tobacco, nicotine, and e-cigarette use, dependence, and treatment · 2020. 5. 28. ·...
TRANSCRIPT
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Tobacco, Nicotine, and
E-Cigarette Use, Dependence,
and Treatment
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Introduction
In2014,theNationmarkedthe50thanniversaryofthefirstSurgeonGeneral’s
ReportonSmokingandHealth.In1964,morethan40percentoftheadult
populationsmoked.Oncethelinkbetweensmokinganditsmedical
consequences—includingcancersandheartandlungdiseases—becamea
partofthepublicconsciousness,educationeffortsandpublicpolicychanges
wereenactedtoreducethenumberofpeoplewhosmoke.Theseefforts
resultedinsubstantialdeclinesinsmokingratesintheUnitedStates—tohalf
the1964level.
However,ratesofcigarettesmokingandothertobaccousearestilltoohigh,
andsomepopulationsaredisproportionatelyaffectedbytobacco’shealth
consequences.Mostnotably,peoplewithmentaldisorders—including
substanceusedisorders—smokeathigherratesthanthegeneralpopulation.
Additionally,peoplelivingbelowthepovertylineandthosewithlow
educationalattainmentaremorelikelytosmokethanthoseinthegeneral
population.Astobaccouseistheleadingpreventablecauseofmortalityinthe
UnitedStates, differentialratesofsmokinganduseofothertobaccoproductsis
asignificantcontributortohealthdisparitiesamongsomeofthemostvulnerable
peopleinoursociety.
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Whatisthescopeoftobaccouseand
itscosttosociety?
Approximatelyonefourthofthepopulationusestobaccoproducts,and19.4
percentsmokecigarettes.Accordingtothe2016NationalSurveyonDrugUse
andHealth(NSDUH),anestimated63.4millionpeopleaged12orolderuseda
tobaccoproductduringthepastmonth,including51.3millioncigarette
smokers. Smokingratescontinuetogodownyeartoyear;thepercentageof
peopleoverage18whosmokecigarettesdeclinedfrom20.9percentin2005to
15.8percentin2016,accordingtothe2017NationalHealthInterviewSurvey.
However,smokingratesaresubstantiallyhigheramongsomeofthemost
vulnerablepeopleinoursociety.The25percentofAmericanswithmental
disorders,includingaddiction,accountfor40percentofthecigarettessmoked
intheU.S. (see"Dopeoplewithmentalillnessandsubstanceusedisorders
usetobaccomoreoften?").Morethan40percentofpeoplewithaGeneral
EducationDevelopmentcertificate(GED)smoke—whichisthehighest
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prevalenceofanysocioeconomicgroup. Also,peoplewholiveinruralareas,
particularlyintheSouthAtlanticstates,useallformsoftobaccoathigherrates
thanpeoplewholiveinurbanareas.Thesedifferencescannotbefully
explainedbydifferentlevelsofpovertyoraffluence.
Smokingamongyouthisathistoricallylowlevels.AccordingtotheNIDA-
sponsoredMonitoringtheFuture(MTF)survey, in2015,anestimated4.7
millionmiddleandhighschoolstudentsusedtobaccoproductsduringthepast
month,accordingtodatafromtheNationalYouthTobaccoSurvey(NYTS) e-
cigarettes)werethemostcommonlyusedtobaccoproductsamongmiddle(5.3
percent)andhighschool(16.0percent)studentsin2015. E-cigarettesdeliver
syntheticnicotineanddonotcontaintobacco;however,theyareclassifiedas
tobaccoproductsforregulatorypurposes.Thesefindingsareechoedbyother
studies, includingthe MTFsurvey. Scientistshavenotyetdeterminedthe
medicalconsequencesoflong-terme-cigaretteuseorthesecondhandeffects
ofe-cigarettevapor(see"Whatareelectroniccigarettes?").
Between1964and2012,anestimated17.7milliondeathswererelatedto
smoking leadstomorethan480,000deathsannually. Ifcurrentsmoking
ratescontinue,5.6millionAmericanswhoarecurrentlyyoungerthan18willdie
prematurelyfromsmoking-relateddisease.
Inadditiontothetremendousimpactofprematuredeathsrelatedtotobacco
use,theeconomiccostsarehigh.Expertsestimatethatbetween2009and
2012,theannualsocietalcostsattributabletosmokingintheUnitedStates
werebetween$289and$332.5billion.Thisincludes$132.5to$175.9billion
fordirectmedicalcareofadultsand$151billionforlostproductivitydueto
prematuredeaths.In2006,lostproductivityduetoexposuretosecondhand
smokecostthecountry$5.6billion. About70percentofcurrentsmokers’
excessmedicalcarecostscouldbepreventedbyquitting.
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Howdoestobaccodeliveritseffects?
Thesmokefromcombustibletobaccoproductscontainsmorethan7,000
chemicals.Nicotineistheprimaryreinforcingcomponentoftobacco;itdrives
tobaccoaddiction. Hundredsofcompoundsareaddedtotobaccoto
enhanceitsflavorandtheabsorptionofnicotine. Cigarettesmokingisthe
mostpopularmethodofusingtobacco;however,manypeoplealsouse
smokelesstobaccoproducts,suchassnuffandchewingtobacco,whichalso
containnicotine(see"OtherTobaccoProducts").E-cigarettes,whichdeliver
nicotineintheabsenceofotherchemicalsintobacco,havebecomepopularin
recentyears(see"Whatareelectroniccigarettes?").
Thecigaretteisaveryefficientandhighlyengineereddrug-deliverysystem.By
inhalingtobaccosmoke,theaveragesmokertakesin1–2milligramsofnicotine
percigarette.Whentobaccoissmoked,nicotinerapidlyreachespeaklevelsin
thebloodstreamandentersthebrain.Atypicalsmokerwilltake10puffsona
cigaretteovertheroughly5minutesthatthecigaretteislit. Thus,aperson
whosmokesabout1pack(20cigarettes)dailygets200"hits"ofnicotinetothe
braineachday.Amongthosewhodonotinhalethesmoke—suchascigarand
pipesmokersandsmokelesstobaccousers—nicotineisabsorbedthrough
mucousmembranesinthemouthandreachespeakbloodandbrainlevels
moreslowly.
Immediatelyafterexposuretonicotine,thereisa"kick"causedinpartbythe
drug’sstimulationoftheadrenalglandsandresultingdischargeofepinephrine
(adrenaline).Therushofadrenalinestimulatesthebodyandcausesan
increaseinbloodpressure,respiration,andheartrate. Likeotherdrugs,
nicotinealsoactivatesrewardpathwaysinthebrain—circuitrythatregulates
reinforcementandfeelingsofpleasure.
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Isnicotineaddictive?
Yes.Mostsmokersusetobaccoregularlybecausetheyareaddictedtonicotine.
Addictionischaracterizedbycompulsivedrug-seekinganduse,eveninthe
faceofnegativehealthconsequences.Themajorityofsmokerswouldliketo
stopsmoking,andeachyearabouthalftrytoquitpermanently.Yet,onlyabout
6percentofsmokersareabletoquitinagivenyear. Mostsmokerswillneed
tomakemultipleattemptsbeforetheyareabletoquitpermanently.
Medicationsincludingvarenicline,andsomeantidepressants(e.g.bupropion),
andnicotine-replacementtherapy,canhelpinmanycases(see"Whatare
treatmentsfortobaccodependence?").
Atransientsurgeofendorphinsintherewardcircuitsofthebraincausesa
slight,briefeuphoriawhennicotineisadministered.Thissurgeismuchbriefer
thanthe"high"associatedwithotherdrugs.However,likeotherdrugsofabuse,
nicotineincreaseslevelsoftheneurotransmitterdopamineinthesereward
circuits, whichreinforcesthebehavioroftakingthedrug.Repeated
exposurealtersthesecircuits'sensitivitytodopamineandleadstochangesin
otherbraincircuitsinvolvedinlearning,stress,andself-control.Formany
tobaccousers,thelong-termbrainchangesinducedbycontinuednicotine
exposureresultinaddiction,whichinvolveswithdrawalsymptomswhennot
smoking,anddifficultyadheringtotheresolutiontoquit.
Thepharmacokineticpropertiesofnicotine,orthewayitisprocessedbythe
body,contributetoitsaddictiveness. Whencigarettesmokeentersthelungs,
nicotineisabsorbedrapidlyinthebloodanddeliveredquicklytothebrain,so
thatnicotinelevelspeakwithin10secondsofinhalation.Buttheacuteeffectsof
nicotinealsodissipatequickly,alongwiththeassociatedfeelingsofreward;this
rapidcyclecausesthesmokertocontinuedosingtomaintainthedrug's
pleasurableeffectsandpreventwithdrawalsymptoms.
Withdrawaloccursasaresultofdependence,whenthebodybecomesusedto
havingthedruginthesystem.Beingwithoutnicotinefortoolongcancausea
regularusertoexperienceirritability,craving,depression,anxiety,cognitiveand
attentiondeficits,sleepdisturbances,andincreasedappetite.Thesewithdrawal
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symptomsmaybeginwithinafewhoursafterthelastcigarette,quicklydriving
peoplebacktotobaccouse.
Whenapersonquitssmoking,withdrawalsymptomspeakwithinthefirstfew
daysofthelastcigarettesmokedandusuallysubsidewithinafewweeks. For
somepeople,however,symptomsmaypersistformonths,andtheseverityof
withdrawalsymptomsappearstobeinfluencedbyaperson'sgenes.
Inadditiontoitspleasurableeffects,nicotinealsotemporarilyboostsaspectsof
cognition,suchastheabilitytosustainattentionandholdinformationin
memory.However,long-termsmokingisassociatedwithcognitivedeclineand
riskofAlzheimer'sDisease,suggestingthatshort-termnicotine-related
enhancementdoesnotoutweighlong-termconsequencesforcognitive
functioning. Inaddition,peopleinwithdrawalfromnicotineexperience
neurocognitivedeficitssuchasproblemswithattentionormemory. These
neurocognitivewithdrawalsymptomsareincreasinglyrecognizedasa
contributortocontinuedsmoking. Asmallresearchstudyalsosuggestedthat
withdrawalmayimpairsleepforseverelydependentsmokers,andthatthismay
additionallycontributetorelapse.
Inadditiontothedrug'simpactonmultipleneurotransmittersandtheir
receptors, manybehavioralfactorscanaffecttheseverityofwithdrawal
symptoms.Formanypeoplewhosmoke,thefeel,smell,andsightofacigarette
andtheritualofobtaining,handling,lighting,andsmokingthecigaretteareall
associatedwiththepleasurableeffectsofsmokingandcanmakewithdrawalor
cravingworse. Learningprocessesinthebrainassociatethesecueswith
nicotine-induceddopaminesurgesintherewardsystem —similartowhat
occurswithotherdrugaddictions.Nicotinereplacementtherapiessuchasgum,
patches,andinhalers,andothermedicationsapprovedforthetreatmentof
nicotineaddictionmayhelpalleviatethephysiologicalaspectsofwithdrawal
(see"Whataretreatmentsfortobaccodependence?");however,cravings
oftenpersistbecauseofthepowerofthesecues.Behavioraltherapiescanhelp
smokersidentifyenvironmentaltriggersofcravingsotheycanusestrategiesto
avoidthesetriggersandmanagethefeelingsthatarisewhentriggerscannot
be.
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Arethereotherchemicalsthatmaycontributetotobacco
addiction?
Researchisshowingthatnicotinemaynotbetheonlyingredientin
tobaccothataffectsitsaddictivepotential.
Smokingislinkedwithamarkeddecreaseinthelevelsofmonoamine
oxidase(MAO),animportantenzymethatisresponsibleforthebreakdown
ofdopamine,aswellasareductioninMAObindingsitesinthebrain.
Thischangeislikelycausedbysomeas-yet-unidentifiedingredientin
tobaccosmokeotherthannicotine,becauseweknowthatnicotineitself
doesnotdramaticallyalterMAOlevels.Animalresearchsuggeststhat
MAOinhibitionmakesnicotinemorereinforcing,butmorestudiesare
neededtodeterminewhetherMAOinhibitionaffectshumantobacco
dependence.
Animalresearchhasalsoshownthatacetaldehyde,anotherchemicalin
tobaccosmokecreatedbytheburningofsugarsaddedassweeteners,
dramaticallyincreasesthereinforcingpropertiesofnicotineandmayalso
contributetotobaccoaddiction.
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Whatarethephysicalhealth
consequencesoftobaccouse?
Cigarettesmokingharmsnearlyeveryorganinthebody, andsmokingisthe
leadingpreventablecauseofprematuredeathintheUnitedStates.Although
ratesofsmokinghavedeclined,itisestimatedthatitleadstoabout480,000
deathsyearly. Smokersaged60andolderhaveatwofoldincreaseinmortality
comparedwiththosewhohaveneversmoked,dyinganestimated6years
earlier. Quittingsmokingresultsinimmediatehealthbenefits,andsomeorall
ofthereducedlifeexpectancycanberecovereddependingontheagea
personquits.
Althoughnicotineitselfdoesnotcausecancer,atleast69chemicalsintobacco
smokearecarcinogenic, andcigarettesmokingaccountsforatleast30
percentofallcancerdeaths. Theoverallratesofdeathfromcanceraretwice
ashighamongsmokersasnonsmokers,withheavysmokershavingafour
timesgreaterriskofdeathfromcancerthannonsmokers.
Foremostamongthecancerscausedbytobaccouseislungcancer.Cigarette
smokinghasbeenlinkedtoabout80to90percentofallcasesoflungcancer,
theleadingcauseofcancerdeathforbothmenandwomen,anditis
responsibleforroughly80percentofdeathsfromthisdisease. Smoking
increaseslungcancerriskfivetotenfold,withgreaterriskamongheavy
smokers. Smokingisalsoassociatedwithcancersofthemouth,pharynx,
larynx,esophagus,stomach,pancreas,cervix,kidney,andbladder,aswellas
acutemyeloid. Cigarettesmokingisnottheonlyformoftobaccouse
associatedwithcancers.Smokelesstobacco(see"OtherTobaccoProducts")
hasbeenlinkedtocancerofthepharynx,esophagus,stomach,andlung,as
wellastocolorectalcancer.
Inadditiontocancer,smokingcauseslungdiseasessuchaschronicbronchitis
andemphysema,andithasbeenfoundtoexacerbateasthmasymptomsin
adultsandchildren.Cigarettesmokingisthemostsignificantriskfactorfor
chronicobstructivepulmonarydisease(COPD). Survivalstatisticsindicate
thatquittingsmokingresultsinrepairtomuchofthesmoking-inducedlung
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damageovertime.However,onceCOPDdevelops,itisirreversible;COPD-
relatedlungdamageisnotrepairedwithtime.
Smokingalsosubstantiallyincreasestheriskofheartdisease,includingstroke,
heartattack,vasculardisease,andaneurysm. Cardiovasculardiseaseis
responsiblefor40percentofallsmoking-relateddeaths. Smokingcauses
coronaryheartdisease,theleadingcauseofdeathintheUnitedStates.
Smokingisalsolinkedtomanyothermajorhealthconditions—including
diabetes,rheumatoidarthritis,inflammation,andimpairedimmunefunction.
Evenyoungsmokersaged26to41reportreducedhealth-relatedqualityoflife
comparedwithnonsmokingpeers,accordingtoacross-sectionalpopulation
study.
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Whataretheeffectsofsecondhand
andthirdhandtobaccosmoke?
Secondhandsmokeisasignificantpublichealthconcernanddriverofsmoke-
freepolicies.Alsocalledpassiveorsecondarysmoke,secondhandsmoke
increasestheriskformanydiseases. Exposuretoenvironmentaltobacco
smokeamongnonsmokersincreaseslungcancerriskbyabout20percent.
Secondhandsmokeisestimatedtocauseapproximately53,800deaths
annuallyintheUnitedStates. Exposuretotobaccosmokeinthehomeisalso
ariskfactorforasthmainchildren.
Smokingalsoleaveschemicalresidueonsurfaceswheresmokinghas
occurred,whichcanpersistlongafterthesmokeitselfhasbeenclearedfrom
theenvironment.Thisphenomenon,knownas"thirdhandsmoke,"is
increasinglyrecognizedasapotentialdanger,especiallytochildren,whonot
onlyinhalefumesreleasedbytheseresiduesbutalsoingestresiduesthatget
ontheirhandsaftercrawlingonfloorsortouchingwallsandfurniture.More
researchisneededontherisksposedtohumansbythirdhandsmoke,buta
studyinmiceshowedthatthirdhandsmokeexposurehasseveralbehavioral
andphysicalhealthimpacts,includinghyperactivityandadverseeffectsonthe
liverandlungs.
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Whataretherisksofsmokingduring
pregnancy?
Smokingduringpregnancyislinkedwitharangeofpoorbirthoutcomes—
including:
Lowbirthweightandpretermbirth
Restrictedheadgrowth
Placentalproblems
Increasedriskofstillbirth
Increasedriskofmiscarriage
Healthanddevelopmentalconsequencesamongchildrenhavealsobeen
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linkedtoprenatalsmokeexposure,including:
Poorerlungfunction,persistentwheezing,andasthma,possiblythrough
DNAmethylation
Visualdifficulties,suchasstrabismus,refractiveerrors,andretinopathy
Unfortunately,smokingbypregnantwomeniscommon.In2014,8.4percentof
womensmokedatanytimeduringpregnancy,withthoseaged20to24who
wereAmericanIndianorAlaskaNativeshavinghigherrates,at13percentand
18percent,respectively. Onefifthofwomenwhosmokedduringthefirst6
monthsofpregnancyquitbytheirthirdtrimester.Overallcessationrateswere
highestforthosewiththehighesteducationalattainmentandprivate
insurance. Therefore,thereisaclearneedtoexpandsmokingcessation
treatmenttoyoungerwomenandtothoseoflowersocioeconomicstatus(see
Box:"SmokingCessationforPregnantWomen").
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Howmanyadolescentsusetobacco?
Mostpeoplewhousetobaccostartedduringadolescence,andthosewho
beginatayoungeragearemorelikelytodevelopnicotinedependenceand
havetroublequitting. Accordingtothe2017MonitoringtheFutureSurvey,9.7
percentof12thgraders,5.0percentof10thgraders,and1.9percentof8th
gradersusedcigarettesinthepastmonth. Analysesofthe2012National
YouthTobaccoSurvey(NYTS)foundthat20.8percentofcurrentadolescent
tobaccousersreportedwantingtousetobaccowithin30minutesofwaking—a
classicsymptomofnicotinedependence.Thisstudyalsofoundthat41.9
percentreportedstrongcravingsfortobacco. Otherresearchhasfoundthat
lightandintermittentsmokingamongadolescentsisassociatedwiththesame
levelofdifficultyquittingasdailysmoking.
Anyexposuretonicotineamongyouthisaconcern.Theadolescentbrainisstill
developing,andnicotinehaseffectsonthebrain’srewardsystemandbrain
regionsinvolvedinemotionalandcognitivefunctions. Researchsuggeststhat
thenicotine-relatedchangestotheseareasofthebrainduringadolescence
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mayperpetuatecontinuedtobaccouseintoadulthood. Thesechangesalso
contributetoahigherrateofothersubstanceusedisordersamongpeoplewho
usetobaccoduringadolescence,sometimesreferredtoasa
"gateway"effect.
Mentalhealth,beliefsaboutsmoking,perceptionofschoolmates’smoking,and
othersubstanceuseareadditionalfactorsthatcaninfluenceanadolescent’s
riskforsmokingandnicotinedependence. Emotionalproblems—including
depression andrecentnegativelifeevents —areassociatedwithtobacco
useamongadolescents.Smokingamongpeersandwithinsocialgroupsisa
majorenvironmentalfactorthatinfluencesadolescentsmoking;socialsmoking
isamoreimportantmotivatorforadolescentscomparedtoadultsmokers.
Itiscommonforadolescentsmokingtofollowanintergenerationalpattern,
whichhasgenetic,epigenetic,andenvironmentalinfluences. Datafrom
parentsandadolescentssuggeststhatcurrentparentalnicotinedependenceis
stronglylinkedwithadolescentsmokinganddependence.Otherfactors—such
asparents’education,maritalstatus,andparentingbehavioralsoinfluence
teensmoking.
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Whatareelectroniccigarettes?
E-cigarettes(electronicnicotinedeliverysystems)emergedintheU.S.marketin
2007andhaverapidlygrowninpopularity. E-cigarettes,ore-vaporizers,are
devicesthatheataliquidcontainingsolvents,flavors,andoftennicotine.
Usersinhaletheresultingvapor.Avarietyofdesignsareavailable,some
mimickingthelookoftraditionalcigarettes.Morethan7,000flavorsare
availablefore-cigarettes, someofwhichareespeciallyappealingtoyouth.
Manyconveniencestores,drugstores,grocerystores,andotherphysicaland
onlineretailoutletsselle-cigarettes,althoughasofAugust,2016,itisillegalto
sellthemtopeopleunder18.Someconveniencestoresanddrugstorechains
havealsostoppedsellinge-cigarettestopromotepublichealth.
In2013,morethanonethirdofcigarettesmokerssaidtheyhadeverusede-
cigarettes. Accordingtodatafromthe2014TobaccoProductsandRisk
PerceptionsSurvey,currentcigarettesmokershadagreaterlikelihoodofusing
e-cigarettes.Thisanalysisfoundthathalfofcigarettesmokershadeverusedan
e-cigaretteand20.7percentcurrentlyusedthesedevices.However,
approximately10percentofadultswhousede-cigaretteshadneversmoked
previously. Datafromthe2014NationalHealthInterviewSurveyindicated
that0.4percentofadultswhohaveneversmokedand0.8percentofformer
smokers(abstinent4ormoreyears)currentlyusee-cigarettes. Thesurvey
alsofoundthat13percentofdailye-cigaretteuserswereformersmokerswho
quitduringthepastyear.
Aswithcigaretteuse,e-cigaretteuseishigheramongpeoplewithmental
healthconditions—with3.1percentcurrentlyusingcomparedwith1.1percent
ofthosewithoutmentalillness. Itisalsoaconcernthatpregnantwomenare
usinge-cigarettes,asnicotineexposureduringperiodsofdevelopmental
vulnerability(includingprenataldevelopment)hasadversehealth
consequences.
Usersreportthebeliefthate-cigaretteproductsarelessharmfulthantraditional
cigarettes, andmanyreportusingthemtohelpquitsmokingtraditional
cigarettes.Whileitisnotyetclearife-cigarettesareeffectivesmokingcessation
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aids,thedevicesaresometimesmarketedforthispurpose (see"Aree-
cigarettesusefulforsmokingcessation?").Someresearchsuggeststhatolder
adultsusethesedevicesasatobaccosubstitute,althoughnotalwaysasa
cessationmethod. Usersalsociteconvenienceandbeingconscientious
towardsothersasreasonsforusingtheseproducts.
Howdoesthefederalgovernmentregulatee-cigarettes?
TheU.S.FoodandDrugAdministration(FDA),whichregulatescigarettes,
tobacco,andsmokelesstobacco,gainedtheauthorityin2016toalso
regulateelectronicnicotinedeliverysystems(suchase-cigarettesand
vapepens),allcigars,hookah(waterpipe)tobacco,pipetobacco,and
nicotinegels,amongothertobaccoproducts.Underthenewregulations,
e-cigarettemanufacturersmustlistingredients,andvendorscannotselle-
cigarettestopeopleunderage18.
Isittruethate-cigarettesaresaferthantraditionalcigarettes?
Itislikelythat,onbalance,e-cigarettesaresaferthantraditionalcigarettes
fromthestandpointofphysicalhealth.However,asdiscussedabove,the
nicotineine-cigarettescancauseaddictionandneurocognitive
impairments.
Althoughforregulatorypurposese-cigarettesareclassifiedas“tobacco
products,”theydonotcontaintobaccoorproducethesametoxic
combustionproducts,liketar,thatcauselungcancerandotherdiseasesin
usersandpeopleexposedtosecondhandsmoke.However,thevapor
frome-cigarettestypicallycontainsnicotineandarangeofother
chemicals. Becausetheseproductsarerelativelynew,evidenceonthe
short-termeffectsofexposuretoe-cigaretteaerosolsislimited,andvery
littleisknownaboutthelong-termhealtheffects.
Areviewofrecentliteraturefoundthatsomeofthechemicalsine-cigarette
liquid,propyleneglycolandglycerol,causethroatirritationand
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coughing. Otherresearchsuggeststhatvaporexposuremaybelinked
withimpairedlungfunction. Chemicalanalysesthatcomparetheprofiles
ofelectronicandtraditionalcigaretteshavesuggestedthate-cigarettes
haveareducedcarcinogenicprofileandimpartalowerpotentialfor
disease. However,toxicants,carcinogens,andmetalparticleshavebeen
detectedintheliquidsandaerosolsofe-cigarettes,anditiscurrently
unclearwhatrisktheyposewithrepeateduse. Aswithtraditional
cigarettes,useofe-cigarettesinvoluntarilyexposesnonusersto
secondhandandthirdhandaerosol.
Theresearchonsecondhandexposuretotheaerosolfrome-cigarettesis
limited,butonestudyfoundthatfineparticulatematterconcentrations
duringanindooreventinalargeroomwithe-cigarettesmokerswere
higherthanthosereportedpreviouslyinvenuesthatallowedcigarette
smoking. Aninvitrostudyshowedthatexposinglungtissuesandcellsto
e-cigaretteliquidinducedincreasedinflammatoryresponsesandoxidative
stressmarkers. Anotherstudythatanalyzede-cigaretteflavoringsfound
that39ofthe51flavorstestedpositivefordiacetyl,achemicalassociated
withanirreversibleobstructivelungdiseasecalledbronchiolitisobliterans.
Otherchemicals,2,3-pentanedioneandacetoin,associatedwithsevere
respiratorydiseasesamongexposedpeople,werealsofoundinmanye-
cigaretteflavorings.
Theamountofnicotineine-cigarettefluidvaries.Someresearchhasfound
thate-cigarettesdeliverlessnicotineonaveragethantraditional
cigarettes, butthatusersmaychangepuffingpatternstocompensate.
Inexperiencede-cigaretteuserstakeinmodestnicotineconcentrations,but
thosewhoregularlyusethesedevicesadjusttheirpuffingtoconsume
similarlevelsofthedrugaswithtraditionalcigarettes. Newere-
cigarettedevicescandeliversubstantialamountsofnicotine,andsome
usersareabletogetnicotineatlevelssimilarto orevengreaterthana
traditionalcigarette. Onestudyfoundequivalentlevelsofnicotine's
majormetaboliteinthebloodofsmokerswhousetraditionalande-
cigarettes. Thus,allthenicotine-relatedconcernsoftraditionalcigarettes
—addiction,effectsoncognitivefunction,andeffectsonprenatal
development—applytoe-cigarettesaswell.
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RisksofE-CigarettestoChildren
Youngchildrenmayaccidentallyingesttheconcentratednicotine
(whichoftencontainsflavors)ine-cigaretteliquid. TheCentersfor
DiseaseControlandPreventionrecentlycomparedcallstopoison
centersintheUnitedStatesrelatedtohumanexposurestoe-
cigarettesandtraditionalcigarettes.Thestudyfoundthatbetween
September2010andFebruary2014,theproportionofe-cigarette
callsamongallcigarette-relatedcallsincreasedfrom0.3percentto
41.7percent. Mostofthee-cigaretteexposureswereamong
childrenundertheageof5years(51.1percent)andpeopleoverage
20(42.0percent),whereasalmostalltraditionalcigaretteexposure
callsinvolvedyoungchildren. Dataindicatedthatagreater
proportionofe-cigaretteexposurecalls(57.8percent)resultedin
adversehealtheffectsthantraditionalcigaretteexposure(36.0
percent).Theseadversehealtheffectsincludedvomiting,nausea,and
eyeirritation.
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Aree-cigarettesusefulforsmokingcessation?
Someresearchsuggestse-cigarettesmayhelppeoplequitsmoking
cigarettes,whileotherdatasuggestthattheycanimpedequittingandthat
theymayopenthedoortotraditionalcigaretteuseforpeoplewhomight
nototherwisetrythem.Thus,muchmoreresearchisneededonthis
question.
Onereviewofrecentstudiessuggestedthatthelikelihoodofquitting
cigaretteswas28percentloweramongindividualswhousede-cigarettes
comparedwiththosewhodidnotusethesedevices,regardlessofwhether
userswereinterestedinquitting. ResearchfromtheUnitedKingdom
suggeststhatamongsmokerswhocontinuetousetraditionalcigarettes,
dailyuseofe-cigaretteswasassociatedwithincreasedattemptstoquit
andcutback,butnotwithsuccess. However,anotheranalysisestimated
that,inEngland,16,000smokerswereabletoquitin2014whowouldnot
havequitife-cigaretteshadnotbeenavailable. Areviewandmeta-
analysisalsosuggestedthatusinge-cigarettesforaminimumof6months
wasassociatedwithquittingorreducingthenumberofcigarettesused.
E-cigarettesandTeens
Nationalsurveydatasuggestthate-cigaretteswerethemostcommonly
usednicotinedeliveryproductamongyouth. Areviewoftheliterature
foundthatupto20percentofadolescentswhocurrentlyusee-cigarettes
hadneversmokedatraditionalcigarette.
Amajorconcernisthate-cigarettes’flavors,design,andmarketing
particularlyappealtoyouth, andthatbyintroducingyoungpeopleto
nicotineandglamorizingasmoking-likebehavior,e-cigarettescouldopen
thedoortocigaretteuseinapopulationthatisparticularlyvulnerableto
addictionandthathasseenhistoricdeclinesincigarettesmoking.
Someresearchindicatesthate-cigaretteusemayleadtotheuseof
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traditionalcigarettesamongadolescentsandyoungadults. Accordingto
datafromthe2012NYTS,youthwhohadonlyusede-cigarettesreported
anincreasedintentiontosmoketraditionalcigarettescomparedwithpeers
whohadneverusedthesedevices.Thesurveyfoundnolinkbetweene-
cigaretteuseandintentiontoquitsmokingamongyouthwhowerecurrent
smokers,indicatingthatthisagegroupdoesnotseetheseproducts
primarilyassmoking-cessationaids. Alongitudinalcohortstudyof16-to
26-year-oldswhohadneversmokedtraditionalcigarettesfoundthat2.3
percent(16participants)usede-cigarettesatthestartofthestudy.Aftera
one-yearfollow-up,approximately69percent(11of16)ofthese
participantsprogressedtosmokingtraditionalcigarettescomparedto18.9
percent(128of678)amongthosewhoneverusedane-
cigarette. Anotherstudyfoundthatpast-monthe-cigaretteusepredicted
futurecigaretteuse,butthatpast-monthcigaretteusedidnotpredictfuture
e-cigaretteuse.
Manyyoungpeoplereportexperimentingwithe-cigarettesoutofcuriosity,
becausetheflavorsappealtothem,orbecauseofpeerinfluences. The
majorityofyouthwhoreportede-cigaretteuseinonestudyhadfriends
whousedtheseproducts.Almosthalfofadolescentswhousede-
cigarettessaidthattheydidnotbelievetheseproductswereassociated
withhealthrisks. Youngpeoplealsoperceivede-cigarettesaseasyto
obtain,"cool,"andabetteralternativetocigarettesbecausetheywere
thoughttobehealthierandcouldbeusedanywhere.Amongyouthwho
stoppedusinge-cigarettes,themajorunderlyingreasonswerehealth
concerns,lossofinterest,highcost,badtaste,andviewofe-cigarettesas
lesssatisfyingthancigarettes.
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OtherTobaccoProducts
Whilecigarettesmokinghasdeclinedsignificantlyduringthepast40years,use
ofothertobaccoproductsisincreasing—particularlyamongyoung
people. Theseinclude:
Cigars:tobaccowrappedinleaftobaccooranothertobacco-containing
substanceinsteadofpaper,whichcanbeboughtindividually
Cigarillos:smallcigarsthatcostlessandarealsoavailableforpurchase
individually
Hookahsorwaterpipes:pipeswithalong,flexibletubefordrawingsmoke
fromlit,flavoredtobaccothroughwatercontainedinabowl
Smokelesstobacco:productslikechewingtobaccoandsnuffthatare
placedinthemouthbetweentheteethandgums
Powdertobacco:mixturesthatareinhaledthroughthenose
In2014,almostone-quarterofhighschoolstudentsreportedpast-monthuseof
atobaccoproduct—withe-cigarettes(13.4percent),hookahs(9.4percent),
cigarettes(9.2percent),cigars(8.2percent),smokelesstobacco(5.5percent),
andsnus(moistpowdertobacco)(1.9percent)asthemostpopular.
Cigars
In2016,anestimated12millionpeopleaged12orolder(4.6percentofthe
adolescentandadultpopulation)smokedcigarsduringthepastmonth. The
majorityofadolescentsandyoungadultswhosmokedcigarsalsosmoke
cigarettes.
Cigarillos
DatafromtheTobaccoUseSupplementtotheCurrentPopulationSurveyand
NSDUHsuggestthatyoungerandlesseconomicallyadvantagedmalesinitiate
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tobaccousewithcigarillos. From2002to2011,past-monthcigarette
smokingdeclinedformalesandfemalesofallagegroups.However,duringthis
sameperiod,ratesofcigarillouseamongmalesaged18to25remained
constant(atapproximately9percent).
Hookahsorwaterpipes
Between2011and2014,useofhookahincreasedamongmiddleandhigh
schoolstudents,despitedecreaseduseofcigarettesandcigars,accordingto
theNYTS. Researchalsosuggeststhatratesofhookahusefortobacco
smokingincreaseduringthefirstmonthofcollege. Nationallyrepresentative
datafromcollegestudentsindicatethatdailycigaretteorcigarsmokers(aswell
asmarijuanausers)weremorelikelytobefrequentwaterpipeusers.
Hookahusersmaymistakenlybelievethatitislessaddictiveordangerousthan
cigarettes;however,onesessionofhookahsmokingexposeduserstogreater
smokevolumesandhigherlevelsoftobaccotoxicants(e.g.,tar)thanasingle
cigarette. Additionally,hookahsmokingislinkedwithnicotinedependence
anditsassociatedmedicalconsequences (see"Whatarethephysical
healthconsequencesoftobaccouse?").Reviewsoftheliteratureonwaterpipe
userssuggestthatlikethosewhouseotherformsoftobacco,manyhavetriedto
quitbuthavebeenunsuccessfulontheirown. Thesefindingsindicatethe
needfortobaccocontrolpoliciesandpreventionandtreatmentinterventionsfor
thisformofnicotinedeliverythataresimilartothoseseenforcigarettes.
Smokelesstobacco
In2016,8.8millionpeopleaged12orolder(3.3percentofthispopulation)
usedsmokelesstobaccoduringthepastmonth. Overall,useofsmokeless
tobaccoamongadultsdecreasedfrom1992to2003buthasheldconstant
since. Longitudinaldatasuggestthatpeoplearemorelikelytoswitchfrom
smokelesstobaccousetocigarettesmokingthanviceversa. Although
smokersmayattempttousesmokelessproductstocutdownorquit,research
suggeststhatthisapproachisnoteffective. However,somearguethatusing
smokelesstobaccoinlieuofcigarettesmayhelpreducetheharmsassociated
withsmokingtraditionalcigarettes.
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PolytobaccoUse
Someusersoftobaccoconsumeitinmultipleforms(polytobaccouse);this
behaviorisassociatedwithgreaternicotinedependence andtheriskfor
othersubstanceusedisorder. AnalysesofadecadeofdatafromNSDUH
foundsteadyratesofpolytobaccousefrom2002to2011(8.7percentto7.4
percent)amongpeopleage12andolder.However,useofsomeproduct
combinations—suchascigarettesandsmokelesstobacco,cigarsand
smokelesstobacco,anduseofmorethantwoproducts—increasedoverthat
period.
Amongindividualsyoungerthan26,ratesofpolytobaccouseincreaseddespite
declinesinoveralltobaccouse.Polytobaccousewasassociatedwithbeing
male,havingrelativelylowincomeandeducation,andengaginginrisk-taking
behaviors. In2014,anestimated2.2millionmiddleandhighschoolstudents
hadusedtwoormoretypesoftobaccoproductsduringthepastmonth,
accordingtotheNYTS. Polytobaccousewascommon,evenamongstudents
whousedtobaccoproducts5daysorfewerduringthepastmonth. The2012
NYTShadfoundthat4.3percentofstudentsusedthreeormoretypesof
tobacco.Thisstudyalsoobservedthatmalegender,useofflavoredproducts,
nicotinedependence,receptivitytotobaccomarketing,andperceivedpeeruse
wereallassociatedwithyouthpolytobaccouse.
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FlavoredTobaccoUseAmongAdolescentsandYoung
Adults
Onespecificconcernaboute-cigarettesandtobaccoproductslike
cigarillosandhookahsistheadditionofflavorings,whichmaymakethem
particularlyappealingtoyouth. TheFamilySmokingPreventionand
TobaccoControlActof2009bannedthesaleofcigaretteswithflavors
otherthanmenthol,butotherflavoredtobaccoproducts(e.g.,smallcigars,
cigarillos,andsmokelesstobacco)canstillbesold.Addingflavorsto
tobaccoproductsortothenicotinesolutionofe-cigarettescanmakethem
moreappealingtosomeusersbecausetheycanmasktheharsh
taste. Althoughmoreresearchisneededonhowflavorsaffectlong-
termuse,healthexpertshaveexpressedconcernsthatmanyofthe
flavoringsusedintobaccoproductsarealsofoundincandiesand
beverages. Suchflavorsmaymakethemmoreappealingtoyouthand
maycontributetoincreaseduseoftheseproductsamongyoungpeople.
Approximately6.3percentofmiddleandhighschoolstudentsreported
usingeitherflavoredcigarettesorsmallcigars,accordingtothe2011
NYTS. Datafromthe2014NYTSindicatethatofmiddleandhighschool
studentswhocurrentlyusedtobacco,about70percent—anestimated3.26
millionyouths—hadusedatleastoneflavoredtobaccoproductduringthe
pastmonth. Amongpast-monthusers,themostcommonlyusedflavored
productsweree-cigarettes,hookahtobacco,andcigars. Itseemsthat
youthmaynotnecessarily“growoutof”usingflavoredtobaccoproducts.
Amongyoungadultsaged18to34,nearlyone-fifth(18.5percent)ofthose
whousetobacco,consumedflavored(includingmenthol)products.
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Aretheregenderdifferencesin
tobaccosmoking?
Generally,mentendtousealltobaccoproductsathigherratesthan
women. In2015,16.7percentofadultmalesand13.6percentofadult
femalessmokedcigarettes. Suchdifferencesmayrelatetoacombinationof
physiological(particularlyovarianhormones),cultural,andbehavioral
factors.
Resultsfromneuroimagingstudiessuggestthatsmokingactivatesmen’s
rewardpathwaysmorethanwomen's. Thisfindingisconsistentwiththeidea
thatmensmokeforthereinforcingeffectsofnicotine,whereaswomensmoketo
regulatemoodorinresponsetocigarette-relatedcues.Astudyofstress
responsesandcravingamongmaleandfemalesmokerswhoweretryingto
quitfoundthatduringabstinence,lowerlevelsofthestresshormonecortisol
predictedrelapseinmen.However,highcortisollevelswerepredictiveof
relapseinwomen. Otherworkonabstinencefoundthatsmokingacigarette
withnicotine,ascomparedtoade-nicotinizedcigarette,alleviatedthe
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symptomsofwithdrawalandnegativemoodtoagreaterextentinmenthan
women.Womenobtainedequalrelieffromcigaretteswithandwithoutnicotine,
suggestingthattheyfoundthedruglessrewardingthanmen.
Cigarettecravingisamajorreasonwhysmokersfindithardtoquit,andthis
strongurgetosmokecanbeevokedbysensorycuesandstress.Research
suggeststhatwomenexperiencestrongercravingthanmeninresponseto
stress, butmenmaybemoreresponsivetoenvironmental
cues. Additionally,longitudinaldatafrominternationalsurveysconductedin
fourindustrializedcountriesindicatedthatmenandwomendidnotdifferintheir
desiretoquit,planstoquit,orquitattempts.However,womenwere31percent
lesslikelytoquitsuccessfully. Onereasonwhywomenmayhavedifficulty
quittingispost-cessationweightgain.Thisconcernshouldbeaddressedin
behavioralcounselingandadjuncttreatmentsforallsmokers.
Theoveralllowercessationrateforwomenmayreflectsexdifferencesin
responsetoparticularmedications(see"Whataretreatmentsfortobacco
dependence?").Forexample,vareniclinehasgreatershort-andimmediate-
termefficacy(at3and6months)amongwomensmokers.However,women
andmenshowsimilar1-yearquitrateswhenusingvarenicline. Incontrast,a
combinationofvareniclineplusbupropionwaslesseffectiveforcessation
amongwomencomparedwithmen.
Anotherparticularconcernrelatedtotobaccouseamongwomenissmoking
duringpregnancy(see"Whataretherisksofsmokingduringpregnancy?").
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Dopeoplewithmentalillnessand
substanceusedisordersusetobacco
moreoften?
Thereissignificantcomorbiditybetweentobaccouseandmentaldisorders.
Peoplewithmentalillnesssmokeattwotofourtimestherateofthegeneral
population.Amongpeoplewithamentalillness,36.1percentsmokedfrom
2009to2011,comparedwith21.4percentamongadultswithnomental
illness. Smokingratesareparticularlyhighamongpatientswithserious
mentalillness(i.e.,thosewhodemonstrategreaterfunctionalimpairment).
Whileestimatesvary,asmanyas70-85percentofpeoplewithschizophrenia
andasmanyas50-70percentofpeoplewithbipolardisordersmoke.
Ratesofsmokingamongpeoplewithmentalillnesswerehighestforthose
youngerthan45,thosewithlowlevelsofeducation,andthoselivingbelowthe
povertylevel. LongitudinaldatafromNSDUH(2005–2013)indicatethat
smokingamongadultswithoutchronicconditionshasdeclinedsignificantly,but
remainsparticularlyhighamongthosereportinganxiety,depression,and
substanceusedisorders. Smokingisbelievedtobemoreprevalentamong
peoplewithdepressionandschizophreniabecausenicotinemaytemporarily
lessenthesymptomsoftheseillnesses,suchaspoorconcentration,lowmood,
andstress. Butitisimportanttonotethatsmokingcessationhasbeen
linkedwithimprovedmentalhealth—includingreduceddepression,anxiety,
andstress,andenhancedmoodandqualityoflife.
AnalysesoflongitudinalNSDUHdataalsofoundahigherprevalenceof
smokelesstobaccouseamongindividualswithmentalhealthandsubstance
usedisorders. OtherresearchdrawingondatafromtheNational
EpidemiologicSurveyonAlcoholandRelatedConditionsfoundthatalltypesof
substancedependencewereassociatedwithdependenceon
nicotine. Smokingisalsohighlyprevalentamongpeopleintreatmentfor
substanceusedisorders, withmoststudiesfindingratesbetween65-85
percentamongpatientsinaddictiontreatment.
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Additionally,smokerswithamentalhealthdisordertendtosmokemore
cigarettesthanthoseinthegeneralpopulation.Theaveragenumberof
cigarettessmokedduringthepastmonthwashigheramongthosewithamental
illnesscomparedwiththosewithoutone—331versus310cigarettes. High
cigaretteconsumptionisaparticularproblemforpeoplewithseriousmental
illness.Althoughadultswithseriousmentalillnesscomprisedonly6.9percent
ofpast-monthsmokers,theyconsumed8.7percentofallcigarettessold,
accordingtodatafromthe2008–2012NSDUH.
HighPrevalenceofSmokingAmongPeoplewith
Schizophrenia
Researchersareworkingtoidentifythebraincircuitsthatcontributetothe
highprevalenceofsmokingamongpeoplewithschizophrenia.
Schizophreniaisassociatedwithwidespreadreductionsinfunctional
connectivitybetweenthedorsalanteriorcingulatecortexanddiverseparts
ofthelimbicsystem.Onereportidentified15circuitsforwhichthe
reductionoffunctionalconnectivitycorrelatedwithseverityofnicotine
addiction.
Peoplewithmentalandsubstanceusedisordersdonotquitsmokingatthe
samerateasthoseinthegeneralpopulation.4Surveyresponsesfrompeople
whohavesmokedatsomepointduringtheirlivesindicatedthatfewersmokers
withmentalillnesshadquitcomparedtothosewithoutpsychiatricdisorders:
47.4percentoflifetimesmokerswithoutmentalillnesssmokedduringthepast
month,comparedwith66percentofthosewithmentalillness. Havinga
mentaldisorderatthetimeofcessationisariskfactorforrelapsetosmoking,
evenforthosewhohavesustainedabstinenceformorethanayear. Many
smokerswithmentalillnesswanttoquitforthesamereasonscitedbyothers
(suchashealthandfamily),buttheymaybemorevulnerabletorelapserelated
tostressandnegativefeelings.
Thedisparityinsmokingprevalenceiscostinglives.Arecentstudyfoundthat
tobacco-relateddiseasesaccountedforapproximately53percentofdeaths
amongpeoplewithschizophrenia,48percentamongthosewithbipolar
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disorder,and50percentamongthosewithdepression.
Sincethe1980s,manyprovidershavebelievedthatpeoplewithschizophrenia
smoketoobtainrelieffromsymptomslikepoorconcentration,lowmood,and
stress. Butresearchisnowshowingthatsmokingisassociatedwithworse
behavioralandphysicalhealthoutcomesinpeoplewithmentalillness,and
quittingsmokingisshowingclearbenefitsforthis
population. Comprehensivetobaccocontrolprogramsandenhanced
effortstopreventandtreatnicotineaddictionamongthosewithmentalillness
wouldreduceillnessanddeaths.Integratedtreatment—concurrenttherapyfor
mentalillnessandnicotineaddiction—willlikelyhavethebestoutcomes.
Smokerswhoreceivementalhealthtreatmenthavehigherquitratesthanthose
whodonot. Moreover,evidence-basedtreatmentsthatworkinthegeneral
populationarealsoeffectiveforpatientswithmentalillness.Forexample,
peoplewithschizophreniashowedbetterquitrateswiththemedication
bupropion,comparedwithplacebo,andshowednoworseningofpsychiatric
symptoms. Acombinationofthemedicationvareniclineandbehavioral
supporthasshownpromiseforhelpingpeoplewithbipolarandmajor
depressivedisordersquit,withnoworseningofpsychiatricsymptoms. A
clinicaltrialfoundthatacombinationofvareniclineandcognitivebehavioral
therapy(CBT)wasmoreeffectivethanCBTaloneforhelpingpeoplewith
seriousmentalillnessstopsmokingforaprolongedperiod—after1yearof
treatmentandat6monthsaftertreatmentended.
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Whataretreatmentsfortobacco
dependence?
Thereareeffectivetreatmentsthatsupporttobaccocessation,includingboth
behavioraltherapiesandFDA-approvedmedications.FDA-approved
pharmacotherapiesincludevariousformsofnicotinereplacementtherapyas
wellasbupropionandvarenicline.Researchindicatesthatsmokerswho
receiveacombinationofbehavioraltreatmentandcessationmedicationsquitat
higherratesthanthosewhoreceiveminimalintervention.
Interventionssuchasbriefadvicefromahealthcareworker,telephone
helplines,automatedtextmessaging,andprintedself-helpmaterialscanalso
facilitatesmokingcessation. Cessationinterventionsutilizingmobiledevices
andsocialmediaalsoshowpromiseinboostingtobaccocessation. Itis
importantforcessationtreatmenttobeaspersonalizedaspossible,assome
peoplesmoketoavoidnegativeeffectsofwithdrawalwhileothersaremore
drivenbytherewardingaspectsofsmoking.
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Theprevalenceoftobaccouseanddependenceamongadolescents—aswell
astheneurobiologicalimpactandmedicalconsequencesofnicotineexposure
—suggestthatpediatricprimarycaresettingsshoulddelivertobaccocessation
treatmentstobothyouthandparentswhousetobacco. Currentclinical
guidancedoesnotrecommendmedicationsforadolescenttobaccocessation
becauseofalackofhigh-qualitystudies; however,acombinationof
behavioraltreatments—suchasmotivationalenhancementandCBT—has
shownpromiseforhelpingadolescentsquittobacco. Morewell-designed
smokingcessationstudiesneedtobeconductedwithadolescentsmokers,
particularlyintheareaofpharmacologictreatmentsfornicotinedependence.
BehavioralTreatments
Behavioralcounselingistypicallyprovidedbyspecialistsinsmokingcessation
forfourtoeightsessions. Bothin-personandtelephonecounselinghave
beenfoundbeneficialforpatientswhoarealsousingcessation
medications. Avarietyofapproachestosmokingcessationcounselingare
available.
CognitiveBehavioralTherapy(CBT)—CBThelpspatientsidentifytriggers—
thepeople,places,andthingsthatspurbehavior—andteachesthemrelapse-
preventionskills(e.g.,relaxationtechniques)andeffectivecopingstrategiesto
avoidsmokinginthefaceofstressfulsituationsandtriggers. Astudythat
comparedCBTandbasichealtheducationobservedthatbothinterventions
reducednicotinedependence. However,anotherstudyfoundthatamong
smokerstryingtoquitwiththenicotinereplacementtherapy(NRT)patch,
patientswhoparticipatedinsixsessionsofintensivegroupCBThadbetterquit
ratesthanthosewhoreceivedsixsessionsofgeneralhealtheducation.
MotivationalInterviewing(MI)—InMI,counselorshelppatientsexploreand
resolvetheirambivalenceaboutquittingsmokingandenhancetheirmotivation
tomakehealthychanges.MIispatient-focusedandnonconfrontational,and
providerspointoutdiscrepanciesbetweenpatients’goalsorvaluesandtheir
currentbehaviors.Theyadjusttopatients’resistancetochangeandsupport
self-efficacyandoptimism. StudiesofMIsuggestthatthisinterventionresults
inhigherquitratesthanbriefadvicetostopsmokingorusualcare.
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Mindfulness—Inmindfulness-basedsmokingcessationtreatments,patients
learntoincreaseawarenessofanddetachmentfromsensations,thoughts,and
cravingsthatmayleadtorelapse. Inthistherapy,patientspurposelyattendto
thethoughtsthattriggercravingsandurgesfortobaccoandcognitivelyreframe
themasexpectedandtolerable.Patientslearntechniquesthathelpthem
toleratenegativeemotions—includingstressandcravings—withoutreturningto
tobaccouseorotherunhealthybehaviors. Interestinmindfulness-based
treatmentshasincreasedduringthepastdecade,andstudiesshowthatthis
approachbenefitsoverallmentalhealthandcanhelppreventrelapseto
smoking. However,well-controlledclinicaltrialsareneeded.
Telephonesupportandquitlines—Aspartoftobaccocontrolefforts,allstates
offertoll-freetelephonenumbers(orquitlines)withsmokingcessation
counselorswhoprovideinformationandsupport(800-QUIT-NOWor800-784-
8669).Studiesofquitlineinterventionsindicatethatsmokerswhocallquitlines
benefitfromtheseservices, particularlywhenacounselorcallsthembackfor
multiplesessions. Thereislimitedevidenceontheoptimalnumberofcalls
needed,butsmokerswhoparticipatedinthreeormorecallshadagreater
likelihoodofquitting,comparedwiththosewhoonlyreceivededucational
materials,briefadvice,orpharmacotherapyalone. Quitlineshavealsobeen
showntohelpsmokelesstobaccocessation. TheU.S.DepartmentofHealth
andHumanServicesprovidesaSmokingQuitline(877-44U-QUITor877-448-
7848),aswellasmoreinformationandtoolsforquitting(includingtext
messagesandothertelephone-basedsupport)athttps://smokefree.gov/.
Textmessaging,web-basedservices,andsocialmediasupport—
Technology,includingmobilephones,internet,andsocialmediaplatformscan
beusedtoprovidesmokingcessationinterventions.Thesetechnologieshave
thepowertoincreaseaccesstocarebyextendingtheworkofcounselorsand
overcomingthegeographicalbarriersthatmaydeterpeoplefromentering
treatment.
Areviewoftheliteratureontechnology-basedsmokingcessationinterventions
(internet,personalcomputer,andmobiletelephone)foundthatthesesupports
canincreasethelikelihoodofadultsquitting,comparedwithnointerventionor
self-helpinformation,andtheycanbeacost-effectiveadjuncttoother
treatments. Atechnologydoesnotnecessarilyhavetoberecentorhighly
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sophisticatedtohelpboostcessationrates.Forexample,studiessuggestthat
adultswhoreceiveencouragement,advice,andquittingtipsviatext-message—
acapabilityoneventhemostbasicmobiledevices—showimprovedquitrates
comparedwithcontrolprograms.
Amongadulttobaccouserswhocalledastatequitline,mostselectedan
integratedphone/webcessationprograminfavorofaweb-only
intervention. Participantswhochosetheweb-onlyoptiontendedtobe
youngerandhealthiersmokers,withahighersocioeconomicstatus.These
participantstendedtointeractintenselywiththesiteonce,butdidnotre-engage
asmuchasthosewhooptedforthephone/webcombination.Areviewof
internet-basedsmokingcessationprogramsforadultssuggestedthat
interactiveinternet-basedinterventionsthataretailoredtoindividualneedscan
helppeoplequitfor6monthsorlonger. Futureresearchshould
determinetheeffectivenessofdifferenttechnologiesforsmokingcessation
supportamongpopulationsthatmaybehardtoreach,includingthoseoflow
socioeconomicstatusandadultsolderthanage50.
Technology-basedcessationinterventionsareparticularlyrelevanttoyoung
adultsaged18to25—about3.2millionofwhomsmokeddailyin2016. A
systematicreviewandmeta-analysisofpublishedrandomizedtrialsof
technology-basedinterventions—includingcomputerprograms,internet,
telephone,andtextmessaging—forsmokingcessationamongthispopulation
foundthattheyincreasedabstinenceby1.5timesthatofcomparison
subjects. Researchersrecommendembeddingcessationinterventionsin
commonlyusedsocialnetworkingplatforms, andtherehasbeensome
exploratoryworkinthisarea.Resultsofatrialwitharelativelysmallnumberof
participantssuggestedthatFacebookwasanaccessible,low-costplatformfor
engagingyoungadultsconsideringcessation.However,thestudypointedto
challengesinmaintainingparticipation,retainingyoungpeopleintheprogram,
andtheneedforgender-specificfeatures. Arandomizedcontrolledtrialhas
beendesignedtotestastage-basedsmokingcessationinterventionon
Facebooktailoredforsmokersaged18to25.Participantswillberecruited
online,randomlyassignedtoaFacebookgroupaccordingtotheirreadinessto
quit,andwillreceivetailoreddailymessagesandweeklycounseling.Thestudy
willassesstheintervention’simpactonabstinencefromsmoking3,6,and12
monthsaftertreatment,numberofcigarettessmoked,quitattemptslasting24
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hoursormore,andcommitmenttoabstinence.
SmokingCessationforPregnantWomen
Giventherisksassociatedwithsmokingduringpregnancy,butalsothe
challengesfacedbyallsmokerswhentryingtoquit,researchershave
studiedanarrayofapproachestoimprovecessationratesforthis
population.Manywomenaremotivatedtoquitduringpregnancy,butlike
othersmokers,mostwillneedassistance.
Studiesshowthatbehavioraltreatmentsareeffective,whereas
pharmacotherapieshaveonlymarginalsuccess. Acombinationof
incentivesandbehavioralcounselingismosteffectiveforpregnant
women. Addingvoucherstoroutinecare(whichincludedfreenicotine
replacementtherapyfor10weeksandfourweeklysupportphonecalls)
morethandoubledcessationratesduringpregnancy. Pooledresultsof
behavioralinterventionstudiesindicatethattreatmentreducedpreterm
birthsandtheproportionofinfantsbornwithlowbirthweight,compared
withusualcare. Thisfindingissupportedbyananalysisofpooled
resultsfromstudieswitheconomicallydisadvantagedpregnantsmokers,
whichfoundthatvoucher-basedincentivesimprovedsonographically
estimatedfetalgrowth,birthweight,percentageoflow-birth-weight
deliveries,andbreastfeedingduration.
Medications
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NicotineReplacementTherapy(NRT)—Avarietyofformulationsofnicotine
NRTsareavailableoverthecounter—includingthetransdermalpatch,spray,
gum,andlozenges—andareequallyeffectiveforcessation. NRTs
stimulatethebrainreceptorstargetedbynicotine,helpingrelievenicotine
withdrawalsymptomsandcravingsthatleadtorelapse. Manypeopleuse
NRTtohelpthemgetthroughtheearlystagesofcessation,andthosewith
moreseverenicotineaddictioncanbenefitfromlonger-termtreatment.Useof
NRTimprovessmokingcessationoutcomes,andaddingbehavioraltherapies
furtherincreasesquitrates. Acombinationofcontinualnicotinedelivery
throughthetransdermalpatchandoneotherformofnicotinetakenasneeded
(e.g.,lozenge,gum,nasalspray,inhaler)hasbeenfoundtobemoreeffectiveat
relievingwithdrawalsymptomsandcravingsthanasingletypeof
NRT. ResearchersestimatethatNRTincreasesquitratesby50to70
percent. Usingthepatchforupto24weekshasbeenshowntobesafe.
Bupropion—Bupropion(immediate-releaseandextended-release)was
originallyapprovedasanantidepressant.Itworksbyinhibitingthereuptakeof
thebrainchemicalsnorepinephrineanddopamineaswellasstimulatingtheir
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release.Bupropionhasbeenfoundtoincreasequitratescomparedwith
placeboinbothshort-andlong-termfollow-upstudies andisindicated
forsmokingcessation.ItisequallyeffectivetoNRT.
Varenicline—Vareniclinehelpsreducenicotinecravingsbystimulatingthe
alpha-4beta-2nicotinicreceptorbuttoalesserdegreethannicotine.
Vareniclinebooststheoddsofsuccessfullyquitting,comparedwithunassisted
attempts. Vareniclineincreasedthelikelihoodofquittingcomparedwith
placebo,andsomestudiesfindthatitismoreeffectivethansingleformsof
NRT andbupropion. Inaprimarycaresetting,44percentofpatientson
varenicline,eitheraloneorcombinedwithcounseling,wereabstinentatthe2-
yearfollow-up.Patientswhoparticipatedingrouptherapyandadheredtothe
medicationweremorelikelytoremainabstinent. Researchalsosuggests
thatthismedicationmaybemoreeffectivethanbupropion.
Medicationcombinations—SomestudiessuggestthatcombiningNRTwith
othermedicationsmayfacilitatecessation.Forexample,ameta-analysisfound
thatacombinationofvareniclineandNRT(especially,providinganicotine
patchpriortocessation)wasmoreeffectivethanvareniclinealone. Similarly,
addingbupropiontoNRTalsoimprovedcessationrates. Forsmokerswho
couldnotcutdownsignificantlybyusingtheNRTpatch,combiningextended-
releasebupropionandvareniclinewasmoreeffectivethanplacebo,particularly
formenandthosewhowereseverelynicotinedependent.
Otherantidepressants—Inadditiontobupropion,someotherantidepressant
medicationshavealsobeenfoundeffectiveforsmokingcessation,independent
oftheirantidepressanteffects,andareconsideredsecond-linetreatments.A
fewsmallstudiessuggestthatnortriptylineisequallyeffectiveas
NRT. Althoughnortriptylinemayhavesideeffectsinsomepatients,the
smallstudiesforitsuseinsmokingcessationhavenotreportedany.
Researchershavenotobservedanyimpactofselectiveserotoninreuptake
inhibitors(SSRIs)(e.g.,fluoxetine,paroxetine,andsertraline)onsmoking,
eitheraloneorincombinationwithNRT.
PrecisionMedicine—Researchershavebeenexaminingwaystopersonalize
treatmentbasedonimportantindividualbiologicaldifferences,including
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geneticdifferences.Thefieldofpharmacogeneticsexamineshowgenes
influencetherapeuticresponsetomedications,providingcriticalinformationto
helptailorpharmacotherapiestotheindividualformaximumbenefit.For
example,peoplemetabolizenicotineatdifferentratesbecauseofvariationsin
severalgenes.Individualswhometabolizenicotinequicklysmokemore,show
greaterdependence,andhavemoredifficultyquitting. Suchgeneticvariation
influencesthetherapeuticresponsestoNRTandothercessation
medications. Arecentstudycomparedratesofabstinence1weekafter
treatmentforslow,normal,andfastmetabolizersofnicotinewhowererandomly
assignedtoeitherplacebo,NRT,orvarenicline.Resultsindicatedthat
vareniclineworkedbestfornormalnicotinemetabolizers,whereasNRT
patchesweremosteffectiveforslowmetabolizers.
Promisingmedicationsandongoingresearch—NIDAsupportsresearchto
developnewandimprovecurrenttreatmentoptionsforsmokingcessation
basedonagrowingunderstandingoftheneurobiologyofaddiction.Inthearea
ofmedications,researchisfocusingonthereceptorstargetedbynicotineand
thebraincircuitsandregionsknowntoinfluencenicotine
consumption. Newerbraintargets—includingtheorexinandglutamate
signalingsystems—havealsoshownpromiseformedication
treatment. Repurposingmedicationsalreadyonthemarketforother
indicationsmayalsoproveusefulinthesearchfornewsmokingcessation
therapies. Thisapproachhasbeensuccessfulinthepast,asbupropion
wasanestablishedantidepressantbeforetheFDAapproveditasasmoking
cessationmedication.OnecurrentcandidateisN-acetylcysteine,amedication
foracetaminophenoverdose,whichhasshownpromiseasatreatmentfor
varioussubstanceusedisorders—includingnicotinedependence. Another
approachthatcouldpreventrelapseandthathasshownpromiseinearly
studiesisanicotinevaccine,whichwouldgenerateantibodiesthatkeep
nicotinefromreachingthebrain.
TranscranialMagneticStimulation
Transcranialmagneticstimulation(TMS)isarelativelynewapproachbeing
testedtotreataddiction.Itisaphysiologicalinterventionthatnoninvasively
stimulatesneuralactivityintargetedareasofthebrainusingmagneticfields.
MultipleTMSpulsesgivenconsecutivelyarereferredtoasrepetitiveTMS
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(rTMS).TheFDAhasapprovedtworTMSdevicesfordepressiontreatmentin
adults.
ResearchonrTMSasatreatmentforsmokingcessationisinearlystagesbut
hasshownpromise. Amongadultsmokerswhohadnotbeenabletoquit
usingothertreatments,high-frequencyTMStreatmentsignificantlyreducedthe
numberofcigarettessmoked.Combininghigh-frequencyTMSwithexposureto
smokingcuesimprovedeffectivenessandboostedtheoverallabstinencerate
to44percentattheendofthetreatment.Sixmonthsaftertreatment,33percent
ofparticipantsremainedabstinentfromcigarettes. Futurerandomized
controlledclinicaltrialswithlargenumbersofpatientswillbeneededto
establishitsefficacyforsmokingcessation.
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Howcanwepreventtobaccouse?
Themedicalconsequencesoftobaccouse—includingsecondhandexposure—
maketobaccocontrolandsmokingpreventioncrucialpartsofanypublichealth
strategy.SincethefirstSurgeonGeneral’sReportonSmokingandHealthin
1964,statesandcommunitieshavemadeeffortstoreduceinitiationofsmoking,
decreaseexposuretosmoke,andincreasecessation.Researchersestimate
thatthesetobaccocontroleffortsareassociatedwithavertinganestimated8
millionprematuredeathsandextendingtheaveragelifeexpectancyofmenby
2.3yearsandofwomenby1.6years. Butthereisalongwayyettogo:
roughly5.6millionadolescentsunderage18areexpectedtodieprematurely
asaresultofanillnessrelatedtosmoking.
Preventioncantaketheformofpolicy-levelmeasures,suchasincreased
taxationoftobaccoproducts;stricterlaws(andenforcementoflaws)regulating
whocanpurchasetobaccoproducts;howandwheretheycanbepurchased;
whereandwhentheycanbeused(i.e.,smoke-freepoliciesinrestaurants,bars,
andotherpublicplaces);andrestrictionsonadvertisingandmandatoryhealth
warningsonpackages.Over100studieshaveshownthathighertaxeson
cigarettes,forexample,producesignificantreductionsinsmoking,especially
amongyouthandlower-incomeindividuals. Smoke-freeworkplacelawsand
restrictionsonadvertisinghavealsoshownbenefits.
Photoby©Shutterstock/Kenishirotie
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Preventioncanalsotakeplaceattheschoolorcommunitylevel.Merely
educatingpotentialsmokersaboutthehealthriskshasnotproven
effective. Successfulevidence-basedinterventionsaimtoreduceordelay
initiationofsmoking,alcoholuse,andillicitdruguse,andotherwiseimprove
outcomesforchildrenandteensbyreducingormitigatingmodifiableriskfactors
andbolsteringprotectivefactors.Riskfactorsforsmokingincludehavingfamily
membersorpeerswhosmoke,beinginalowersocioeconomicstatus,livingin
aneighborhoodwithhighdensityoftobaccooutlets,notparticipatinginteam
sports,beingexposedtosmokinginmovies,andbeingsensation-
seeking. Althougholderteensaremorelikelytosmokethanyoungerteens,
theearlierapersonstartssmokingorusinganyaddictivesubstance,themore
likelytheyaretodevelopanaddiction.Malesarealsomorelikelytotakeup
smokinginadolescencethanfemales.
Someevidence-basedinterventionsshowlastingeffectsonreducingsmoking
initiation.Forinstance,communitiesutilizingtheintervention-deliverysystem,
CommunitiesthatCare(CTC)forstudentsaged10to14showsustained
reductioninmalecigaretteinitiationupto9yearsaftertheendofthe
intervention.
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Whatresearchisbeingdoneon
tobaccouse?
Newscientificdevelopmentscanimproveourunderstandingofnicotine
addictionandspurthedevelopmentofbetterpreventionandtreatment
strategies.
GeneticsandEpigenetics
Anestimated50-75percentoftheriskfornicotineaddictionisattributableto
geneticfactors. Aclusterofgenes(CHRNA5-CHRNA3-CHRNB4)on
chromosome15thatencodethe5,3,and4proteinsubunitsthatmakeupthe
brainreceptorfornicotine areparticularlyimplicatedinnicotine
dependenceandsmokingamongpeopleofEuropeandescent.Variationinthe
CHRNA5geneinfluencestheeffectivenessofcombinationNRT,butnot
varenicline. Otherresearchhasidentifiedgenesthatinfluencenicotine
metabolismandtherefore,thenumberofcigarettessmoked, responsiveness
tomedication, andchancesofsuccessfullyquitting. Forexample,the
therapeuticresponsetovareniclineisassociatedwithvariantsfortheCHRNB2,
CHRNA5,andCHRNA4genes,whilebupropion-relatedcessationislinked
withvariationingenesthataffectnicotinemetabolism.
Smokingcanalsoleadtopersistentchangesingeneexpression(epigenetic
changes),whichmaycontributetoassociatedmedicalconsequencesoverthe
longterm,evenfollowingcessation.