to fly or to drive
TRANSCRIPT
To FLY or to DRIVE? Helicopter Transport of Trauma Patients
Jeffrey Lubin, MD, MPH Division Chief, Transport Medicine Penn State Hershey Medical Center Life Lion EMS and Critical Care Transport Hershey, PA
Jeffrey Lubin, MD, MPH Director, EMS and Critical Care Transport University Hospitals Case Medical Center Cleveland, OH
To FLY or to DRIVE: Helicopter Transport of Trauma Patients
Matthew and the
Terrible, Horrible, No Good,
Very Bad Day
Questions that may be going through your head:
• Will this patient need to go to a trauma center? • Does it need to be a pediatric trauma center?
The short answer…
ORC §4765.40 requires that EMS providers transport trauma patients directly to an adult or pediatric trauma center that is qualified to provide appropriate adult or pediatric trauma care, unless one or more of five specific exceptions occur.
The short answer…
ORC § 4765.01 defined “pediatric" as involving a patient who is less than sixteen years of age.
Do trauma centers make a difference
Yes… trauma patients cared for at designated trauma centers have a lower risk of death
MacKenzie E.J., Rivara F.P., Jurkovich G.J., et al: A national evaluation of the effect of trauma-center care on mortality. N Engl J Med 354. 366-378.2006.
Demetriades D., Martin M., Salim A., et al: Relationship between American College of Surgeons trauma center designation and mortality in patients with severe trauma (Injury Severity Score >15). J Am Coll Surg 202. 212-215.2006.
Demetriades D., Martin M., Salim A., et al: The effect of trauma center designation and trauma volume on outcome in specific severe injuries. Ann Surg 242. 512-517.2005.
Why are pediatric trauma centers unique?
• Come in different ages and sizes • Different physiologic and psychological responses to injury • Dosing can be different in children than in adults
And does that really matter?
Pediatric trauma mortality is improved in a pediatric trauma center or in an adult center with pediatric trauma certification
Key factors:
– Certification in pediatric trauma – Experience in the delivery of trauma care
53,702 children included, with overall mortality of 3.9% Adjusted odds of mortality was 20% LOWER at ATC-AQ.
OBJECTIVES • Discuss importance of trauma centers and, in
particular, pediatric trauma centers in emergency care • Review the capabilities, risks, and limitations of HEMS • Analyze medical literature involving patient outcomes
in trauma patients transported by helicopter • Create a strategy for EMS providers for when to
activate HEMS to the scene, rendezvous at an alternative location, or drive to a trauma center
“A helicopter is an assembly of forty thousand loose pieces, flying more or less in formation"
First “practical” helicopter
“If you are in trouble anywhere in the world, an airplane can fly over and drop flowers… but a helicopter can land and save your life.”
First true use of air ambulances began in the Korean War when many battlefield causalities were transported by Army Bell 47s to MASH units
Before Rapid Transport
World War I (1914-1918) – Average time from injury to care was 12-18 hrs – Death rate: 8.5%
Helicopters Introduced
Korean War (1950-1953) – Introduction of helicopters to transport injured – Average time from injury to care was 2-3 hrs – Death rate: 2.2%
Air Transport Becoming Routine
Vietnam War (1965-1973) – Average time from injury to care was 65 min – Death rate: 1%
Average Time to Treatment (min)
Percent Mortality
Civilian Adaptation: 1966 • Publication of Accidental Death
and Disability: The Neglected Disease of Modern Society
• The National Highway Safety Act establishes Department of Transportation, which provided EMS grants for EMS
Civilian Adaptation: 1969
Where are we now?
Atlas & Database of Air Medical Services (ADAMS), http://www.adamsairmed.org/
In Ohio…
Three PRIMARY Advantages of Air Medical Transport
Three PRIMARY Advantages of Air Medical Transport
Three PRIMARY Advantages of Air Medical Transport
Three PRIMARY Advantages of Air Medical Transport
Three PRIMARY Advantages of Air Medical Transport
1. Speed 2. Ability to overcome terrain/obstacles 3. Specialty teams
Typical team configurations: – RN/Paramedic – RN/RN – RN/Physician – Other
Nurse/Paramedic
Nurse/Nurse
Nurse/Physician
Other
Having a team with diverse strengths allows for the efficient management of a wide variety of patients
Typical HEMS Skill Set – Administration of blood and blood products – Administration of medication using pumps – Advanced airway management, including the
use of paralytics and surgical airways – Monitoring of invasive vascular devices – Ventilator management
Other Possible Skills – Continuous fetal monitoring – Initiation of central venous access – Internal cardiac pacing – Place of chest tubes – Use of intra-aortic balloon pump – Use of in-flight lab testing – Use of neonatal isolette
LIMITATIONS • Space/weight restrictions
LIMITATIONS
• Weather
VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR)
LIMITATIONS
• Weather
INSTRUMENT METEOROLOGIC CONDITIONS (IMC)
LIMITATIONS
• Weather
CANNOT FLY
LIMITATIONS
• Noise
LIMITATIONS
• Flight Physiology – Effects of pressure changes – Stressors of flight
• Thermal considerations • Vibration • Gravitational Forces • Motion Sickness
COST – Aircraft: $2-7 million – Aircraft maintenance – Fuel: $4-5/gallon… approx 50-75 gallons/flight hr – Crew salary (including mechanic) – Bases (including hangar) – Medical Equipment
The patient charge per flight can run from $16,000 to $40,000!
AND… ARE THEY SAFE?
SAFETY: Compared to General Aviation
• 20-year avg: below all helicopter and GA operations • 10-year avg: less than 50% of helicopters and GA
SAFETY: Compared to Ground EMS • 1993 Houston study:
– Ambulances 13x more likely to get in an accident based on number of accidents per miles traveled
– Ambulances 5x more likely to get in an accident that resulted in injuries
• 1997–1999 NSC study: – 0.47% of ambulance accidents resulted in a fatal injury – Average 5.2 fatal injuries per 1,000 accidents
• Between 130-300 per 100,000 patients die each year in hospitals due to medical errors
• For air medical transport, there will be approximately 0.76-1.2 deaths per 100,000 patients flown
SAFETY: Compared to Hospitalization
OK…
I understand that they have limits… And maybe I’m willing to pay for them… And maybe they’re not too dangerous…
… but do they actually make a DIFFERENCE?
OBJECTIVE. To determine whether the mode of transport of trauma patients affects mortality
METHODS. Data for 56,744 injured adults aged ≥18 years transported to 62 U.S. trauma centers by helicopter or ground ambulance were obtained from the National Sample Program of the 2007 National Trauma Data Bank. In-hospital mortality was calculated for different demographic and injury severity groups. Adjusted odds ratios (AOR) were produced by utilizing a logistic regression model measuring the association of mortality and type of transport, controlling for age, gender, and injury severity (Injury Severity Score [ISS] and Revised Trauma Score [RTS]).
HUH?
METHODS. Looked at data for 56,744 injured adults Calculated in-hospital mortality based on…
different demographic groups injury severity groups
Associated MORTALITY with TYPE OF TRANSPORT, using statistics to adjust for age, gender, and injury severity
ADJUSTED ODDS RATIO: A way of comparing whether the probability of a certain event is the same for two groups. In statistics, the odds of an event occurring is the probability of the event divided by the probability of an event not occurring.
RESULTS. The odds of death were 39% lower in those transported by HEMS compared with those transported by ground ambulance (AOR = 0.61).
95% CI = 0.54–0.69
OBJECTIVE. To compare the outcomes of adult trauma patients transported to a level I trauma center by helicopter vs. ground ambulance.
METHODS. Outcomes in adult trauma patients transported to a trauma center by air were compared with a group of patients whose missions were aborted for aviation reasons (weather, maintenance, out on a mission); these patients were subsequently transported by ground ambulance instead. Outcomes were also analyzed for a third ground control group composed of all other adult trauma patients transported by ground. Outcomes were measured by Trauma Injury Severity Score (TRISS) analysis.
TRISS: Derives the probability of survival of a patient from the ISS and RTS using a standard formula, corrected for age and whether it is blunt or penetrating trauma
RESULTS. 397 pts flown 57 pts would have flown, but had aviation-related abort Ages Gender distributions Mechanisms of injury Injury Severity Scores (ISSs)
All similar between the two groups }
RESULTS.
Per 100 patients transported, 5.61 more lives were saved in the air group vs. the aviation abort. The 1,195 patients in the third all-other ground control group had a higher mean age, lower mean ISS, and worse outcomes according to TRISS analysis.
CONCLUSIONS. Air transport of the adult major trauma patient is associated with significantly improved survival as compared with ground transport.
But is it the same for kids?
OBJECTIVE. To determine whether injury severity and survival probability in pediatric trauma patients were similar to those for adults when helicopter transport was utilized at a suburban trauma center
METHODS. The authors conducted a retrospective review of all trauma patients transported by helicopter from the accident scene. Patients were identified from the Christiana Care Health System trauma registry from January 1995 to November 1999. Pediatric patients were defined as those aged 15 years and younger. Data collected were utilized to determine injury severity score (ISS), revised trauma score (RTS), and survival probability.
RESULTS. Looked at records of 969 patients:
• 826 adult (16+) • 143 pediatric
No difference noted in injury severity
INJURY SEVERITY SCORE: An anatomical scoring system that provides an overall score for patients with multiple injuries, using scores for six body regions; the 3 most severely injured body regions have their score squared and added together to produce the ISS score
REVISED TRAUMA SCORE: A physiological scoring system that incorporates GCS, systolic blood pressure, and respiratory rate
RESULTS. Average length of stay less for kids (7.5 vs. 5.2 days) Survival probabilities similar for the two groups, although met statistical significance (0.92 adult, 0.95 pediatric; p = 0.03).
CONCLUSIONS. Pediatric patients transported from the accident scene by helicopter have similar ISSs and RTSs compared with adults. These data suggest that prehospital selection criteria for the two groups are similar.
CONCLUSIONS. HEMS response is characterized by overtriage and overuse.
CONCLUSIONS. Scene and interhospital HEMS trauma missions in this system involve patients of similar injury severities. Prehospital providers may triage trauma patients to HEMS transport with proficiency similar to that of community ED physicians.
So when do you call for a helicopter?
OBJECTIVE. Provides a overview of the validity of HEMS dispatch criteria for severely injured patients.
METHODS. A systematic literature search was performed. English written and peer reviewed publications on HEMS dispatch criteria were included.
RESULTS. Found 34 papers with a total of 49 HEMS dispatch criteria identified
• Level II Single RCT
• Level III Cohort studies
• Level IV Case–control studies
• Level V Case series
• Level VI Case reports
• Level VII Opinion papers
Level I = Systematic review of randomized controlled trials
Sensitivity: The proportion of people who have the disease who test positive for it
Specificity: The proportion of patients who do not have the disease who test negative for it
CONCLUSIONS. Loss of consciousness seems promising Mechanism of injury criteria lack accuracy More research is needed
The concept of the “golden hour” seems to be going away.
The concept of the “golden hour” seems to be going away.
CONCLUSIONS. There was no association between EMS intervals and mortality among injured patients with physiologic abnormality in the field.
HEMS seems to have a positive impact on Head Injury.
HEMS seems to have a positive impact on Head Injury.
CONCLUSION. HEMS appears to result in improved outcomes after adjustment for multiple influential factors in patients with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury.
Compromised out-of-hospital airways may be more effectively managed by HEMS than ground EMS.
0.2 0.5 1 2 5
x 1.80 (1.70, 1.90)
RSI - Air Transport - Good 1.70 (1.00, 3.30)
RSI - Air Transport - Mortality 1.70 (0.80, 3.30)
Air vs. ED Intubation 1.42 (1.13, 1.78)
Air vs. Ground 2.10 (1.70, 2.60)
RSI - Good 0.50 (0.40, 0.80)
RSI - Mortality 0.50 (0.40, 0.70)
Field vs. ED Intubation - GCS 3-8 & Head AIS 4+ 0.70 (0.57, 0.86)
Field vs. ED Intubation - Head AIS 4+ 0.69 (0.57, 0.83)
Field vs. ED Intubation - GCS 3-8 0.68 (0.56, 0.83)
Field vs. ED Intubation 0.47 (0.40, 0.55)
Field ETI - GCS 3-8 & Head AIS 4+ 0.78 (0.66, 0.92)
Field ETI - Head AIS 4+ 0.72 (0.61, 0.84)
Field ETI - GCS 3-8 0.74 (0.63, 0.87)
Field ETI 0.36 (0.32, 0.42)
0.2 0.5 1 2 5
x 1.80 (1.70, 1.90)
RSI - Air Transport - Good 1.70 (1.00, 3.30)
RSI - Air Transport - Mortality 1.70 (0.80, 3.30)
Air vs. ED Intubation 1.42 (1.13, 1.78)
Air vs. Ground 2.10 (1.70, 2.60)
RSI - Good 0.50 (0.40, 0.80)
RSI - Mortality 0.50 (0.40, 0.70)
Field vs. ED Intubation - GCS 3-8 & Head AIS 4+ 0.70 (0.57, 0.86)
Field vs. ED Intubation - Head AIS 4+ 0.69 (0.57, 0.83)
Field vs. ED Intubation - GCS 3-8 0.68 (0.56, 0.83)
Field vs. ED Intubation 0.47 (0.40, 0.55)
Field ETI - GCS 3-8 & Head AIS 4+ 0.78 (0.66, 0.92)
Field ETI - Head AIS 4+ 0.72 (0.61, 0.84)
Field ETI - GCS 3-8 0.74 (0.63, 0.87)
Field ETI 0.36 (0.32, 0.42)
RSI - Air Transport - Good
RSI - Air Transport - Mortality
Air vs. ED Intubation
Air vs. Ground
Compromised out-of-hospital airways may be more effectively managed by HEMS than ground EMS.
As your scene gets closer to the receiving hospital, HEMS becomes less useful/effective.
CONCLUSIONS. 1. The average time of HEMS, when within a 5–15-
mile radius of the admitted hospital, is longer than the average time of transport of patients by ambulance.
CONCLUSIONS. 2. After controlling for severity, there were higher in-
hospital mortality rates, in-hospital mortality within 24 hours of admission rates, and complications among patients transported by helicopters than those transported by ambulance.
As your scene gets closer to the receiving hospital, HEMS becomes less useful/effective.
< 20 min
DRIVE
20-30 min “GRAY ZONE”
> 30 min
FLY
Scene or Elsewhere?
• May be better to land HEMS away from the scene – Safety – Convenience – Timing
• If possible, use an LZ that sends the ambulance in the direction of the hospital
• Do not delay transport to wait for HEMS
Predesignated LZ
Address: Geneva State Park 6412 Lake Road West Geneva, Ohio 44041
Coordinates: N 41°51.15 W 080°59.08
LZ Description: Large parking lot, south
side of road. Creek tributary just West of LZ. Lake Erie is 200 yards north of LZ.
Hazards: Wires on South side of road
Established Helipads
• Well marked • Generally clear of obstacles
• Safer!
EMTALA?
“The use of a hospital’s helipad by local ambulances or other hospitals for the transport of individuals to tertiary hospitals located throughout the state does not trigger an EMTALA obligation for the hospital that has the helipad on its property when the helipad is being used for the purpose of transit…the hospital with the helipad is not obligated to perform another MSE prior to the individual’s continued travel to the recipient hospital. If, however, while at the helipad, the individual’s condition deteriorates, the hospital at which the helipad is located must provide another MSE and stabilizing treatment within its capacity if requested by medical personnel accompanying the individual.”
The “Pearls”
• Research supports the use of HEMS for certain trauma patients, particularly those with head injuries or airway problems
• There are limitations and risks associated with HEMS transport • Although there are no great studies to base this on, consider
HEMS at the 20-30 min transport zone • Consider establishing predesignated LZ’s for increased safety • Do not delay transport waiting for HEMS
