Members of the nobility, who owned large estateswith many serfs, were the officers in the Prussian army.These officers, too, had a strong sense of service to theking or state. As Prussian nobles, they believed in duty,obedience, and sacrifice.

Frederick II, or Frederick the Great, was one of thebest educated and most cultured monarchs in theeighteenth century. He was well versed in the ideasof the Enlightenment and even invited Voltaire to liveat his court for several years. Frederick was a dedi-cated ruler. He, too, enlarged the Prussian army, andhe kept a strict watch over the bureaucracy.

For a time, Frederick seemed quite willing to makeenlightened reforms. He abolished the use of tortureexcept in treason and murder cases. He also grantedlimited freedom of speech and press, as well asgreater religious toleration. However, he kept Prus-sia’s serfdom and rigid social structure intact andavoided any additional reforms.

The Austrian Empire The Austrian Empire hadbecome one of the great European states by thebeginning of the eighteenth century. It was difficultto rule, however, because it was a sprawling empirecomposed of many different nationalities, languages,religions, and cultures. Empress Maria Theresa, whoinherited the throne in 1740, worked to centralize theAustrian Empire and strengthen the power of thestate. She was not open to the philosophes’ calls forreform, but she worked hard to alleviate the condi-tion of the serfs.

Her son, Joseph II, believed in the need to sweepaway anything standing in the path of reason: “Ihave made Philosophy the lawmaker of my empire.”

Joseph’s reform program was far reaching. Heabolished serfdom, eliminated the death penalty,established the principle of equality of all before the law, and enacted religious reforms, including religious toleration. In his effort to change Austria,Joseph II issued thousands of decrees and laws.

Joseph’s reform program, however, largely failed.He alienated the nobles by freeing the serfs. He alienated the Catholic Church with his religiousreforms. Even the serfs were unhappy, because theywere unable to make sense of the drastic changes inJoseph’s policies. Joseph realized his failure when he


Frederick II(Frederick the Great)1712–1786 — Prussian king

Frederick II, known as Frederickthe Great, is credited with makingPrussia a great European power. As ayoung man, Frederick was quite differ-ent from his strict father, FrederickWilliam I. Frederick, who had a high regard forFrench culture, poetry, and flute playing, resisted hisfather’s wishes that he immerse himself in governmentand military affairs. His father’s frustration expresseditself in anger: “As I entered the room he seized me bythe hair and threw me to the ground.”

Frederick once tried to escape his father by fleeing toEngland with his friend Lieutenant Hans von Katte. Fred-erick William had both arrested and made his son watchthe beheading of his good friend. One year later, Fred-erick asked for forgiveness and began to do what hisfather wanted.



Sans Souci Palace Frederick IIplanned and had built a one-storysummer palace, Sans Souci. Thename is French and means “withoutcares.” Sans Souci was the king’sfavorite retreat. It was famous for itsmidnight suppers, at which Fredericksurrounded himself with educatedmen.

Many world leaders have retreats.Can you name and locate the retreatused by American presidents? (CampDavid in Maryland) L1


Literature English poet AlexanderPope (1688–1744) reflected thetenets of the Scientific Revolution inhis An Essay on Man. In it hedescribed nature as “A mighty maze!But not without plan.”


1

READING THE TEXT

Taking Notes Ask each student to create a five-column chart listing the rulers studied in this chap-ter. The column headings should be labeled from left to right as follows: Ruler, Country, Religion,Challenges, and Accomplishments. Students should fill in the columns as they read the chapter,listing names and significant information to help them organize and recall key facts. The charts willbe helpful for class discussions and to review material studied. After students have completed theircharts, assign them to small groups to study specific rulers in depth. Each group should study a dif-ferent ruler and report its research in an oral presentation. L1 ELL

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Critical ThinkingBoth Catherine the Great andMaria Theresa were complicatedfigures whose reigns includedgreat successes and great fail-ures. Invite interested studentsto research the life of one ofthese leaders, consideringwhether her reign was, on bal-ance, good or bad for her people.L3


Catherine’s policy of favoring the landed nobilityled to worse conditions for the Russian peasants andeventually to rebellion. Led by an illiterate Cossack (aRussian warrior), Emelyan Pugachev, the rebellionspread across southern Russia, but soon collapsed.Catherine took stronger measures against the peas-ants. All rural reform was halted, and serfdom wasexpanded into newer parts of the empire.

Catherine proved to be a worthy successor to Peterthe Great in her policies of territorial expansion. Rus-sia spread southward to the Black Sea by defeatingthe Turks under Catherine’s rule. To the west, Russiagained about 50 percent of Poland’s territory.

Enlightened Absolutism? Of the rulers we havediscussed, only Joseph II sought truly radicalchanges based on Enlightenment ideas. Both Freder-ick II and Catherine II liked to talk about enlightenedreforms. They even attempted some, but their inter-est in strengthening the state and maintaining theexisting system took priority.

In fact, all three rulers were chiefly guided by aconcern for the power and well-being of their states.In the final analysis, heightened state power in Prus-sia, Austria, and Russia was not used to undertakeenlightened reforms. Rather, it was used to collectmore taxes and thus to create armies, to wage wars,and to gain more power.

wrote his own epitaph for his gravestone: “Here liesJoseph II who was unfortunate in everything that heundertook.” His successors undid almost all ofJoseph II’s reforms.

Russia under Catherine the Great In Russia,Peter the Great was followed by six weak successorswho were often put in power and deposed by thepalace guard. After the last of these six successors,Peter III, was murdered by a group of nobles, hisGerman wife emerged as ruler of all the Russians.

Catherine II, or Catherine the Great, ruled Russiafrom 1762 to 1796. She was an intelligent woman whowas familiar with the works of the philosophes andseemed to favor enlightened reforms. She invited theFrench philosophe Denis Diderot to Russia and,when he arrived, urged him to speak frankly, “asman to man.” He did so, outlining an ambitious pro-gram of political and financial reform.

Catherine, however, was skeptical about what sheheard. Diderot’s impractical theories, she said,“would have turned everything in my kingdomupside down.” She did consider the idea of a newlaw code that would recognize the principle of theequality of all people in the eyes of the law. In theend, however, she did nothing, because she knewthat her success depended on the support of theRussian nobility.

Pictured from left to right areCatherine the Great, a carriage usedby Catherine, and Joseph II. Howmight the carriage symbolize thedifferences between Catherine’sand Joseph’s attempts at reform?

History



Answer: The carriage symbolizes theregal aspects and the riches of theirmonarchy. Joseph sought radicalreform based on Enlightenment idealsbut his reforms were overturned.Catherine seemed to favor financialreform but actually did little.

History

St. Petersburg Czar Peter the Greatgained control of the Neva River andRussian access to the Baltic coast in1703. This date marks the birth of St.Petersburg, the grand capital built ona group of islands in the Neva. Peterthe Great erected magnificent build-ings that included churches, estab-lishments of higher education,government offices, and museums.The city spawned many scientists,writers, and government officials.

Today, St. Petersburg is a majorRussian center of industry andtourism.


EXTENDING THE CONTENTEXTENDING THE CONTENTEXTENDING THE CONTENTSeeds of Change The sixteenth century began with European explorers traveling the globe and initi-ating a process that led to radical changes in the world; the sixteenth century fostered creativity andchange, resulting in new inventions. It experienced the growth of material wealth; it inspired newinterest in learning; and it led to the formation of strong national states. These states would battle forthe next few centuries over political freedom, absolutism, constitutionalism, and nationalism, andmake western Europe a world leader. The forces that began in the sixteenth century have spread toevery continent and influenced development all over the world. Emphasize the importance of thisera in world history. Have students create their own charts that identify changes in world history thatresulted from the European age of exploration and colonization.


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Answer: They had little effect. InPrussia, reforms were very limitedand had no effect on the rigid socialstructure. In Austria, the far-reachingreforms of Joseph II largely failed. InRussia, Catherine appeared receptiveto enlightened reforms but in the enddid nothing.

N

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Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection300 kilometers0

300 miles0

50°N

40°N

0° 10°E 20°E 30°E

NorthSea

Black Sea

Mediterranean Sea

Baltic

Sea

Dnieper R.

Rhine

R.

Danube R.

FRANCE

ENGLAND

SCOTLAND

DENMARK

HUNGARY

POLAND

SWEDEN

NORWAY

Sardinia

Corsica

Sicily

Crete

SILESIA

OTTOMAN

EMPIRE

UNITEDPROVINCES

Paris

Brussels

Aix-la-Chapelle

Rome

Frankfurt

Hamburg

StockholmSt. Petersburg

Moscow

Berlin

Prague

Warsaw

Kiev

Krak´ow

Buda

Vienna

London

The philosophes condemned war as a foolishwaste of life and resources. Despite their words, therivalry among states that led to costly strugglesremained unchanged in eighteenth-century Europe.Europe’s self-governing, individual states werechiefly guided by the self-interest of the rulers.

The eighteenth-century monarchs were concernedwith the balance of power, the idea that states shouldhave equal power in order to prevent any one fromdominating the others. This desire for a balance ofpower, however, did not imply a desire for peace.Large armies created to defend a state’s security wereoften used to conquer new lands as well. As Freder-ick the Great of Prussia remarked, “The fundamentalrule of governments is the principle of extendingtheir territories.”

Evaluating What effect did enlight-ened reforms have in Prussia, Austria, and Russia?

Reading Check


Europe, 1795

War of the Austrian SuccessionIn 1740, a major war broke out in connection with

the succession to the Austrian throne. When the Aus-trian emperor Charles VI died, he was succeeded byhis daughter, Maria Theresa. King Frederick II ofPrussia took advantage of the succession of a womanto the throne of Austria by invading Austrian Silesia.France then entered the war against Austria, its tra-ditional enemy. In turn, Maria Theresa made analliance with Great Britain.

The War of the Austrian Succession (1740 to 1748)was fought in three areas of the world. In Europe,Prussia seized Silesia while France occupied the Aus-trian Netherlands. In the Far East, France tookMadras (today called Chennai) in India from theBritish. In North America, the British captured theFrench fortress of Louisbourg at the entrance to theSt. Lawrence River.

Rulers in Prussia, Austria,and Russia used their posi-tions to increase the powerand well-being of theirstates.

1. Interpreting MapsStudy the borders for theempires shown on themap. What impact doyou think Austria andPrussia had on the unityof the Holy RomanEmpire?

2. Applying GeographySkills Locate the BlackSea and Poland. What isthe significance of thesetwo areas in the historyof Russia during theeighteenth century?

AustriaPrussiaRussiaBoundary of the HolyRoman Empire, 1780



Answers:1. Austria and Prussia diminished

the size of the Holy RomanEmpire.

2. Russia acquired parts of Polandand gained access to an ice-freeport on the Black Sea.

Connecting Across TimeThe sprawling Austrian Empirewas difficult to rule because itwas composed of many separatestates with different nationali-ties, languages, religions, andcultures. Ask students to identifyand describe other states theyhave studied that were difficultto rule. Then ask them to namepresent-day nations that face thesame problems. L2

Writing ActivityAsk students to write a hypo-thetical newspaper article thatmight have appeared at the endof the War of the Austrian Suc-cession. Tell them to describe thecauses of the war and to evalu-ate the war’s results. L2

EXTENDING THE CONTENTEXTENDING THE CONTENTEXTENDING THE CONTENTAustrian Royal Family The Hapsburg family was one of the oldest and most distinguished royaldynasties in Europe, connected to virtually every royal house in Europe. Through marriages andinheritance, the family came to dominate much of Europe. The male line died out in 1740 withEmperor Charles VI, but his daughter Maria Theresa married Francis of Lorraine and began theHapsburg-Lorraine line. The War of the Austrian Succession and the Napoleonic Wars diminished theHapsburg fortune. By 1918, the Austrian Empire had been completely broken up into independentrepublics, although the claim to hereditary titles has been maintained by descendants of the oncegreat family.

SS.A.1.4.2

FCAT LA.E.2.2.1


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Answer: Austria and Great Britain;Prussia and France

Charting ActivityAssign students to construct achart that shows which countrieswere allied with each otherbefore and after the War of theAustrian Succession. Ask themto explain how these newalliances contributed to thecauses of the Seven Years’ War.L1


After seven years of warfare, all parties wereexhausted and agreed to the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. This treaty guaranteed the return ofall occupied territories except Silesia to their originalowners. Prussia’s refusal to return Silesia meant yetanother war between Prussia and Austria.

Describing Name the countries whichfought on each side during the War of the Austrian Succession.

The Seven Years’ WarMaria Theresa refused to accept the loss of Silesia.

She rebuilt her army while working diplomatically toseparate Prussia from its chief ally, France. In 1756,

Reading Check

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The Seven Years’ War was a global war.

1. Interpreting Maps Study the world map above andidentify the areas where conflict erupted during theSeven Years’ War. On what continent did the mostextensive conflicts of the war take place?

2. Interpreting Maps Using the map of Europe on page533, identify the two European alliances and whichcountries belonged to each.

3. Applying Geography Skills Over what geographicalregions did the French and British fight in North Amer-ica? Using the maps and your text, explain why theBritish were able to defeat the French.

Maria Theresa

Seven Years’ War, 1756–1763

Areas of conflictAreas of conflict

Austria achieved what was soon labeled a diplomaticrevolution.

New Allies French-Austrian rivalry had been a factof European diplomacy since the late sixteenth cen-tury. However, two new rivalries now replaced theold one: the rivalry of Britain and France over colo-nial empires and the rivalry of Austria and Prussiaover Silesia. France abandoned Prussia and alliedwith Austria. Russia, which saw Prussia as a majorthreat to Russian goals in central Europe, joined thenew alliance with France and Austria. In turn, Britainallied with Prussia. This diplomatic revolution of1756 led to another worldwide war. The war had



Answers:1. Europe, North America, India;

North America

2. British and Prussians alliedagainst Austrians, Russians, andFrench

3. the waterways of the Gulf of St.Lawrence and the Ohio River Val-ley; British colonies heavily popu-lated, British invested in navy andfocused on war in North Amer-ica, blocked French reinforce-ments

Economics Ask students to formand defend a hypothesis based oneconomic reasons Britain was willingto spend the money necessary tofight the French in North Americaduring the Seven Years’ War. L2

EXTENDING THE CONTENTStaging a Debate Have students hold a mock debate centering on Maria Theresa’s right to rulethe Hapsburg Empire after her father’s death. Although women were not allowed to rule Austria,Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI convinced the monarchs of Europe to accept a pragmatic sanc-tion. This royal decree asked Europe’s rulers to promise not to divide the Hapsburg lands and toaccept female succession to the Austrian throne. The debate topic is: “Should the pragmatic sanc-tion have been honored by Austria’s neighbors? Why or why not?” Students should research thelife and times of Maria Theresa, her father Charles VI, and the status of women at that time. L2


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Writing ActivityIn this chapter, students haveread about the impact of Enlight-enment thought on political sys-tems. Enlightenment thoughtemphasized ideals of equalityand reason that can also befound in political philosophiesfrom earlier civilizations. Askstudents to summarize in anessay the worldwide influence of ideas concerning rights andresponsibilities that originatedfrom Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian ideals such as equalitybefore the law. L2



three major areas of conflict: Europe, India, andNorth America.

The War in Europe Europe witnessed the clash ofthe two major alliances: the British and Prussiansagainst the Austrians, Russians, and French. With hissuperb army and military skill, Frederick the Great ofPrussia was able for some time to defeat the Aus-trian, French, and Russian armies. His forces wereunder attack from three different directions, how-ever, and were gradually worn down.

Frederick faced disaster until Peter III, a new Rus-sian czar who greatly admired Frederick, withdrewRussian troops from the conflict and from the Prus-

sian lands that the Russians had occupied. This with-drawal created a stalemate and led to the desire forpeace. The European war ended in 1763. All occupiedterritories were returned to their original owners,while Austria officially recognized Prussia’s perma-nent control of Silesia.

The War in India The struggle between Britain andFrance in the rest of the world had more decisiveresults. Known as the Great War for Empire, it wasfought in India and North America. The French had returned Madras to Britain after the War of theAustrian Succession, but the struggle in India contin-ued. The British ultimately won out, not because they


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� Historical mapof the siege ofQuebec duringthe French andIndian War British victory

over the French

French and Indian War Seven Years’ War in Europe

Seven Years’ War in India

British territoryFrench territoryDisputed territoryBritish fortFrench fortBritish victoryFrench victoryProclamation Lineof 1763

Austria and alliesPrussia and alliesAustrian victoryPrussian victory



Section Quiz 17–3

Glencoe World History 23

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Column A

1. new, graceful, enthusiastic artistic style of the 1730’s

2. Handel’s best-known religious work

3. monarchical rule by Enlightenment principles

4. traditional Austrian empress

5. alliance of France, Austria, Russia


6. All of the following were outcomes of the Seven Years War in NorthAmerican EXCEPTA. France gave Louisiana to Spain.B. Spanish Florida came under British control.C. Canada became British.D. the 13 Colonies became British.

7. In the War of the Austrian SuccessionA. Prussia invaded Austria. C. France invaded Spain.B. England invaded Austria. D. Austria invaded Prussia.

8. The concern of 18th century monarchs for a balance of power involvedall of the following EXCEPTA. a desire for peace. C. expanded territory.B. larger armies. D. preventing domination by one state.

9. Catherine the Great of Russia did all of the following EXCEPTA. favored the landed nobility. C. enlarged the Russia empire.B. expanded serfdom. D. reformed the law code.

10. Frederick the Great of Prussia A. abolished serfdom. C. replaced aristocratic officers.B. enlarged the army. D. eliminated religious toleration.


Score✔ ScoreChapter 17

Section Quiz 17-3

Column B

A. rococo

B. Maria Theresa

C. diplomaticrevolution

D. Messiah

E. enlightenedabsolutism

CRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITYCRITICAL THINKING ACTIVITYEvaluating Have students assume the role of a political cartoonist or a columnist during the Warof the Austrian Succession or the Seven Years’ War. Ask students to depict or write about a majorevent in a cartoon for a fictitious newspaper, The Prussian Press. Subjects might include thebalance of power in Europe, the fight over Silesia, or alliances formed by different countries. Askstudents to consider whether Prussia would have invaded Austrian Silesia if it had known Englandwould ally itself with Austria and enter the war against Prussia. Have students share their workwith the class. L2

SS.A.2.4.4

L2

SS.A.3.4.6


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1. Key terms are in blue. 2. Bach (p. 527); Handel (p. 527);

Haydn (p. 528); Mozart (p. 528);Frederick the Great (p. 529); MariaTheresa (p. 529); Catherine theGreat (p. 530)

3. See chapter maps. 4. allows religious toleration and

freedom of speech, nurtures arts,

sciences, and education, obeys thelaws and enforces them fairly forall subjects; Answers will vary.

5. Britain and Prussia against Austria,Russia, and France; Britain

6. They did not want to lose power. 7. Joseph II: abolished serfdom and

death penalty, supported religiousreform; Frederick II: abolished tor-

ture, granted limited freedom of speech and press; Catherine II:favored the nobility and expandedserfdom

8. Answers will vary. 9. Answers will vary.

534

Answer: by defeating the French inIndia and in North America; Indiawas left to the British, and FrenchNorth American possessions inCanada and east of the Mississippiwere transferred to Britain

had better forces but because they were more persist-ent. With the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the French with-drew and left India to the British.

The War in North America The greatest conflictsof the Seven Years’ War took place in North America.On the North American continent, the French andBritish colonies were set up differently. French NorthAmerica (Canada and Louisiana) was run by theFrench government as a vast trading area. It wasvaluable for its fur, leather, fish, and timber. TheFrench state was unable to get people to move toNorth America, so its colonies were thinly populated.

British North America consisted of 13 prosperouscolonies on the eastern coast of the present UnitedStates. Unlike the French colonies, the Britishcolonies were more populated, containing more thanone million people by 1750.

The British and French fought over two primaryareas in North America. One consisted of the water-ways of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which were pro-tected by the fortress of Louisbourg and by forts thatguarded French Quebec. The other area that wasfought over was the unsettled Ohio River valley. TheFrench began to move down from Canada and upfrom Louisiana to establish forts in the Ohio Rivervalley. This French activity threatened to cut off theBritish settlers in the 13 colonies from expanding intothis vast area. The French were able to gain the sup-port of the Indians. As traders and not settlers, the

French were viewed by the Indians with less hostilitythan the British.

The French scored a number of victories, at first.British fortunes were revived, however, by the effortsof William Pitt the Elder, Britain’s prime minister. Pittwas convinced that the French colonial empire wouldhave to be destroyed for Britain to create its own colo-nial empire. Pitt’s policy focused on doing little in theEuropean theater of war while putting resources intothe colonial war, especially through the use of theBritish navy. The French had more troops in NorthAmerica but not enough naval support. The defeat ofFrench fleets in major naval battles gave the British anadvantage, because the French could no longer easilyreinforce their garrisons.

A series of British victories soon followed. In 1759,British forces under General Wolfe defeated theFrench under General Montcalm on the Plains ofAbraham, outside Quebec. Both generals died in thebattle. The British went on to seize Montreal, theGreat Lakes area, and the Ohio River Valley. TheFrench were forced to make peace. By the Treaty ofParis, they transferred Canada and the lands east ofthe Mississippi to England. Their ally Spain trans-ferred Spanish Florida to British control. In return,the French gave their Louisiana territory to the Span-ish. By 1763, Great Britain had become the world’sgreatest colonial power.

Explaining How did Great Britainbecome the world’s greatest colonial power?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Define rococo, enlightened absolutism.

2. Identify Bach, Handel, Haydn, Mozart,Frederick the Great, Maria Theresa,Catherine the Great.

3. Locate Prussia, Austria, Russia, Silesia.

4. Describe the characteristics of an ideal enlightened ruler. Do any of theeighteenth-century rulers discussed in this section have the characteristicsof an ideal ruler?

5. List all the countries in the world thatfought in the Seven Years’ War. Whichcountry gained the most territory?

Critical Thinking6. Analyze Why were Enlightenment

ideals never fully practiced by eigh-teenth-century rulers?

7. Compare and Contrast Use a tablelike the one below to compare andcontrast the reforms of Joseph II ofAustria with those of Frederick II ofPrussia and Catherine II of Russia.

Analyzing Visuals8. Identify the theme of the Watteau

painting on page 527. Find anotherexample of rococo painting in an arthistory book in your school’s library(such as a work by Giovanni BattistaTiepolo). Compare this painting toWatteau’s. How are they similar?

9. Expository Writing Listen to aselection of medieval religious musicand of Mozart’s The Magic Flute.Write an essay describing how thetwo pieces are similar and different.What kind of emotion does eachpiece convey?

Joseph II Frederick II Catherine II



Reteaching ActivityAsk students to explain thecauses and effects of the War ofthe Austrian Succession and tellhow the Seven Years’ War grewout of a realignment of power inEurope. L1

4 CLOSEBoth absolute and limitedmonarchies were attempts byEuropean nations to restoreorder and increase stability intheir societies. Which countriesand rulers do students think bestsucceeded in reaching this goal?L2

ELL



Do you like classical music? Do you enjoy attending symphony performances? Whatcomposers do you like best?

In the last section, you read about the ideas of the Enlightenment. In this section, youwill learn how these ideas had an impact on art, music, literature, and politics duringthe eighteenth century. Some of the world’s greatest composers lived during this period.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII



THE IMPACT OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT

KEY TERMS

rococo an artistic style in the eighteenth century that emphasized grace, charm, and gentleaction (page 527)

enlightened absolutism a type of monarchy in which rulers tried to govern by Enlightenmentprinciples, while maintaining their royal powers (page 529)

Name Date Class

L1/ELL

FCAT LA.E.2.2.1

SS.A.3.4.6


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ANSWERS TO PRACTICING THE SKILL1. This is a formal outline.2. I. Changes in Astronomy; and II. Changes in Medicine3. They both relate to Newton, telling us more about

him.4. All entries at the third level (Arabic numerals) begin

with a verb, which is followed by a phrase that servesas the object of that verb.

Applying the Skill: Students will create an outline ofSection 3 of this chapter. After they are finished, havestudents review their outlines to make sure that they aregrammatically consistent.

535

TEACHOutlining On the chalkboard, write thefollowing main headings for an informaloutline about activities of a typical schoolday: Morning, Afternoon, Evening. Havestudents add indented subheads and fur-ther indented supporting details undereach main head. For example: At homeand At school could be subheads underMorning. Get up, Get dressed, and Eatbreakfast could be details under At home.Be sure students have at least two sub-heads under each head and at least twodetails under each subhead. Convert stu-dents’ outlines to formal outlines by plac-ing Roman numerals, capital letters, andArabic numerals in the appropriate places.Then have students read the skill andcomplete the practice questions. L1

Additional Practice

OutliningWhy Learn This Skill?

Outlining is a useful skill for both taking notesand writing papers. When you are studying writtenmaterial, use outlining to organize information. This not only helps you absorb the material, butlater you will have useful notes to review for classor tests. When you are writing a paper, outlining isa good starting point for putting information in alogical order. Then use the material in the outline towrite your paragraphs and arrange your essay.

Learning the SkillThere are two kinds of outlines—formal and

informal. An informal outline is similar to takingnotes and is useful for reviewing for a test.

• Write only words and phrases needed to remem-ber ideas.

• Note related but less important details under themain ideas.A formal outline has a standard format. In a for-

mal outline:

• Label main heads with Roman numerals, sub-heads with capital letters, and details with Arabicnumerals.

• Have at least two entries for each level.

• Indent each level from the level above.

• Use the same grammatical form for all entries. Ifone entry is a complete sentence, all other entriesat that level must be complete sentences.

Practicing the SkillStudy the following outline and then answer

these questions.I. Changes in Astronomy

A. Galileo Galilei1. Used the telescope to observe the heavens2. Condemned by the Catholic Church

B. Isaac Newton1. Tied together the work of Copernicus,

Kepler, and Galileo

2. Published the Principiaa. Defined the three laws of motionb. Proved the universal law of gravitation

II. Changes in MedicineA. Andreas Vesalius

1. Dissected human bodies for the first accu-rate descriptions of human anatomy

2. Published On the Fabric of the Human BodyB. William Harvey

1. Wrote the theory of blood circulation2. Published Motion of the Heart and Blood

1 Is this a formal or an informal outline?

2 What are the two main headings?

3 How does each subhead under “Isaac Newton”support the topic of the level above it?

4 Give two examples of grammatical consistency.

535

Applying the Skill

Using the guidelines above, create a formal outline forSection 3 of this chapter.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 2, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

Nicholas Copernicus observing an eclipse of the moon

CD-ROMGlencoe Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook CD-ROM, Level 2

This interactive CD-ROM reinforcesstudent mastery of essential socialstudies skills.

Skills ReinforcementActivity 17

Name Date Class

Outlining helps you organize informationfor writing. An informal outline is similar totaking notes—you write words and phrasesyou need to remember main ideas. In con-trast, a formal outline has a standard for-mat. To formally outline information, firstread the text to identify the main ideas.Label these with Roman numerals. Next,

write subtopics under each main idea. Labelthese with capital letters. Then write sup-porting details for each subtopic, and labelthese with Arabic numerals. Each levelshould have at least two entries and shouldbe indented from the level above. All entriesshould use the same grammatical form,whether phrases or complete sentences.

Skills Reinforcement Activity 17✎

Outlining

DIRECTIONS: Use the informal notes below and material from Section 4 of your text to createa formal outline for the American Revolution.

Seven Years’ War results in need for British revenues

Stamp Act imposed, 1765

FCAT LA.A.2.4.1

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536

1721Robert Walpole becomescabinet head in Britain

1776American Revolutionbegins

Guide to Reading

Colonial Empires and the American Revolution

Preview of Events

1714The Hanoveriandynasty is established

1783Treaty of Paris recognizesAmerican independence

1757William Pitt the Elderbecomes cabinet head

✦1715 ✦1730 ✦1745 ✦1760 ✦1775 ✦1790

Main Ideas• The colonies of Latin America and

British North America were developingin ways that differed from their Euro-pean mother countries.

• The American colonies revolted againstGreat Britain and formed a new nation.

Key Termsmestizo, mulatto, federal system

People to IdentifySor Juana Inés de la Cruz, Hanoverians,Robert Walpole

Places to LocateBrazil, Yorktown

Preview Questions1. What were the chief characteristics of

Latin American society?2. What caused the American Revolution,

and what did it accomplish?

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Use a chartlike the one below to identify key aspectsof the government created by the Ameri-can colonists.

NewAmerican Government

On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted a resolution declaringthe independence of the American colonies. It read:

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that theyare endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these areLife, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governmentsare instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the gov-erned. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, itis the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it and to institute new Government.”

—The Declaration of Independence

The ideas of the Enlightenment had clearly made an impact on the colonies inNorth America. Despite their close ties to their European mother countries, thecolonies of Latin America and British North America were developing in ways thatsometimes differed significantly from those of Europe.

Colonial Empires in Latin AmericaIn the sixteenth century, Portugal came to dominate Brazil. At the same time,

Spain established an enormous colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere thatincluded parts of North America, Central America, and most of South America.Within the lands of Central America and South America, a new civilization arose,which we call Latin America.






Reproducible Masters• Reproducible Lesson Plan 17–4• Daily Lecture and Discussion Notes 17–4• Guided Reading Activity 17–4• Section Quiz 17–4• Reading Essentials and Study Guide 17–4

Transparencies• Daily Focus Skills Transparency 17–4




Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ANSWERS1. Treaty of Paris 2. 1774 3. ratification of the UnitedStates Constitution


UNIT

3Chapter 17

What treaty ended theRevolutionary War?

When did the FirstContinental Congress meet?

Which came first,ratification of the UnitedStates Constitution or theBill of Rights?

1 2 3

1765

Parliamentimposesthe StampAct on thecolonies

From Colony to Democratic Nation

1766

The StampAct isrepealed

1791

Bill of Rightsapproved

1774

FirstContinentalCongressmeets

1775

Battles ofLexingtonand Concord

1776

Declaration ofIndependenceapproved

1781

Articles ofConfederationgo into effect

1783

Treaty ofParis endsRevolutionaryWar

1788

United StatesConstitutionratified

1760 1780 17901770



1 FOCUSSection OverviewThis section explores Europeancolonization in North Americaand South America and how itled to revolution.


1

Guide to Reading

Answers to Graphic: New AmericanGovernment: central federal govern-ment superior to governments of the individual states; divided intothree branches (executive, legislative,judicial); Constitution the supremelaw of the land; Bill of Rights guaran-tees specific rights

Preteaching VocabularyExplain the federal system of govern-ment. (The federal system sharespower between the state govern-ments and the national government.It is the model upon which the UnitedStates Constitution is based.) L2

0508-0543 C17 TE-860703 3/11/04 2:03 PM Page 536

537

2 TEACH

Latin America was a multiracial society. Already by1501, Spanish rulers permitted intermarriage betweenEuropeans and Native Americans, whose offspringbecame known as mestizos (meh•STEE•zohz). Inaddition, over a period of three centuries, possibly asmany as 8 million African slaves were brought to Span-ish and Portuguese America to work the plantations.Mulattoes—the offspring of Africans and Euro-peans—joined mestizos and other descendants ofEuropeans, Africans, and Native Americans to pro-duce a unique society in Latin America.

Economic Foundations Both the Portuguese andthe Spanish sought ways to profit from their coloniesin Latin America. One source of wealth came fromabundant supplies of gold and silver, which weresent to Europe. Farming, however, proved to be amore long-lasting and rewarding source of prosper-ity for Latin America.

A noticeable feature of Latin American agriculturewas the dominant role of the large landowner. Both

Spanish and Portuguese landowners createdimmense estates. Native Americans either worked onthe estates or worked as poor farmers on marginallands. This system of large landowners and depend-ent peasants has remained a lasting feature of LatinAmerican society.

Trade provided another avenue for profit. In addi-tion to gold and silver, a number of other naturalproducts were shipped to Europe, including sugar,tobacco, diamonds, and animal hides. In turn, themother countries supplied their colonists with man-ufactured goods.

Both Spain and Portugal closely regulated the tradeof their American colonies to keep others out. By thebeginning of the eighteenth century, however, both theBritish and the French had become too powerful to bekept out of the lucrative Latin American markets.

State and Church Portuguese Brazil and SpanishLatin America were colonial empires that lastedover three hundred years. The difficulties of


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Colonial Latin America to 1750

In the sixteenth century,Portugal and Spain began toestablish colonies in LatinAmerica. Their colonialempires lasted over threehundred years.

1. Interpreting MapsWhat countries in addi-tion to Portugal andSpain had colonies inLatin America?

2. Applying GeographySkills Locate the routesof colonial trade on themap. From what cities orports did the routes orig-inate? What productswere exported from LatinAmerica?

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SUGARSantiagoSanto

Domingo

Portuguese coloniesby 1750Portuguese frontierlands, 1750Spanish coloniesby 1750Spanish frontierlands, 1750French coloniesDutch coloniesBritish coloniesJesuit mission statesRoutes of colonialtradeExtent of IncanEmpire, 1525ProductsGOLD




Name Date Class



1. In the sixteenth century, Portugal came to dominate , and Spain's

empire included parts of , and

America.

2. By 1501, Spanish rulers permitted between Europeans and Native

Americans, whose offspring became known as .

3. A noticeable feature of Latin American was the dominant role of

the large landowner.

4. Portuguese Brazil and Spanish Latin America were colonial that

lasted over three hundred years.

5 Catholic missionaries especially the and


Answers:1. French, Dutch, and British

2. Rio Grande, Bahia, Belém, Cara-cas, Panama; products includedtobacco, sugar, cotton, diamonds,hides, copper, silver, mercury,cocoa, and gold

EXTENDING THE CONTENTStaging a Debate As European powers colonized the Americas, they carried on the agricultural tra-dition of landowners creating immense estates. The native inhabitants of the colonized areas couldeither work on the estates or subsist as poor farmers on the margins of these estates. Organize aclass debate in which the two sides discuss whether this seems to be a fair system. One factor stu-dents should consider is whether this system leads to social unrest, considering that it emerged atthe same time capitalism and industrialization were establishing themselves in Europe and thecolonies. Students should also research if this system is still used, and if so, where. L1



I. Colonial Empires in Latin America (pages 536–538)

A. After the Spanish and Portuguese colonized the Americas, a new civilization arose thatwe call Latin America. Colonies often developed differently from the parent country.

B. Latin America was a multiracial society. Europeans and Native Americans intermar-ried; their offspring were known as mestizos. Close to 8 millions slaves were broughtto these countries. Mulattos—offspring of Europeans and Africans—were also part ofthe unique society of Latin America.

C. The Portuguese and Spanish sought ways to profit from their colonies. One source wasgold and silver, but farming was more lucrative in the long run. An important featureof Latin American agriculture was the large landowner. The system of large landown-ers and dependent peasants has remained a lasting part of Latin America.

D. Trade between the parent country and colony also was profitable. Spain and Portugalboth regulated their colonies to keep others out. By the beginning of the eighteenthcentury, both France and Britain were getting too large to be kept out of the lucrativeLatin American markets.



Did You Know? Some believe that Crispus Attucks, a formerslave, was the first American to fall during the Boston Massacre onMarch 5, 1770. He is generally considered the first man to lose hislife in the fight for American independence. His body lay in statefor three days in Boston’s Faneuil Hall. In 1888 a monument honor-ing Attucks was unveiled in the Boston Commons.


Critical ThinkingAfter they have read this section,ask students to identify thecauses and evaluate the effects of the American Revolution. L1

L1/ELL

SS.A.3.4.6


21

SS.B.2.4.1

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538

Answer: gold and silver that weresent to Europe; farming; trade

Answer: England and Scotland; boththe English and the Scots

communication and travel between the Americasand Europe made the attempts of the Spanish andPortuguese monarchs to provide close regulation oftheir empires virtually impossible. As a result, colo-nial officials in Latin America had much freedom incarrying out imperial policies.

From the beginning of their conquest of the NewWorld, Spanish and Portuguese rulers were deter-mined to Christianize the native peoples. This policygave the Catholic Church an important role to play inthe Americas—a role that added considerably to theChurch’s power.

Catholic missionaries—especially the Domini-cans, Franciscans, and Jesuits—fanned out to differ-ent parts of the Spanish Empire. To make their effortseasier, the missionaries brought Native Americanstogether into villages, or missions, where the nativepeoples could be converted, taught trades, andencouraged to grow crops. Missions enabled mis-sionaries to control the lives of the Native Americansand keep them as docile members of the empire.

The Catholic Church built cathedrals, hospitals,orphanages, and schools in the colonies. The schoolstaught Native American students the basics of read-ing, writing, and arithmetic. The Catholic Churchalso provided an outlet other than marriage forwomen. They could enter convents and become nuns.

As in Europe, women in colonial religiousorders—many of them of aristocratic background—

often lived well. Many nuns worked outside theirconvents by running schools and hospitals. Indeed,one of these nuns, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, urgedthat women be educated.

Explaining How did the Portugueseand the Spanish profit from their colonies in Latin America?

Britain and British North AmericaThe United Kingdom of Great Britain came into

existence in 1707, when the governments of Englandand Scotland were united. The term British came torefer to both the English and the Scots.

In eighteenth-century Britain, the monarch and theParliament shared power, with Parliament graduallygaining the upper hand. The monarch chose ministerswho were responsible to the Crown and who set pol-icy and guided Parliament. Parliament had the powerto make laws, levy taxes, pass the budget, and indi-rectly influence the ministers of the monarch.

In 1714, a new dynasty—the Hanoverians—wasestablished when the last Stuart ruler, Queen Anne,died without an heir. The crown was offered to hernearest relatives, Protestant rulers of the Germanstate of Hanover. The first Hanoverian king, GeorgeI, did not speak English, and neither the first nor thesecond George knew the British system very well.Therefore, their chief ministers were allowed to han-dle Parliament.

Robert Walpole served as head of cabinet (latercalled prime minister) from 1721 to 1742 and pursueda peaceful foreign policy. However, growing tradeand industry led to an ever-increasing middle class.The middle class favored expansion of trade and ofBritain’s world empire. They found a spokesman inWilliam Pitt the Elder, who became head of cabinet in1757. He expanded the British Empire by acquiringCanada and India in the Seven Years’ War.

In North America, then, Britain controlled Canadaas well as 13 colonies on the eastern coast of the pres-ent United States. The British colonies were thicklypopulated, containing more than one million peopleby 1750. They were also prosperous.

The colonies were supposedly run by the BritishBoard of Trade, the Royal Council, and Parliament,but the colonies actually had legislatures that tendedto act independently. Merchants in port cities such asBoston, Philadelphia, New York, and Charleston didnot want the British government to run their affairs.

Explaining What countries made upGreat Britain in the 1700s? To whom does the term British refer?

Reading Check

Reading Check

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz1651–1695—Mexican poet

Juana Inés de la Cruz was one ofseventeenth-century Latin America’sbest-known literary figures. She wasan avid learner but was denied admis-sion to the University of Mexico becauseshe was a woman. As a result of this rejection,she chose to enter a convent, where she could writepoetry and plays. She said, “Who has forbidden womento engage in private and individual studies? Have theynot a rational soul as men do?”

By her late thirties, she had become famous as agreat poet. Denounced by her bishop for writing secularliterature, she agreed to stop writing and devote herselfto purely religious activities. She died at the age of 43while nursing the sick during an epidemic in Mexico City.




Economics Ask students to iden-tify other conflicts that they havestudied that were based on heavytaxation. Do students believe that theAmerican Revolution would havebeen avoided if the British hadallowed colonists to have a voice inthe passage of tax laws? L2

Writing ActivityAsk students to research acts ofParliament that caused conflictsin the colonies. (Stamp Act,Declaratory Act, Intolerable Acts,Quebec Act, tax on tea) Have stu-dents write essays discussingwhy the colonists disliked theseacts. (They had no representation inParliament.) L1 L2

EXTENDING THE CONTENTEXTENDING THE CONTENTEXTENDING THE CONTENTMargaret Brent If students are interested in the story of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, they mightalso be interested in learning about another woman who wanted her share of civil and politicalrights. Margaret Brent, who was born a Roman Catholic, emigrated to Maryland in 1683 and wasone of the first single women to own land in her own name. She acted as an attorney for Lord Baltimore and won fame as being “as brave as a man.” Feeling she had proved her abilities, sheasked for the right to vote. The colonial assembly refused her request, so she simply took herassets to Virginia where, still without a vote, she lived for the remainder of her life.

EnrichThe United States Declaration of Independence is one of theworld’s most significant histori-cal documents. Have studentslocate a copy of this documentand read it together in class.Guide students in a discussion inwhich they identify the impactof the political and legal ideascontained in the Declaration. L2

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539

The American RevolutionAfter the Seven Years’ War, British lead-

ers wanted to get new revenues from thecolonies. These revenues would be used tocover war costs, as well as to pay for theexpenses of maintaining an army to defendthe colonies.

In 1765, the Parliament imposed theStamp Act on the colonies. The act requiredthat certain printed materials, such as legaldocuments and newspapers, carry a stampshowing that a tax had been paid toBritain. Opposition was widespread andoften violent, and the act was repealed in1766. The crisis was over, but the cause ofthe dispute was not resolved.

The War Begins Crisis followed crisis in the 1770s.To counteract British actions, the colonies organizedthe First Continental Congress, which met inPhiladelphia in September 1774. Outspoken mem-bers urged colonists to “take up arms and organizemilitias.”

Fighting finally erupted between colonists and theBritish army in April 1775 in Lexington and Concord,Massachusetts. The Second Continental Congress metsoon afterward and formed an army, called the Conti-nental Army, with George Washington as commanderin chief. Still, the colonists did not rush headlong intowar. After the fighting in Lexington and Concord,more than a year passed before the decision was madeto declare independence from the British Empire.

On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congressapproved a declaration of independence written byThomas Jefferson. A stirring political document, theDeclaration of Independence declared the colonies tobe “free and independent states absolved from allallegiance to the British Crown.” The American Rev-olution had formally begun.

The war against Great Britain was a great gamble.Britain was a strong military power with enormousfinancial resources. The Continental Army of theAmericans was made up of undisciplined amateurswho agreed to serve for only a short time.

Foreign Support and British Defeat Of greatimportance to the colonies’ cause was support fromforeign countries. These nations were eager to gainrevenge for earlier defeats at the hands of the British.

The French supplied arms and money to the rebelsfrom the beginning of the war. French officers andsoldiers also served in Washington’s army. In February


Lord Cornwallis surrendering to George Washington (left of the American flag)

1778, following a British defeat, the French granteddiplomatic recognition to the American state.

Spain and the Dutch Republic also entered the waragainst Great Britain. Now, the British were facedwith war against much of Europe, as well as againstthe Americans.

When the army of General Cornwallis was forcedto surrender to combined American and Frenchforces under Wash-ington at Yorktownin 1781, the Britishdecided to end thewar. The Treaty ofParis, signed in 1783,recognized the inde-pendence of theAmerican colonies and granted the Americans con-trol of the western territory from the Appalachians tothe Mississippi River.

Explaining Why did foreign coun-tries support the American cause?

The Birth of a New NationAmericans created a new social

contract in 1788. The creation of the Constitution madeEnlightenment concepts of liberty and representativegovernment a reality for the first time. The 13 American colonies had gained their inde-

pendence. The former colonies were now states. Thestates feared concentrated power, however, and eachone was primarily concerned for its own interests. Forthese reasons, they had little enthusiasm for creatinga united nation with a strong central government.

Reading Check

NewJersey

Md. Delaware

Virginia

Pennsylvania

North Carolina

Yorktown ATLANTICOCEAN



Discuss with students the historicaland global impact of the U.S. Consti-tution and the U.S. representativegovernment. L1 ELL

Answer: Some foreign countrieswere eager to gain revenge for ear-lier defeats at the hands of theBritish.

Charting ActivityHave students create a chart that summarizes the ideas fromthe American Revolution con-cerning separation of powers,liberty, equality, democracy, popular sovereignty, humanrights, constitutionalism, andnationalism. L3



Section Quiz 17–4


Column A

1. offspring of Africans and Europeans

2. offspring of Europeans and Native Americans

3. major intent of Spanish and Portuguese conquerors

4. British tax on certain printed materials

5. sharing of power between national and state governments


6. The first American constitution was the A. Bill of Rights. C. Stamp Act.


✔ ScoreChapter 17

Section Quiz 17-4

Column B

A. Christianizing

B. meztizos

C. federal system

D. mulattoes

E. Stamp Act

SS.A.3.4.6

L2


1

READING THE TEXT

Making Inferences In spite of the many hardships of life in North America, colonists, in general,had longer lives, produced more children, and had a higher standard of living than their Europeancounterparts. Food was more plentiful and famine was rare. Many colonists wrote to family mem-bers back in England that they ate food every day that English peasants would only eat on holi-days. Because the population was more scattered and younger (16 was the average age in thecolonies in 1790), Americans were less susceptible to disease and epidemics. Ask students to inferwhy life for colonists generally improved as soon as they settled in North America. L2

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1. Key terms are in blue. 2. Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (p. 538);

Hanoverians (p. 538); Robert Wal-pole (p. 538)

3. See chapter maps. 4. established missions to convert

natives; taught trades and encour-aged agriculture; built cathedrals,hospitals, orphanages, and schoolswhere natives could be taught

basics of reading, writing, andarithmetic

5. freedom of religion, speech, press,petition, and assembly

6. The British Parliament imposedunpopular taxes on the colonists,which led to widespread opposi-tion and eventually to fightingbetween the colonists and theBritish army.

7. See p. 539. 8. The painting shows a collaborative,

representative government. 9. Answers will vary but should be

supported by logic.

540

Reteaching ActivityAsk students to make charts thatlist the events that led to theAmerican Revolution. Helpthem fill in information underthe following headings: Event,Date, What Occurred, Outcome. L1

4 CLOSEReview the social and economicconditions in Latin America dur-ing the eighteenth century. Thenask students to describe how theBritish ruled their Americancolonies. Ask students to identifywhat aspects of British rule ledto the American Revolution. L2

ELL

The Articles of Confederation, the Americannation’s first constitution, thus did little to providefor a strong central government. It soon became clearthat the government under the Articles lacked thepower to deal with the new nation’s problems. Amovement for a different form of national govern-ment arose.

The Articles of Confederation had been approvedin 1781. In the summer of 1787, 55 delegates met inPhiladelphia to revise the Articles. That meetingbecame known as the Constitutional Convention.The convention’s delegates decided to write a planfor an entirely new national government.

The Constitution The proposed Constitution cre-ated a federal system in which power would beshared between the national government and thestate governments. The national, or federal, govern-ment was given the power to levy taxes, raise anarmy, regulate trade, and create a national currency.

The federal government was divided into threebranches, each with some power to check the work-ings of the others. The first branch was the executivebranch. A president served as the chief executive. Thepresident had the power to execute laws, veto thelegislature’s acts, supervise foreign affairs, and directmilitary forces.

The second branch of government was the legisla-tive branch. It consisted of two houses—the Senate,with members elected by the state legislatures, andthe House of Representatives. Representatives wereelected directly by the people.

The Supreme Court and other courts “as deemednecessary” by Congress provided the third branch ofgovernment, the judicial branch. The courts wouldenforce the Constitution as the “supreme law of theland.”

According to the Constitutional Convention, theConstitution would have to be ratified, or approved,by nine states before it could take effect. The Consti-tution was eventually approved, but in several statesthe margin was slim.

The Bill of Rights Important to the eventual adop-tion of the Constitution was a promise to add a bill ofrights. In 1789 the new Congress proposed 12 amend-ments, and the 10 that were approved by the statesbecame known as the Bill of Rights.

These 10 amendments guaranteed freedom of reli-gion, speech, press, petition, and assembly. Theygave Americans the right to bear arms and to be pro-tected against unreasonable searches and arrests.They guaranteed trial by jury, due process of law, andthe protection of property rights.

Many of the rights in the Bill of Rights were derivedfrom the natural rights proposed by the eighteenth-century philosophes. Many European intellectualssaw the American Revolution as the embodiment ofthe Enlightenment’s political dreams. The premises ofthe Enlightenment seemed confirmed. A new age anda better world could be achieved.

Contrasting What was the maindifference between the Articles of Confederation and theConstitution?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Define mestizo, mulatto, federal

system.

2. Identify Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz,Hanoverians, Robert Walpole.

3. Locate Brazil, Yorktown.

4. Explain the role of the Catholic Churchand its missionaries in colonial LatinAmerica.

5. List the freedoms guaranteed underthe American Bill of Rights.

Critical Thinking6. Summarize Why did the American

colonies declare their independencefrom the British Empire?

7. Summarizing Information Use a chartlike the one below to identify the signif-icant events and conflicts between theBritish and the colonists leading to theAmerican Revolution.

Analyzing Visuals8. Examine the depiction of the signing

of the Declaration of Independence onpage 370. What principles of govern-ment and citizenship are illustrated in the painting?

Conflicts Between British and Colonists

9. Expository Writing Do furtherresearch on how the French sup-ported the colonies during theAmerican Revolution. Then write anessay analyzing the importance ofthe French assistance to the Ameri-can colonists.



Answer: The Constitution created astronger central government.



What rights are guaranteed to all Americans by the Constitution? Which of theserights do you consider most important? Why?

In the last two sections, you read about the impact of Enlightenment ideas onEuropean life during the eighteenth century. The ideas of the Enlightenment also madea strong impact on the colonies in North America, which eventually led to the AmericanRevolution. Many of these ideas were incorporated into the Declaration of



COLONIAL EMPIRES AND THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

KEY TERMS

mestizo the offspring of Europeans and Native Americans (page 537)

mulatto the offspring of Africans and Europeans (page 537)

federal system a system of government in which power is shared between the national, or fed-eral, government and the state governments (page 540)

Name Date Class

L1/ELL

FCAT LA.A.1.4.2

SS.A.3.4.6


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ANSWERS TO ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES

1. The town is governed by two priests, a curate and asub-curate. Everything in the mission (food, clothing)is owned by the entire community, and the surplus istaken to Spanish towns where it is traded for neededgoods.

2. Azara thinks that it deprives people of any incentive towork hard, or to use their reason or talent.

3. Answers will vary. Students should support theiranswers with specific references to Azara’s descrip-tion. Students should realize that the lives of theGuarani were tightly controlled, and labor was forced,not voluntary.

541

541

The MissionIN 1609, TWO JESUIT PRIESTSset out as missionaries to theGuarani Indians in easternParaguay. Eventually, theJesuits established more than30 missions in the region.This description of a Jesuitmission in Paraguay waswritten by Félix de Azara, aSpanish soldier and scientist.

“Having spoken of thetowns founded by the Jesuit fathers, and of themanner in which they were founded, I shall discussthe government which they established in them. . . .In each town resided two priests, a curate and asub-curate, who had certain assigned tasks.

The curate allowed no one to work for personalgain; he compelled everyone, without distinction ofage or sex, to work for the community, and he him-self saw to it that all were equally fed and dressed.For this purpose the curates placed in storehousesall the fruits of agriculture and the products ofindustry, selling in the Spanish towns their surplusof cotton, cloth, tobacco, vegetables, skins, andwood, transporting them in their own boats downthe nearest rivers, and returning with whatever wasrequired.

From the foregoing one may infer that the curatesdisposed of the surplus funds of the Indian towns,and that no Indian could aspire to own private prop-erty. This deprived them of any incentive to use rea-son or talent, since the most industrious, able, andworthy person had the same food, clothing, andpleasures as the most wicked, dull, and indolent. Italso follows that although this form of governmentwas well designed to enrich the communities it also caused the Indian to work at a languid pace,since the wealth of his community was of no con-cern to him.

It must be said that although the Jesuit fatherswere supreme in all respects, they employed their

authority with a mildness and restraint that com-mand admiration. They supplied everyone withabundant food and clothing. They compelled themen to work only half a day, and did not drive themto produce more. Even their labor was given a fes-tive air, for they went in procession to the fields, tothe sound of music. . . . They gave them many holi-days, dances, and tournaments, dressing the actorsand the members of the municipal councils in goldor silver tissue and the most costly European gar-ments, but they permitted the women to act only asspectators.”

—Félix de Azara, Description and History ofParaguay and Rio de la Plata

Seventeenth-century mission in Paraguay

PARAGUAY

BOLIVIA

ARGENTINA

BRAZIL

Analyzing Primary Sources

1. How is the mission town’s government and eco-nomic system structured?2. What problems does Azara see in thetown’s system?3. How might a Native American’sdescription of the mission differ fromAzara’s European perspective?

TEACHAnalyzing Primary SourcesExplain to the class that Spainand Portugal were predomi-nantly Roman Catholic coun-tries. The Jesuits were extremelydedicated to proselytizing theirfaith, especially among nativepeople in Latin America.

Discuss with students how theJesuits changed the social struc-ture of Indian towns, and askthem to describe life within themission.

Ask students to explain howthe Jesuits ruled the Indian con-verts. (with kindness, fairly) Towhat do they attribute this exer-cise of authority? (their religion)L2

EnrichAsk interested students toresearch the Jesuit missions inSouth America. Where did theJesuits establish missions? Wereall of their interactions withNative Americans similar towhat is described in The Mission?What happened to the Jesuitmissions in South America? Dothey still exist? Have studentsreport their findings to the class.L2


1

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MJ

MindJogger VideoquizUse the MindJogger Videoquiz to review Chapter 17 content.

Available in VHS.

CHAPTER 17 Revolution and Enlightenment542

Using Key Terms1. The is a systematic procedure for collecting and ana-

lyzing evidence.

2. The idea that Earth is at the center of the universe is called aor system.

3. In the Americas, the offspring of European and Americannative peoples were called .

4. A new type of monarchy called was influenced byreform-minded philosophes.

5. In the , power is shared between the national govern-ment and the state government.

6. When scientists proceed from the particular to the generalthey are using .

7. The belief that the Sun is at the center of the universe iscalled a theory.

8. The intellects, or thinkers, of the Enlightenment, were gener-ally called .

9. Descartes is known as the father of .

10. The doctrine that maintains that the state should not inter-vene in economics is called .

Reviewing Key Facts11. History What was the Enlightenment?

As the Scientific Revolution and the ideas of the Enlightenment spread across Europe, innovations basedon science and reason came into conflict with traditional beliefs, as shown in the chart below.

12. Government Name two of the three groups that officiallyran the 13 British colonies in North America.

13. Government According to Adam Smith, what is the properrole of government in society?

14. Culture Name two early eighteenth-century composers whohave stood out as musical geniuses of the baroque style.

15. History What country challenged Spanish power in theAmericas?

16. Culture What did Henry Fielding write about in his novels?What was his most popular work?

17. Science and Technology How did Newton explain the uni-versal law of gravitation?

18. Culture Why is Mary Wollstonecraft often considered thefounder of the modern women’s movement?

19. Culture In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding,what ideas did John Locke propose?

20. History What was the major accomplishment of the SecondContinental Congress?

Critical Thinking21. Making Generalizations Describe inductive reasoning and

give an example of finding scientific truth by using inductiveprinciples.

22. Summarizing Explain how separation of powers works inthe American government today and give specific examples.

Copernicus theorizes that Earth revolves aroundthe Sun.

Vesalius makes discoveries in anatomy.

Boyle discovers that air is not a basic element.

Philosophes believe that the universe is structured,orderly, and governed by systematic laws.

Deism, a new religious concept based on reasonand natural law, emerges.

Diderot publishes new scientific theories in theEncyclopedia.

Enlightened rulers implement political andhumanitarian reforms.

The Church teaches that Earth is the center of the universe.

French lawmakers consider dissecting human bodies illegal.

Alchemists believe that all matter is made from four elements:earth, water, fire, and air.

Rousseau criticizes the emphasis on reason and promotes acting upon instinct.

Traditional views of established, organized religions are widespread.

The Catholic Church bans the Encyclopedia, and its editor is sentto prison.

Powerful nobles and church leaders fear losing power and reject mostpolitical reforms.

Conflict or ReactionInnovation

542

Using Key Terms 1. scientific method 2. Ptolemaic; geocentric 3. mestizos 4. enlightenedabsolutism 5. federal system 6. inductivereasoning 7. heliocentric 8. philosophes9. rationalism 10. laissez-faire

Reviewing Key Facts11. a movement of intellectuals who

were greatly impressed withachievements of the Scientific Revolution

12. British Board of Trade, the RoyalCouncil, and Parliament (students willname only two of these)

13. to protect society from invasion,defend its citizens, and maintain certain public works such as roads(it should not interfere in economicmatters)

14. Bach and Handel

15. Britain

16. people without morals who survivedby their wits; The History of TomJones, a Foundling

17. in mathematical terms, that everyobject in the universe is attracted toevery other object by a force calledgravity

18. She made a strong argument for therights of women in her book A Vin-dication of the Rights of Women.

19. Every person is born with a tabularasa; all knowledge comes from ourenvironment and reason.

20. On July 4, 1776, it approved theDeclaration of Independence, triggering the American War of Independence.

Critical Thinking21. Inductive reasoning proceeds from the particular to

the general. Systematic observations and carefullyorganized experiments to test hypotheses lead to correct general principles. Examples will vary butshould illustrate these principles.

22. The president serves as head of the executive branch,Congress makes up the legislative branch, and theSupreme Court and other courts make up the judicial

branch. Specific examples will vary but may include thepresident’s vetoing legislation, the Supreme Court’soverturning laws, etc.

Writing About History23. John Locke believed that people are molded by experi-

ence, and if they were exposed to the right influencesthey could be changed and a new society created. Mon-tesquieu probably had the most influence on the writers

Chapter 17Assessment and Activities

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Chapter 17Assessment and Activities

543

HISTORY

Have students visit the Web site atto review Chapter

17 and take the Self-Check Quiz.

StandardizedTest Practice

Answer: BAnswer Explanation: Studentsshould use their knowledge ofworld history to determine thevalidity of each statement.

of the Constitution, with his proposal for a system of separation of powers in government. Rousseaubelieved in a social contract, whereby an entire societyagrees to be governed by its general will, and that peo-ple gain freedom by being forced to follow what is bestfor the general will. The Constitution is, in essence, asocial contract, and our democratic government “forces”citizens to abide by the general will in the form of lawspassed by our elected representatives. Voltaire believedthat all men are brothers and that governments should

be tolerant of all religions, which may have influencedthe guarantee of freedom of religion provided by theBill of Rights. Last part of question calls for opinion. Stu-dents’ answers should be backed by logical arguments.

Analyzing Sources24. through experience

25. by observation of external sensible objects

wh.glencoe.com

Applying Technology Skills26. Answers will vary. Students will cre-

ate charts.

Making Decisions27. Answers will vary but should be con-

sistent with the material presented inthis chapter.

Analyzing Maps and Charts28. Cuba and Hispaniola

29. Havana, Guadeloupe, Martinique

30. 1,400 miles (2,253 km)

Self-Check QuizVisit the Glencoe World History Web site at

and click on Chapter 17–Self-CheckQuiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.wh.glencoe.com

HISTORY


CHAPTER 17 Revolution and Enlightenment 543

Analyzing Maps and Charts28. What are the two largest islands in the Caribbean?

29. Name the battles fought in the West Indies during the SevenYears’ War.

30. What is the approximate distance from Havana to Martinique?

Directions: Use the time line and yourknowledge of world history to answer the following question.

Which one of the following statements is supported by theinformation on the time line?

A Most Europeans supported their monarchs completely.

B Many people questioned the nature of theirgovernments.

C There were few political problems in the 1750s.

D Only men thought and wrote about politics.

Test-Taking Tip: With a time line question, you may needto make an inference. Look for clues in the test questionand time line. In this case, think about what the events onthe time line have in common. These clues can help youmake an inference that is supported by the time line.

N

S

EW

300 kilometers0Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

300 miles0

20°N

10°N 80°W70°W

60°W

CaribbeanSea

AtlanticOcean

Cuba

Saint-Domingue

Dominica

St. LuciaBarbados

HispaniolaPuertoRico

JamaicaGuadeloupe 1759

Havana 1762

Martinique 1762

Selected Milestones in Political Thought

1762 The Social Contract describes Rousseau’s belief thatgovernments should reflect the people’s general will

1776 The Declaration ofIndependence asserts the right

to overthrow an unjust king

1792 Mary Wollstonecraftargues for equal

rights for women

1760 1765 1770 1775 1780 1785 1790 1795


British possessionFrench possessionBritish/French battle

Seven Years’ War in the West Indies

Writing About History23. Expository Writing Analyze how the ideas of John Locke,

Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire influenced the devel-opment of the United States Constitution. Which thinker(s)were the most influential? Why has the Constitutionremained so strong while so many reform efforts of theeighteenth century failed?

Analyzing SourcesRead the following quote from John Locke’s Essay ConcerningHuman Understanding:

“Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say,white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas.How comes it to be furnished? Whence has it all thematerials of reason and knowledge? To this I answer, inone word, from experience. . . . Our observation,employed either about external sensible objects orabout the internal operations of our minds perceivedand reflected on by ourselves, is that which suppliesour understanding with all the materials of thinking.”

24. According to Locke, how did the blank mind become knowl-edgeable?

25. How did one gain the experience necessary to nurture themind?

Applying Technology Skills26. Creating a Database Search the Internet for information

about the great thinkers of the Enlightenment. Use a wordprocessor to organize your research into a chart. Includeheadings such as name of philosopher, country, and ideas.Write a paragraph explaining which philosopher you believehad the greatest impact on modern civilization. Support yourselection with facts and examples.

Making Decisions27. As the reigns of Joseph II and Catherine the Great illustrate,

it was very difficult to put the ideas of the Enlightenmentinto practice. Imagine that you are an enlightened monarchwho wants to reform your country. What reforms will youinitiate? Which thinker will most influence your reformplans? What problems might you encounter?


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