1

Fitchburg State University 6-Credit Thesis Project

To Get the Job, You Have to Play the Game

Communication Techniques and Theories Used in the Job Search Process

Robert P. Walsh5/10/2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 – Acknowledgements and Dedications. 4

CHAPTER 2 - Introduction and Purpose of Paper. 5

CHAPTER 3 - Theories used and Definitions. 6Wittgenstein’s Language Games. 6One-Up/One-Down/One-Across Theory. 7Lakoff’s Apology/Un-Apology Theory. 7Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication. 7Appreciative Inquiry. 8Circular Questioning. 9Reflexive Questioning.

CHAPTER 4 – Initiate Job Search Process. 10Branding of Job Seeker. 10

Emotional, Financial and Professional Preparation. 10Selection of Careers, Industries and Companies to Pursue. 12The Use of Rhetoric and Persuasion. 12Develop Resume. 13Develop Cover Letter. 13Develop Elevator Speech. 14

Introduction of Oneself. 15Networking. 15Setting Up a Profile on Job Boards and Social Media. 15Mass Marketing and Job Fairs. 16Responding to Want Ads and Specific Job Leads. 16

CHAPTER 5 – Research and Application Process. 17Research Jobs within Field. 17

Research Actual Want Ads/Job Descriptions. 17Research Companies. 18

Mission. 18Products/Services. 18

Competitors. 18News/Awards/Press Releases. 18Benefits Package. 19

Money Used as Language Game. 19Tailor Resume/Cover Letter to Company/Job. 20

CHAPTER 6 - Interview Process. 21Clothing/Color – Their Meanings. 21Non-Verbal Language of Job Seeker. 22 Dialogue of Interview. 23

Introduction and Description of Job Seeker. 23

2

Question and Answer Session. 24Circular Questioning. 24Appreciative Inquiry. 25Reflexive Questioning. 25

Typical Interviews. 26Informational. 26Telephone. 26In-Person. 27Group or Panel. 27One-on-One. 27

Human Resources. 27Immediate Supervisor/Hiring Manager. 27Co-Workers. 28

Technical. 28Behavioral. 28Insurance Companies. 29

Verbal and Non-Verbal Language of Interviewer . 29

CHAPTER 7 - Follow-Up Process. 31Before Formal Interviews 31

After Informational Interviews. 31During Initial Application Process. 31

After Each Interview. 32Thank You Letters. 32

E-mail. 32Handwritten. 32Formal. 32

Phone Calls. 33

CHAPTER 8 - Job Offers and Salary Negotiations. 34When Salary May be Discussed. 34Research Job and Industry. 34Verbal and Written Commitment by Both Parties. 35

CHAPTER 9 - Conclusion, Summary and Recap. 36

CHAPTER 10 - Bibliography. 37

3

CHAPTER 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND DEDICATIONS.

As with a job search and most everything we do in life, a paper such as this is a collaborative and

team effort. The people I am saluting here are the reasons behind this paper, and without them, I have

no paper. To all of you, I say “Thank you!” I have learned a lot about myself in this process, and hope to

continue to learn as life goes on.

I would like to first thank my professors and classmates from the Master’s in Applied Communication

program at Fitchburg State University, especially Dr. John Chetro-Szivos (whom we all call DR. J. for

short), Dr. Robert I. Carr (or Rob) and Dr. Viera Lorencova. Each one brings their own enthusiasm and

passion into their job and profession. I have learned much from them, and hope to carry what I have

learned as I move on in both my professional and personal life. My classmates also brought their own

perspectives into my matriculation, and I would often wonder if I was learning more from them. In any

event, new friendships have been formed, and I hope the storytelling and dialogue from them continues

long after we all graduate.

Next, I want to thank my former co-workers and employers at The Rockport Co., Inc., along with the

“Transition Team” If one does not think they develop any skills from their present (or past) job(s), they

should look again. Skills from one job can always be transferred to the next job. The “Transition Team”

brought these skills out, and gave me the basis for conducting a job search. The job boards I have

encountered during my job search also augment the Transition handbook.

4

Finally, I would like to thank Mom, Laurie and Carol for supporting my idea for this paper. They have

seen firsthand the work I have done with both this paper and my job search, and have pushed me along

in both these endeavors.

CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE OF PAPER

“Now that we’ve invented language, we have to be careful not to get quoted out of context.” – “Frank

and Ernest” by Bob Thaves, in the Sentinel and Enterprise, March 29, 2011.

Unfortunately, how our verbal (written and spoken) and non-verbal (body language, clothing and

appearance) communication can be very much taken out of context, regardless of our skills and

qualifications, when looking for a job in today’s world. This research project will look at the many

different forms of verbal and non-verbal communication, and how interviewers and recruiters use and

perceive them when screening job applicants. To start off, let’s look at some of the theories used, and

their definitions.

5

CHAPTER 3

THEORIES USED AND DEFINITIONS

Wittgenstein’s Language Games

The basis of this project comes from one of my favorite communication theories – the “Language

Game”. This theory was developed by Ludwig Wittgenstein in the 1930’s while researching his book

Tractatus. He describes language games as “a series of activities”, those which make up language as a

“form of life” (Grayling, P. 83).

When logic is interwoven into the picture, he explains that “there is [not just] one logic but many

different practices with its own logic” (Grayling, P. 87). As we will see individual attempts at finding a job

fail because interviewers and recruiters “misunderstand the logic of our language” (Grayling, P. 79). This

can be true when screening a resume and cover letter, conducting an interview or even right down to

how we dress.

Each language game has its own rule, which is defined as “social practice(s) established upon and

agreed by members of a linguistic or community” (Grayling, P. 74). The job search, thus, has many

different language games, each with their own set of rules. The job seeker who follows them best will

ultimately be hired.

In an earlier paper (Walsh, 2008); I called the language game “a Stupid Game”. George Lakoff tends

to agree, calling language in his publication “The Power We Love to Hate” (2000). This can be very

6

frustrating for both job seeker and recruiter alike, as both sides try to make their own meanings. While

both sides claim to that right, it becomes a “lost cause” (Lakoff, P. 20) of sorts, as a job seeker tries to

sell oneself in the attempt to get a job, while the recruiter is trying to find the right candidate, per a

series of criteria set for that open position.

One-Up/One-Down-One-Across Theory

This leads to a dynamic called “One-Up/One-Down/One-Across” theory. By nature, job seekers begin

their process as one-down. The onus is on the job seekers to prove to Hiring Managers that they are the

right person for the job. As the goal is to get to one-across and get hired, the job seeker uses a series of

steps, starting with research and networking, followed by resumes and cover letters. Language and buzz

words germane to the job or industry of choice are used by job seekers trying to sell their skills to those

doing the hiring. As we will see later, “One-Up/One-Down/One-Across” plays an important part in

interviewing and job offer/salary negotiations, as both sides try to find common ground (See Lakoff, The

Language War, Chapter 1, P. 20-31 for further explanation).

Lakoff’s Apology/Un-Apology Theory

I think Lakoff best describes this by use of the “Apology/Un-Apology” theory. Recruiters use this all

the time by stating that there are “no openings at this time”. On one hand they are “apologizing” to job

seekers, if, in fact, there actually are no openings. The” Un-Apology” comes in when recruiters just

don’t want to interview job seekers for whatever reason – legal or illegal. They also put the disclaimer

that “We will keep [you in mind or your resume on file], should anything become available”. The

language game perceived by job seekers here is their credentials will end up in the wastebasket,

shredder or being deleted from inbox or e-mail files.

Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

7

Verbal and non-verbal language plays an important part in the job search process. Both are, in fact,

extensions of Wittgenstein’s “Language Games” discussed earlier. In “Experience, Nature and

Communication” (Dewey, P. 185), language is described as “a mode of interaction between two beings”.

Going back to Wittgenstein, part of this process that relates to the job search involves “describing” us,

“asking questions”, “greeting” and “thanking” the interviewer (Grayling, P. 82). Our body gestures,

voice inflections, understanding of the job requirements, questions asked and clothes we wear are all

integral parts of the process.

Appreciative Inquiry

Two very important aspects of the interview process involve appreciative Inquiry (AI) and circular

questioning. Dr. John Chetro-Szivos summed this up neatly at a recent Society of Professional

Communicators meeting by saying that “the focus is shifting from ‘I’ or ‘you’ to ‘we’ and how two parties

can make things happen together”.

In today’s job market, the focus has shifted from what a company can do for a job seeker to what a

job seeker can do for a company. AI accomplishes this by relying on a job seeker’s ability to take the

experience acquired in past jobs and apply it to the position that a job seeker is applying, and being

interviewed for. In other words, as Dr. Chetro-Szivos puts it in his paper on AI and circular questioning

(co-authored by Dr. Patrice Gray in 2004, P. 36), “AI allows the [job seeker] to see connections between

[experience acquired and presenting solutions to problems that a company has] enabling both parties to

move forward”.

Circular Questioning

Circular questioning usually starts with the interviewer, who seeks to connect with the applicant.

“The interviewer conducts the inquiry on the basis of feedback of the [applicant] in response to the

8

information solicited [during the interview, on the application and resume, and concerning the

applicant’s prior experience].” (Chetro-Szivos and Gray, P. 36) The onus is on the job seeker to research

the job and company and make a connection between those and the job seeker’s experience and career

interests. As we will see later, a series of questions by both sides will achieve a mutual understanding

between them.

Reflexive Questioning

Another type of interview, the behavioral Interview, is taking hold in today’s job market. This

involves the use of reflexive questioning. This “enables the [job seeker] to generate patterns of

cognition and behavior”. (Karl Tomm, Family Process, P. 167) Also used on job applications, this is used

to gauge how applicants would react when certain situations arise at work.

9

CHAPTER 4

INITIATE JOB SEARCH PROCESS

Now that we have a brief overview of the job search process, let’s embark on that process, and see

how these communication theories play out. Erving Goffman, in the Presentation of Self in Everyday

Life, (1959, via P. 229 of Realizing Symbolic Order through Interaction) best sums up the mission of the

job seeker who “acts in a thoroughly calculating manner, expressing himself in a given way solely in

order to evoke from them a specific response he is concerned to obtain”. In other words, the mission

and goal of a job seeker is to secure a job offer.

Branding of a Job Seeker

Emotional, Financial and Professional Preparation.

In order for that mission to begin, the job seeker has to begin with the emotions of a job search. One

of the best books dealing with this is Dr. Spencer Johnson’s bestseller: Who Moved My Cheese? The

gist of the story goes like this: Four mice, Sniff, Scurry, Hem and Haw are portrayed in a maze supplied

with cheese. Sniff and Scurry are the true rats here, as they anticipate change coming, and seek out new

cheese before it runs out. In our premise, this could be a promotion or a new job, and as we shall soon

see, they start taking action to achieve this effort.

Hem and Haw are the mice that display human and emotional qualities. I view them as the older

worker who has been at a job for a long time, loses it, and finds it hard to adjust to today’s world of

networking, online social media and job boards, and other modern job search methods, due to a lack of

knowledge of modern computer technology. Haw realizes that change is about to happen just in the

10

nick of time, goes out on his own to find new cheese (or a new job) and employs some of the modern

day methods of networking, albeit through the ancient art of writing figures and quotes on the maze

walls, and aiming this practice toward his friend Hem, should he decide to come out of his current

location. While Sniff and Scurry are already there: and Haw is on the way there, Hem never gets there

because he refuses to change his focus to searching for a new career.

Once the emotional side is taken care of, finances come next. Budgets need to be prepared for any

unemployment period, as well as determining what salary to negotiate for when a job offer comes

along. It had been widely suggested that one needs enough cash to survive a three to six month period

of unemployment. However, and this may be the case for a lot of older workers, a larger stash of six

months to a year might be more advisable. While some analysts suggest drafting both an income and

expense budget, it is better to draw up just an expense budget, as this is the best indicator of what one

will need for income. I will address money matters in more detail later on.

The third and final step in the preparation process is to decide what you want to do for your next job

or career. This step is the actual start of branding yourself to employers. Whether in school or not,

there are many resources available for a job seeker, ranging from career centers to labor guides and

publications, to online job boards. Some of these career resources (such as Transition Solutions, Jobfox

and Mount Wachusett Community College) offer self-assessment tests to determine what areas you

have the aptitude for. A recent “Frank and Ernest” comic offers up a perfect bridge between this stage

and the next one:

Ernest: “My friend Joe just lost his job as an investment banker. Now he spends his days in the park talking to me and Frank. He is having a hard time coming to grips with the job opportunities available to him right now.”

Frank: “No, ‘flipping burgers’ does not mean borrowing money to buy them cheap and selling them at a higher price.”

“Frank and Ernest” by Bob Thaves, in Sentinel and Enterprise, April 24, 2011

11

Selection of Careers, Industries and Companies to Pursue.

As skills and interests are channeled into career choices, the next step is to look up these industries

and target companies in those industries, to learn more about your career choice. As I mentioned in the

beginning, each industry and individual company has its own set of rules and cultures to follow – the

language game starts in earnest here. As one obtains a deep understanding of their chosen industry and

targeted companies and their cultures, the job seeker can assimilate oneself into the chosen area by

acquiring new skills, or applying past knowledge and experience into their chosen field.

The Use of Rhetoric and Persuasion.

I want to discuss another communication dynamic here, this aspect being one that will stay with the

job seeker from here on in. In Dr. Robert I. Carr’s Applied Rhetoric class, we find that Plato and Socrates

introduce the concept of “Rhetoric”. Barry Brummett defines it as “the way in which words influence

people”. (Rhetoric in Popular Culture, P. 3-4) People (especially politicians) are wont to say that “It’s a

lot of rhetoric”. In my discourse wit Dr. Carr, I agreed, noting that rhetoric or persuasion is nothing more

than a line of bull. The argument I made is that it is in the eye of the beholder. The person speaking

does not think it is a line of bull. However, it is up to the listener to determine that.

So in the context of our discussion, the job seeker is trying to persuade the recruiter that he or she is

the best person for the job. Ultimately whoever best persuades a recruiter, through the use of resume,

cover letter and interview, regardless of qualifications, is the one that gets hired in the end. This is

achieved by placing the right buzz words in those resumes and cover letters, and asking questions

relevant to the job, company and industry, that will convince the interviewer that a job seeker knows a

lot about the job to which they are applying for. As part of this, I also contend that the language game is

12

not only the understanding of language, but also (in the literal context of “Game”) a competition. Tying

that in to the “One-Up/One-Down-One-Across” theory, as a job seeker tries to persuade the recruiter to

hire him or her, he or she is also trying to “win the language game” being played out in the arena of a

job search.

Develop Resume.

The general gist of a resume is to list one’s experience, skills and accomplishments. Resumes

generally fall under two categories – Chronological and Functional. A Chronological Resume lists the

main subdivisions of experience and education in chronological order, starting with the most recent

first. A Functional Resume focuses more on a job seeker’s skills, as they may relate to their experience.

As age and length of experience figure into the equation, the former is used by younger applicants, who

are better served by listing their most recent highlights and experience. The older worker will use a

Functional Resume to play up the skills they have acquired over the years. I like to call this the “School

of Hard Knocks” approach.

The next two parts of branding is where a job seeker’s art of persuasion starts to kick in. These are a

cover letter and an elevator Speech. A cover letter is usually targeted to a specific job, career interest or

company. An elevator speech is usually used in networking and other introductory situations such as

job fairs and initial interview questions posed by the interviewer. Where many resumes now use a skills

or summary section, this section and the elevator speech will often play off each other.

Develop Cover Letter.

The cover letter is usually subdivided into three distinct parts. The first paragraph will usually contain

a referral source and interest in a specific position or informational interview. The second paragraph,

the meat of a cover letter – and any attempt at persuading a recruiter to contact a job seeker – contains

13

highlights of the job seeker’s qualifications. These are usually tailored to the open position in question

or career interests of a job seeker. From time to time, if helpful, additional information not listed on the

resume may be listed here to further persuade the recruiter. Finally, a brief paragraph wraps up the

cover Letter, expressing a desire to meet with the recruiter to further discuss one’s qualifications, along

with a promise to follow up in the near future to expedite the process.

Here is a communication trick to note here. Where these cover letters are directed to the needs of a

company, many experts suggest not starting any paragraph with “I”, or any other first person reference.

As noted earlier, we begin to see Dr. Chetro-Szivos’ theory of a shift from “I” to “We” and “You” For the

most part, this is not the time to “One-Up”, as arrogance and egoism is portrayed here. The only time

that “One-Up” (and first person) is allowed is the final paragraph, where the desire to meet and promise

to follow up is mentioned.

Develop Elevator Speech.

Legend has it that the term “Elevator Speech”, usually lasting thirty to sixty seconds in length, came

about because that is how long people are in an elevator when going from floor to floor. From a

communication (and attention standpoint), thirty to sixty seconds is about as long as it takes for

listener’s thoughts move on to something else. I believe comedian Steve Allen said it best several years

ago when he said that “people have the attention span of a gnat”.

The elevator speech contains the following information: who you are, your most current or recent

undertaking, highlights of past accomplishments, what you want to do and a brief solicitation or inquiry

on how your listener can help you. The elevator speech sets the tone for the rest of the conversation or

interview, as all other dialogue by both parties flows off it. Your goal, as Meg Ryan puts it in “Sleepless

in Seattle” is to “have them at hello”.

14

Introduction of Oneself

Networking.

Once you have your branding set up, it is time to introduce yourself to the world. Nearly all experts

suggest that networking accounts for 80 percent of all jobs found, with the following taking up the other

twenty percent: job postings on the internet and want ads: placement agencies and recruiting firms;

job fairs; professional associations; trade shows; and mass marketing (or the old fashioned “Cold Call”).

The best definition of a networking contact comes from page 44 of the Transition Solutions handbook

A contact can be anyone, regardless of the method used (in-person, mail, e-mail, or over-the-phone).

The operative word here is “information” – that which leads you to job opportunities and hiring

managers.

Setting Up a Profile on Job Boards and Social Media.

The other method used is social media, especially LinkedIn, where you can connect with people and

groups in your area of interest, or past association, like college alumni groups. A word of caution is in

order. Such social media as Facebook, MySpace and Twitter can be too personal; meaning the language

games used here can be taken the wrong way. These can include photos (posted by you or others) and

postings that are negative or inappropriate. LinkedIn also allows you to put up a profile that closely

matches your resume. You can also follow the professional activities of a person or company here, and

even find job postings from the hiring managers themselves. The language games used here are most

easily understood by professionals.

15

Job board profiles, especially on monster.com and indeed.com can help you target your search to

specific industries. Some hiring people actually use such boards to find people that best fit their needs.

The profiles need to be updated periodically, so that recruiters can perceive you as being currently

active.

Mass Marketing and Job Fairs.

Another job search method, which worked better some thirty years ago than today, is that of mass

marketing – the “Cold Call”. This process involves sending out dozens of resumes to dozens of

companies at once, with little or no research being done on any of them. Two extensions of this are the

in-person appearances (like that of a door-to-door salesman) and job fairs. The resumes and cover

letters used here are generic in nature, and are not targeted to any specific job or industry.

Job fairs have survived this part of the process, with more emphasis on company research,

networking and the elevator speech. Thanks to the internet, job fairs post the companies attending,

along with either a thumbnail sketch of each company, or their respective website links. Here, a job

seeker can do a quick research of the companies attending, with their current job openings; then target

their elevator speech to each company. It is also a great place to network with a wide variety of people

to get a feel for industry trends.

Responding to Want Ads and Specific Job Leads.

Some job fairs are job specific, and so are want ads and specific job leads. Here, the job seeker

should tailor the resume and cover letter to the job being applied for. By matching the skills and

experience to the specific job, a candidate will stand a better chance of getting an initial interview over

the tens and hundreds of other job applicants.

16

CHAPTER 5

RESEARCH AND APPLICATION PROCESS

Research Jobs within Field

Research Actual Want Ads/Job Descriptions.

When it comes time to submit a formal job application, understanding a company’s language game

and its meaning can put a job seeker in a better position to persuade the recruiter to set up an

interview. It is all about researching at this point. Not only are you researching a position, you are

researching a company.

By researching your desired position or company, you get a better understanding of what the duties

of the position are, and the qualifications and experience needed to get that position. Each company

has its own meanings regarding the position in question. I once had an experience where a difference in

understanding a language game led to disaster. I took a state Civil Service test for a position titled “EDP

Control Clerk”. Now, taken at face value, the initials “EDP” would normally mean “Electronic Data

Processing”, a fancy term some thirty years ago for what today is known as “Data Entry Clerk”. As such,

the test was also structured that way. However, when I was called down to interview for the position,

there was very little computer work involved – it was mostly the manual filing of information, something

that could easily be done by a high school or college student with just a little training. Needless to say, if

the job was titled and described correctly, the number of people taking the test would have been greatly

altered (and I might not have taken the test to begin with).

17

Research Companies.

Mission. After the position is researched, look into the company itself. The company’s mission is the

main point of selling its rhetoric. It defines the overall goods and services of a company, and is usually

advertised as being of high quality, or having high standards. The main claim suggested here is that it

will make life better for anyone who accesses a company’s products and services.

Products/Services. You can then navigate through a company’s “Products and Services” section. This

is where your passion and career interests enter into the picture. If your target area is, for example,

putting together a bicycle, but the company creates a totally different product, or limits you to just

putting spokes on the wheel, you will have a difficult time packaging your skills to an employer. This is

especially important if the job requirements ask for several years experience in a similar position.

Competitors. If there are competitors you can look up, that would be a very good place to compare

the language and terminology used. As you are also preparing questions to use in an interview, you can

also discover what one company does that another company doesn’t, or compare how one company

claims to a particular service better than another, and highlight that in an interview.

News/Awards/Press Releases. The best place to learn about a company’s rhetoric is to go to the

section containing the latest news, awards, press releases and testimonials from customers. Companies

love to blow their own horn, and put their best foot forward by promoting a new product, attending

trade shows, getting positive feedback from clients or announcing new appointees and promotions

within their ranks. The latter is especially important, as you may be interviewing with some of those

people mentioned – they will give you valuable information on how they got there. Two good resources

of use here are an In-house newsletter and LinkedIn. If there is a copy of the latest company newsletter

18

in the main lobby as you come in, pick that up, and read through it while you are waiting for your

appointment. A wealth of information can be found. Many companies now also use LinkedIn to post

announcements. Start following those desired companies as well, to get the latest updates.

Benefits Package. Lastly, gloss over a company’s benefits package. While most companies offer

pretty much the same perks (insurance, vacation, 401K plans, etc.), it is some of the other perks (like

tuition reimbursement, employee discounts, travel, telecommuting, and other allowances) that one can

negotiate to suit one’s needs accordingly. This is where you need a strategy to get to that “One-Up”

level.

Money Used as Language Game.

I might say a few words about money here, as this can be a very dangerous subject and language

game to discuss. Earlier, I had mentioned how money comes into play early in your job search process.

Your own financial picture, combined with industry averages play a key role in what you can afford to

make on the low end of a salary range. When money gets into an interview or discussion, the

information you have concerning finances will help you to negotiate a fair salary and benefits package

later.

There is another side to the money game. Many jobsites have basic services that you can get for free.

But there are other services that they will want you to upgrade to for a price (like resume preparation or

exclusive job notifications). It is up to the job seeker to decide whether or not to upgrade to these

services, as some of them can be very expensive. Transition Solutions has a very good rule of thumb

here: “If you have to pay for it, don’t use it”. Unemployment offices and college career services offer

many of these services for free. Either way, none of these services can guarantee that you will find that

dream position. Hence, networking is perhaps the least expensive way of job hunting – it’s free!

19

Tailor Resume/Cover Letter to Company/Job.

As mentioned earlier, once all the research is done, you can tailor your resume and cover letter to the

actual job or company. The elevator speech and overall rhetoric should all match at this point.

20

CHAPTER 6

INTERVIEW PROCESS

We now move to the meat of any job search – the interview. How an interview is conducted goes a

long way toward determining whether someone gets hired or not. As an interviewer is working from a

subjective point of view, he or she is already “One-Up”. The onus is on the job seeker to persuade the

interviewer to hire him or her. Many types of verbal and non verbal communication come into play

here. So let’s analyze them to see how they all fit in.

Clothing/Color – Their Meanings

First, there is the issue of dress. For the most part, a business suit (suit coat, tie, shirt and pants for

men; dress, or a blazer, blouse, skirt/pants for women) is the norm, unless you are tipped off ahead of

time. Color is an important of this process, and has its roots going all the way back to the era of the High

Gothic churches, whose stained glass windows were “the main form of communication to a mostly

illiterate population”. (Walsh, 2009, P. 2 and Wales, circa 1979 – 1981, pages 97 and 103)

The basic colors used are blue, gray, black, red and white, each with their own meanings. Other

colors are generally frowned upon, except in certain instances, like sales, entertainment and media. An

explanation follows.

Blue is the probably the safest bet, especially navy blue. This color represents “loyalty, calm, stability,

trust, truth, confidence and security. (Stone and Whelan, 2011) Fenton (2011) suggests this for a first

interview.

21

Gray, especially a deep gray, or charcoal, is also a popular color. It represents sophistication, and can

be used on a first or second (preferred by Fenton) interview.

Black and red are two very powerful colors, and nearly all experts agree to use these as accents (ties

on men, scarves on women). Black represents “authority and drama” (Stone and Whelan), and is used

when job seekers are interviewing for authoritative, managerial or media-related positions”. (Fenton)

Carole Martin (2011) also suggests that black can portray “someone who is too serious, so a lighter hue

(or white) is suggested to draw attention away from the black”.

Nearly everyone agrees that red is a powerful color, and should be only used as an accent (Stone and

Whelan). Red primarily means passion, but can also mean “envy, desire, power, aggression and

intensity”. Martin even suggests not using it as an accessory color in pocketbooks and briefcases.

Solid white and blue shirts are the norm, with white being the preferred choice for a first interview.

This color represents “simplicity, cleanliness, precision and goodness”. (Stone and Whelan)

Socks, shoes and belts should be black and solid, with no prints, decorations or inlays. Shoes should

be shined to portray an image of being neat and up to date. Job seekers should also pay attention to

fashion styles and fit, as this non-verbal language also sends a signal to the interviewer on how up to

date a job seeker really is.

While each individual has their own lifestyle, the premise is like that of the military “Don’t ask, don’t

tell”. Therefore, such things as bright colors (even on nail polish), lots of jewelry, low-cut blouses, short

skirts, open toes, bold prints and turtlenecks are all considered taboo, as they can portray a lifestyle that

could be too off color or uncomfortable to the interviewer.

22

Non-Verbal Language of Job Seeker

In addition to color, body language is the classic language game being played by both sides of the

interview. How each side perceives this goes a long way toward deciding if there is a mutual interest to

continue interacting to the point of a job offer.

While obviously nervous, the job seeker can do much to improve his or her status by doing the

following: It starts with a firm handshake, which shows the interviewer that the job seeker is firmly in

control of the situation at hand, as well as his or her emotions. Seating posture is also very important. A

slouched or relaxed posture sends a message of laziness, or lack of interest in the interview, or position,

while being too straight represents being too nervous, desperate or eager. A normal posture, with a pen

and small note pad in place (to avoid the temptation to use too many hand gestures) portrays

attentiveness to both the interview and position being applied for. Eye contact is important, and is

usually the best indicator of how the interview is going. While staring at one spot for an extended

period of time is not advisable, face to face contact shows a sign of mutual respect. Voice inflections

should appear calm, normal and natural. A robotic sound makes a job seeker sound too scripted, and

thus, narrow-minded. A higher and louder pitch will also send the message of being too nervous, eager,

desperate or demanding.

The interviewer can also show signs of interest by nodding his or her head, leaning forward and not

looking or sounding as if there is no interest in the interview or job applicant. If given the opportunity,

the applicant can also observe the actions of other employees to judge if a company is a good, positive

place to work for. Whether slouched, or strong and confident looking, body language can tell a job

seeker a lot about the company culture and morale. I will return to the interviewer’s verbal and non-

verbal language later in this section.

23

Dialogue of Interview

Introduction and Description of Job Seeker.

The early stages of the interview will set the tone for the whole experience. Dr. John Chetro-Szivos

and the late Don Hewitt of “60 Minutes” are credited with a saying that best sums up this part of the

interview: “Tell me a story!” As such, the introduction and first question of the interview “Tell me

about yourself” is where your rhetoric and persuasion should pay off. This is where you reprise your

elevator speech, tailoring it to the interview and position being applied for. Stating what skills and

experience you have, relevant to the desired position will engage the interviewer, and encourage

further dialogue.

Question and Answer Session.

The question and answer session is a give and take dialogue between the interviewer and job

applicant. Questions by the job seeker should be asked during the interview, not at the end, where they

may be canned and scripted. If a job seeker asks no questions, it shows a lack of research on the part of

the job seeker, and thus, no real or perceived interest in the job,

Three types of questioning are often used in an interview. Each one is designed to extract more

information from the person being asked the questions. As noted during a presentation recently held at

Assumption College in Worcester, MA, this is a “two-way” dialogue, with the goal being to bring both

sides to a “One-Across” level. Thus, a job seeker and interviewer will both see that they are both fits for

each other. As we will see, each type of question has a role in the major forms of an in-person

interview.

24

Circular Questioning. If the premise of any interview is to “Tell me a story”, both circular questioning

and appreciative inquiry (AI) use stories to get their questions across. Karl Tomm (in Chetro-Szivos and

Gray, P. 36) also points out that the purpose of any interview is to “gather information”. Circular

questioning is best used during initial one-on-one or group or panel interviews. Here, both sides

exchange their information, and attempt to connect that with past experiences. At this stage, both sides

are attempting to determine the meanings and interpretations of job descriptions. If both sides come to

a mutual understanding, the next step, the second interview is commenced, where AI takes over the

questioning process.

Appreciative Inquiry. In a second interview, and other subsequent ones, scenarios are created where

a job seeker is asked how to improve on a process to create a future that “reframes the present”

(Chetro-Szivos and Gray, P. 39). To achieve this, AI uses the “4-D Model”. Here, a recruiter and job

seeker “Discover” each other; “Dream” of a better future (increased sales or productivity, for example);

“Design” a solution, based on the scenario at hand; and finally creating a “Destiny”, or putting a job

seeker in a role that will aid in achieving a desired result (Chetro-Szivos and Gray, P. 40).

AI also works well in an informational interview, where a job seeker is gathering information about

their desired field, or targeted company. The tables are turned here, as it is the job seeker who asks the

a recruiter to explain and tell stories about the industry or company in question, based on current trends

and past experiences. The roles are reversed, as the job seeker is the one conducting the interview,

even if in a “One-Down” position from the standpoint of the desire of gaining further education and

knowledge about the industry or company being targeted. When this stage is completed, the job seeker

will glean the best stories and attributes about the targeted industry and company, and make an

informed decision on whether to conduct further explorations in such industry or company.

25

Reflexive Questioning. A third type of questioning, reflexive questioning is used in behavioral

interviews. Where the intent of a behavioral interview is to show how the past can predict the future,

these interviews will focus on how a job seeker took a past situation, and improved upon it to improve a

certain aspect of a job or function. The most likely type of questions asked here are future-oriented

(What type of position or career one is pursuing – Tomm, P. 177), and unexpected context change

question. This type uses the “SBAR” Technique, where a job seeker has encountered a “Situation” (or

sets up a “Background” to such), takes “Action” to remedy the “Situation” or “Background” created,

then describing the “Results” of such “Action” (Axiom, et al, 2011).

Typical interviews

There are several different types of interviews used today. These interviews use different types of

communication techniques and practices. Sometimes, both the interview and communication models

will overlap each other. Let’s take a look at each one.

Informational.

The first type is an informational Interview, whose definition can be found right in the title – that of

gathering information about a company or industry. At this stage, you are determining your career

path. It is the only time when a job seeker is allowed, if not encouraged to remain in a “One-Down”

situation, as the purpose is to learn only, not actively pursue a job. As enough information is gathered,

career choices are made, and the job hunt is commenced, as described earlier.

Telephone.

Telephone interviews serve a dual purpose. If a job seeker is doing the screening as part of the initial

phase of a job search, this can take the place of an informational interview done in-person. If a Human

Resources person initiates the call, it is to gather early information about the job seeker, and screen for

26

a subsequent first-round, in-person interview. Often, the elevator speech gets used and overworked

here.

In-Person.

There are several types of in-person Interviews, with the type used depending on the level and stage

of the interview process. The two main types of in-person interviews are group or panel interviews and

one-on-one interviews.

Group pr Panel.

The group or panel interview consists of three or more people seated together in the same room, and

are usually used when filling managerial positions. Here, the focus is on more technical or professional

skills. The best communication practice to use here is to focus on the interviewer who is asking the

question, but directing the question, and making eye contact with the other members of the panel. On

the flip side is interviewing with multiple job seekers. Here, the format is similar to a quiz show, and is a

great chance for job seekers to compare their responses and body language with each other.

One-on-One.

The one-on-one interview usually falls into two main categories: Human Resources and immediate

Supervisor/Hiring Manager. While these two are scheduled in advance, a third type – the co-worker is

more impromptu and casual.

Human Resources. The interview with Human Resources is usually an extension of the telephone

interview. Here, HR personnel are looking for overall fit, past experience, communication, leadership

27

and professional skills. Where this is more of a “One-Across” type of interview, general information

about the job seeker and company are exchanged here.

Immediate Supervisor/Hiring Manager. The immediate Supervisor or Hiring Manager is the next step

in the interview process. This usually starts with the interviewer already “One-Up” on the job seeker, as

a job seeker’s technical skills, behavior and personality traits are explored. Where a manager’s needs

are being discussed, how a job seeker goes about highlighting his or her accomplishments and traits will

go a long way in determining who gets hired. Of note, this is also the best time to use circular

questioning and AI; as job seekers are asked to put themselves in certain situations see how they react

under pressure.

Co-Workers. Interviewing with co-workers is usually more casual and impromptu, and usually takes

place during a break in the interview schedule, such as a lunch break; or can occur if a job seeker knows

a rank and file employee within. This is a great time to get a feel for the company’s culture, style of

work and leadership, ultimately leading to a determination as to whether it is good fit for the job seeker

or not.

Technical Interview.

Two other types of interviews are often employed here. The technical interview will put a candidate

through one or more tests to further demonstrate one’s technical skills. In the private sector, these

tests are administered by Hiring Managers and HR personnel, depending on the level of the interview

and screening process. In the public sector (or places where licensing is involved), state and federal

agencies administer the tests. In some cases, you can get the cost of the tests and licensing reimbursed

by the company, whether you already work for it, or applying there, and are able to negotiate this as

part of the benefits package.

28

Behavioral Interview.

As touched upon earlier, the behavioral interview is a new tool in the interviewer’s arsenal of

screening candidates. Here, the emphasis is on a candidate’s past performances because many feel it

will also predict the future performance of a candidate. The two methods of testing commonly

employed here are the SBAR Technique and reflexive questioning because of the highly technical and

psychological nature of the data being processed, as well as being good indicators of how a potential

employee will perform under pressure.

Insurance Companies.

I want to say something about interviews with insurance companies, as they have their own language

game, and use several types of techniques. Where no HR people are used here, the first stage is a group

session with a group of candidates. An overview (and overhype) of the job and insurance agency are

given. They usually give out statistics on why they claim to be number one in their industry, and how

potential employees can move up the corporate chain rather quickly. You are not only asked to sell

insurance and financial services to your referrals (usually through cold calls, family and close friends) but

they will ultimately want you to buy their product. (One insurance firm is unionized, and asks you to join

that union as a term of employment.) Where most of these sales positions are commission-based

(meaning no regular paycheck), it is best to get the salary question out of the way early, so you know

what to expect from your employer, and know what is expected of you. (In fact, most sales positions,

regardless of industry work in this manner). Unless you can handle this emotionally and financially, and

you really want the job, the only way to get “One-Up” is to just simply say “No” and walk away. “Frank

& Ernest” puts sales positions best this way: “You shall know we’re all expected to pull 20 times our

own weight around here.” (Thaves, in the Sentinel & Enterprise, April 12, 2011)

Verbal and Non-Verbal Language of Interviewer

29

I mentioned earlier about hidden body language and communication signs as a gauge of how

interviews can go. Transition Solutions offers this checklist on page 78 of their handbook. In addition to

such body language as nodding of the head and leaning forward, an interviewer can do any or all of the

following:

Refer a job seeker to another interview (either scheduled for a later time of the day or week, or

arranged immediately after the initial one is over, if that subsequent interviewer has time to

meet with the job applicant right away).

Give tips on how to interact during the next interview.

Give a tour of the facility.

Request more time with the applicant during the day of the interview.

Request that the applicant furnish personal and professional references.

30

CHAPTER 7

FOLLOW UP PROCESS

The follow up process can take place at any stage of the job hunt, and the rhetoric used here is

tailored toward that stage of the job search. Most of the time, this by done by sending a “Thank You”

letter of some sort, although phone calls are sometimes necessary, as well. The times when following

up is done falls into two main categories: before formal interviews begin and after each subsequent

interview.

Before Formal Interviews

After Informational Interviews.

During the informational stage, a follow up is done with both the person who made the initial

referral, and the person with whom the informational interview took place. Here, the job seeker is

thanking the former for the referral, and keeping that person up to date on the progress made to that

point, while in the case of the latter, the job seeker is thanking the interviewer for the time spent and

information received on the targeted industry or company.

During Initial Application Process.

31

If a follow up is taking place during the initial stages of an actual job application, it is to confirm that

all information has been received, and if any additional information is needed to complete the

application. An inquiry can also be made as to the status of the job opening and/or application, as well

as the timetable for the screening and interview process to begin. Where this is the only information

being discussed here, this is the classic “One-Down” situation. There is no need to advertise your skills

and qualifications, as this will hopefully come to fruition in an interview.

After Each Interview

Thank You Letters.

When follow ups are made after formal interviews, they are in the form of a “Thank You” letter,

highlighting one’s qualifications and some aspects of the interview that had just taken place. The main

etiquette rule here is that it be sent to the interviewer within one or two business days of the interview.

“Thank You” letters fall into three categories and at least two of them should be used, in case one of the

methods used does not get through to the interviewer.

E-Mail. An e-mail can be done directly, or in the form of an attached formal letter. If done as a direct

dispatch, it follows on the lines of a short handwritten note.

Handwritten Note. Many people prefer this method of follow up, as it displays a personal touch.

Where this is sent by regular mail, it stands a better chance of getting to the interviewer than going

online, due to the high volumes of e-mails in an interviewer’s inbox daily (with some being filtered into

the spam file). The caveat here is that if a job seeker’s penmanship is sloppy, that will sink that person’s

chances of being called back for subsequent interviews or job offers, regardless of how an interview

actually went.

32

Formal Letters. A formal letter can be sent directly, or attached to an e-mail, and usually follows

along the lines of a cover letter (See Chapter 4). The difference is that the first paragraph acknowledges

that the interview took place, and thanks the interviewer for the time and dialogue spent. The second

paragraph serves as a reminder of the highlights of the interview, highlighting some of the skills and

qualifications discussed. Additional information supplied here can also be helpful. The last paragraph

basically anticipates the next step in the process, and relays a continued desire to work for the company.

Phone Calls.

While phone calls are usually discouraged at this stage, there are two scenarios where they are

allowed: The first is when the original promised time to hear back from an interview has expired. To

avoid the air of desperation, it is best to wait a day or two after the original time has expired before

calling. If no timetable is discussed, ten days to two weeks is the proper etiquette to use. The other

situation is if the job seeker has additional information to submit (usually promised during an interview

as warranted) or if a job seeker has additional questions about the position or company. It is best to do

this method once, as this shows a lack of respect for an interviewer’s schedule, and a lack of research of

the company ahead of time.

33

CHAPTER 8

JOB OFFERS AND SALARY NEGOTIATIONS

When Salary May be Discussed

We come back to the issue of money, as a job and salary offer is made. Salaries can be discussed at

any time during the job search. Sometimes, the salary will be spelled out in a job posting or description.

If that is the case, there is usually very little room for negotiation. On a job application, it is wise to

either leave that section blank, or if required, put what you made in your most recent job, if it is not too

high. HR personnel may bring up the subject early as part of the screening process to weed out those

who are looking for a much higher salary. If the discussion is broached during a formal interview the

best way to avoid the subject is to state your interest in finding common ground as to whether the job

and company are a fit for job seeker first before getting into any salary negotiations. Just remember:

“The person who mentions money first loses”. (Transition Solutions, P. 79)

Research Job and Industry

By this point in the job search, the job seeker should have researched salaries for similar jobs within

the industry, and have come up with a figure based on the average, past salary compensation and

budgeting needs of both the job seeker and the company (although back checking and double checking

that salary and average may also be a good idea here). At this stage of the game, the job seeker has to

34

get to being “One-Across”, if not a little “One-Up” in order to get the desired job and salary, If the offer

is within the job seeker’s desired range (or higher), very little negotiation is needed. If the offer is lower

than desired, the rule of thumb is to ask for between two and four thousand dollars higher, citing your

worth to the company, and the fact that the company has already spent a considerable amount of time

and money interviewing you. This is also a good time to review the benefits package, as you can trade

off salary for such perks as tuition reimbursement, employee discounts, travel and clothes allowance,

etc. A good package should reflect both the policies of the company and the needs of the person being

offered the job. Be careful that you don’t ask for too high a salary, as this sends the wrong message

about yourself to the company (in it only for the money), and could result with the offer being

withdrawn.

Verbal and Written Commitment by Both Parties

When a job offer is made, get a verbal commitment first. This commitment should include the job,

description, requirements, the start date, and total salary and benefits package. When both sides are

satisfied with the offer and package, accept it verbally pending a written commitment by both sides.

When the company sends you the formal written job offer, read it over before signing to make sure

everything that was negotiated is mentioned in that offer. At either time during this process,

amendments can be made right up until the commitments are signed by all parties concerned. When

sending the written acceptance letter, make sure it is, once again, an enthusiastic response, as you have

finally reached “One-Up” status.

Delays in acceptance, for whatever reason, should be handled tactfully, with a promise to get back by

a certain time. If a job offer is declined, still send a “Thank You” letter, as the opportunity to meet again

may arise in the future.

35

CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSION, SUMMARY AND RECAP

What we have just seen is a snapshot of a job search, and the communication techniques and

theories used in such. Using the right communication techniques and strategies can land the perfect

job. But also remember to read what the other person is saying, and how they are acting, as these hints

will also determine how well the process is proceeding.

I close with an interesting ad that the Sunday Telegram & Gazette published from Momster.com

recently. It is a tongue-in-cheek open letter and apology from the economy, which lists the reasons why

a job search is commenced in the first place. It reads as such:

AN OPEN LETTER OF APOLOGY FROM THE ECONOMY

I’m Sorry.

To state the obvious, it hasn’t been pretty the last few years, especially for the job market.

I’m aware of the anger, and I don’t blame you. This whole thing got away from me. But I think it’s time we made a fresh start.

Here is what I propose:

1. If you have a job and you’re happy with it, good for you. Keep it up.2. If you’re not happy in your job, it’s time to rethink things. I’m not telling you to quit on the spot.

But maybe there is a better job out there for you.3. If you’ve taken a job that under normal circumstances you wouldn’t have, my hats off to you.

You did what you had to do. But now maybe it’s time to go back to doing what you do best.4. If you don’t have a job, again, I’m sorry. I know looking for a job can be, to put it nicely,

challenging. But know this, it’s not you, it’s me. And if the recovery is here, I think you can lead the way.

36

So to everyone who has been affected the last few years, which is pretty much everyone, I accept complete responsibility. But now the ball is in your court. You have permission to move on with your life.

It’s time to move forward, find a job you love and get back to work.

Sincerely,

The Economy.

CHAPTER 10

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Axiom, Jack H., et al, “How to Prepare for a Behavioral Interview”, from WikiHow (2011).

Brummett, Barry, Rhetoric in Popular Culture, 2nd edition, Sage Publications, Inc., Thousand Oaks, CA (2006).

Chetro-Szivos, Dr. John and Dr. Patrice Gray, “Creating Conversational Spaces on Campus: Connecting Students and Faculty Through Appreciative Inquiry and Circular Questioning, in Journal of Student Centered Learning, Volume 2, No. 1, New Forums Press, Inc, Stillwater, OK, (2004).

Dewey, John, Experience and Nature: Nature and Communication, Chapter 5, Nature, Communication and Meaning, Open Court, Chicago, IL (1925).

Fenton, Lois, “Men’s Interview Fashion Tips”, monster.com, (2011).

Goffman, Erving, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Anchor Books/Doubleday, New York, (1959), in Realizing Symbolic Order Through Symbolic Interaction, (later in The Production of Reality) by Jodi O’Brien, Chapter 21, “Projecting the Definition of the Situation”, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA (latest edition in 2010).

Grayling, A. C., Chapter 3 – “The Later Philosophy”, in Wittgenstein: a Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, New York, NY (1996).

Johnson, Dr. Spencer, an A-Mazing Way to Deal With Change in Your Work and in Your Life: Who Moved My Cheese? G. P. Putnam Sons, New York, NY (2002).

Lakoff, George, “Language: The Power We Love to Hate”, in The Language War, University of California Press, Los Angeles, CA (2000).

Martin, Carole, “10 Interview Fashion Blunders: What Not to Wear to the Interview”, monster.com, (2011).

37

Stone, Gladys, and Fred Whelan, “What the Colors of Your Job Interview Clothes Convey”, monster.com, (2011).

Telegram & Gazette, Worcester, MA Saturday, April 30, 2011 Edition, Page C1.

Thaves, Bob, “Frank and Ernest”, in the Sentinel & Enterprise, Fitchburg, MA (2011).

The Successful Career Transition Guide, Transition Solutions, a Studley Group Company, (2007).

Tomm, Karl, “Interventive Interviewing, Part II: Reflexive Questioning as a Means to Enable Self Healing”, in Family Process, Family Process Institute, New York, NY (1987).

Wales, Solon B., Stained Glass Windows, Rollstone Congregational Church, Fitchburg, MA, (circa. 1979 – 1981).

Walsh, Robert P., “It’s a Stupid Game!”, Paper written for Interpersonal Communication class, Fitchburg State University, Fitchburg, MA, (2008).

Walsh, Robert P., “See, Advertising Also Existed in the High Gothic Age”, Paper written for Applied Rhetoric class, Fitchburg State University, Fitchburg, MA, (2009).

38