tobacco warning labels and packaging
TRANSCRIPT
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GOC Management Inc. Final
December 15, 1999
Tobacco Warning Labels and Packaging:Issues, Prospects and Strategies
Presented to:
Bureau of Tobacco Control
Health Canada
by
Gurprit S. Kindra, Ph.D.
Professor, University of Ottawa
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GOC Management Inc. Final
December 15, 1999
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Faced with a complex environment, cluttered communications, limited processing capacity, and frequentlack of motivation to process, consumers often do not process all information, and tend to use mental rules
and decision-making short-cuts to for product choice decisions. For instance, in a real-life situation, consumers
may choose not to perceive, process, or retain information contained in HWMs. Typically, in case of decisions
that are perceived to be important, consumer involvement will be high, a higher processing capacity will be
allocated to the task, and the decision will be processed exhaustively. The habs can be internally grouped into habs
that are interested in cessation (interested habs) and those that are not (habs).
Neos decision process can be stopped at activation by influencing reference groups. This can be most efficiently
done by following an integrated marketing communication strategy. Habs that are not interested in cessation will be
extremely low information processors , so peripheral cues at the time of purchase and consumption will be very
important. Habs that are interested in cessation will process more significantly, therefore central messages will be
most effective to reach and persuade this group. Since neos and both type of habs tend to use heuristics or mental
short-cuts for decision-making, all will groups will benefit from an integrated marketing communications strategy .
Any communication with tobacco users must take into account the issues of processing capacity, motivation to
process, brand loyalty, message content, and as well as pulsing. Because both the neos and habs tend to be low-
involvement consumers, information processing is likely to be minimum and therefore messages must be easy to
process and understand. Messages should be personally relevant to have greater impact.
Incidental message exposure, brand loyalty, the social context, as well as packaging and labeling have an impact on
choice. Although incidental exposure is difficult to control, brand loyalty can be influenced through changes to
packaging and labeling. Color of package, font size and style, and the brand name communicate a coded message to
a specific group of consumers. This message has a strong impact on choice, which over time leads to brand loyalty.
Pictures, pictographs or graphics, in combination with HW messages are without a doubt, more effective than
words alone. Care should be taken to ensure that usage of symbols, pictures and graphics is based on the rule of
cross-cultural clarity, non-ambiguity and simplicity. Another reason for using non-verbal enhancers would be for
the purpose of reaching consumers that have difficulty with text comprehension. HWMs under consideration, in
our opinion, meet the criteria of non-ambiguity and relevance.
Information presented at the back of the inner packaging of cigarettes is not likely to be effective because the
cigarettes will fall out of the package if it is turned upside down. Inserts and brochures included inside the package
are likely to be discarded at the first opening of the pack, possibly without reading. A pop-out slider, on the other
hand, represents a good opportunity for increased communication. However, this concept will need to be designed
and experimentally tested, in order to ensure maximum efficacy. Design for such a study has been proposed.
The size of the HWMs should be large and dominate at least 50-60% of the package surface area. Colour should
be used in the words as well as pictures in the HWMs. It is not clear, however, if highlighting or full colour usagemight be more effective. The test of vividness might be appropriate; in other words, HMMs should be eye-catching
and bright. Black letters on a flourescent background should be considered. Some research also indicates that a zig-
zag boarder, rather then straight-line might be more effective in gaining attention. Unattractive, vivid, relevant and
forceful messages (reinforced with pictures and graphics) are likely to be more effective. In our opinion, HWMs
under consideration, meet these conditions.
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The tobacco industry’s ability to communicate brand information is not impaired significantly by the
allocation of 50-60% surface area for HWMs. This is so because the space devoted to the commercial message is
still fairly dominant, irrespective of the exact size of the HWMs. Furthermore, the present set of actions being
contemplated by Health Canada, do not prevent the industry from using colour, graphics, logos, brand names, as
well as boarders and font types and size to communicate meaning and message to the consumer.
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I. Background
There have been various studies that have set out the correlation between tobacco use and
health problems, (Canadian Cancer Society, 1998; Canadian Medical Association, 1994: 1), and
the health care costs associated with tobacco use, (Health Canada, April 1994: Section 1;
Standing Committee First Report, 1994:27). It is possible that preventative education and
intervention may lessen or alleviate some of these effects, as will be discussed further, and to this
end, health warning messages, (hereinafter HWMs), have been placed on packages of tobacco
products, and in particular, on cigarette products. This report will focus on cigarette products,
although the information presented here could have general applicability to other tobacco
products.
This report is organized into several major sections. First, the consumer behavior
literature is considered. In this section, decision processes including choice heuristics and task
analysis, memory, market segmentation, brands and brand loyalty, inter alia, will be addressed.
Second, the consumer behavior research will be applied to the area of cigarette packaging and
labeling. Here, issues such as maximizing the impact of HWMs, in addition to the effects of
cigarette packaging on consumption will be addressed. Finally, some conclusions regarding the
application of the marketing literature to cigarette packaging will be made. It is hoped that this
report will contribute to the alleviation of the impacts that tobacco use has on Canadian society.
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B. Alternative Products and Information Sources: General Implications
First, it must be noted that consumers often face a large number of alternative products,
each described by a number of product attributes2, and many different sources of information
about those products and attributes3. Generally speaking, choice difficulty increases as the
number of alternatives and attributes increases, in the sense that consumers have to consider
more alternatives and more product features in order to choose, (Bettman, Johnson & Payne,
1991). This condition of increased consideration is known as increased information processing
requirements, (Bettman, Luce and Payne, 1998; Moorthy, Ratchford and Talukdar, 1997).
Consumers may not process all of the information that is available for several reasons.
First, consumers are said to have bounded rationality, which is a limited capacity for information
processing, (Simon, 1955); consumers may not have the ability to process all the information
presented4, (MacInnis, Moorman, Jaworski, 1991). This notion is well supported by the
2Such as price, nature of the product, warranties / guarantees, and so on, (Berkowitz et al, 1998;
Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994; Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham,
1999).
3Including advertisements, packaging, brochures, salespeople, friends and family, just to name a
few, (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994).
4See discussion on memory limitations, section C below.
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literature,(for example, Keller, 1993; Chaiken, 1980, Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983;
Perrachio and Meyers-Levy, 1997; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1998). If too many choices or too
much information is presented, it may not be possible for the consumer to process it all: similar
to ‘information overload”.
Second, research has also shown that in order for information to be processed,
individuals must, inter alia, have the motivation to process that information. Consumers, may, at
times, lack the motivation to process, (Payne, Bettman and Johnson, 1993), since, ceteris
paribus, they, tend to minimize the cognitive effort used in decision making, (Bettman, Luce and
Payne, 1998; Moorthy, Ratchford and Talukdar, 1997). Generally, whenever possible, consumers
tend to use decision heuristics, which are simplified strategies or rules of thumb to make choices,
(for example, Keller, and Staelin, 1987; Payne, Bettman and Johnson, 1993; Perrachio and
Meyers-Levy, 1997; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1998). If people don’t want to hear a message,
and basically have a ‘just leave me alone, I don’t want to know” attitude, they may not be
motivated to process. This could occur if the information communicated was ‘too awful’ to
process, as will be further discussed.
Third, if the information is not effectively ‘perceived’ by the consumer, due to factors
such as selective exposure, perception and retention, (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994) the
consumer may not actually have access to product and attribute information, in either through
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memory-based or stimulus-based processing5, (Haugeland, 1981, Newell and Simon, 1972;
Bettman, 1979; Cowan, 1988; van Osselaer and Alba, 1998, Russo et al, 1998). Sometimes
people remember what they ‘want’: people ‘rewrite history’, only remembering certain details.
Specifically, information must be both available and processable, (Russo, Krieser and Miyashita,
1975), to have any tenable effect on consumer decision tasks. Processability is a function of the
way the information is presented, and the ease with which information can be comprehended and
used. Information must usually be both available and easily processable to be utilized.
With respect to message design, which is further addressed in Section III, because people
have limited processing capacity, care must be taken not to overwhelm consumers with too much
information, a condition known as advertising clutter, (Janiewzewkski, 1998). This is particularly
important since research shows that consumers are likely to be ‘cognitive misers’, (Taylor,
1981),who will only use processing capacity when they either want or have to, (Bettman,
Johnson and Payne, 1991). If consumers feel to much cognitive pressure, processing will not be
maximized, in both cases of high and low levels of involvement. This theory is known as the
“Resource Matching Theory”, (Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1997) and is described further in
Section IIIB. Under this theory, consumers are also more motivated, inter alia, to process
information presented that is congruent with their levels of involvement, and cognitive capacity;
5Or, a combination of the two, (Biehal and Chakvavarti, 1983).
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if involvement is high, information presented can be complex, extensive, and require thought6,
whereas when involvement is low, information should be presented in such a way as to be as
visually available and easily processed as possible. Please refer to Section IIH of this work for a
more extensive consideration of theories of persuasion. Nevertheless, the use of pictures,
graphics, and other pictorial images will enhance the visual availability of a message, ceteris
paribus, as compared to text alone, (Leong, Ang, Tham, 1996, Childers and Houston, 1984), as
will be discussed in Section IIIC i of this paper.
A review of memory, processing, and information available to consumers when they
make choices is presented below, in order to understand the mechanisms that physiologically
limit consumers ability to process.
C. Memory, Processing, and Information
The set of memories and processes that interact with the environment to produce behavior
can be divided into three major subsystems: 1. the perceptual system, which includes sensors or
receptors, (such as the eyes and ears and the associated buffer memories, which translates
sensations from the physical world into symbolic code that can be processed more fully by the
cognitive system; 2. the motor system, which translates thought into action by activating patterns
of voluntary muscles, and 3. the cognitive system, which includes working and long term
6Or rather open-ended in nature, in that the information presented requires the consumer to
essentially ‘finish off’ the ‘arguments’ presented in the advertisement, (Meyers-Levy and Tybout,
1997).
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memories7, (Bettman, Johnson and Payne, 1991). Long term memory holds the individual’s mass
of available knowledge, and is seen as infinite in capacity, (Simon, 1981). Long term memory is
created by the transfer of information from working memory8, (Bettman, and Kakkar, 1977,
Biehal and Chakravarti, 1982, 1983) and is conceptualized in terms of the encoding semantic
associations into memory nodes, (Sengupta et al., 1997). Not all information is initially
processed, however, because of the limited capacity of working memory, (Miller, 1956,
Friedman, 1966, Biehal and Chakravcarti, 1982, 1983; Isen, 1984). However, if information is
encoded into long term memory, retrieval is a process of spreading activation within a memory
network, (Anderson, 1983). In some instances, information is effectively unavailable from long
term memory because of an inability to use current retrieval cues or strategies, (Simonson, Huber
and Payne, 1988), or, of course, the fact that the information was not encoded into long term
memory, as described above.
More specifically, the information used in decision making that is available for
processing can be either internal, that is, within the memory of the consumers, or external, based
on perceived stimuli, (Lynch & Scrull, 1982). For example, decisions based on habit would use
internal information sources, whereas decisions based on ‘what your friends / reference groups
are doing’ would use external information. If choices are made using only information in
7A summary of this extensive literature is beyond the scope of this paper.
8Which takes about seven seconds of processing effort, (Card, Moran and Newell, 1983).
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memory, choice will be influenced by the characteristics of memory: information may be
incomplete, inferences made about missing information, and the information that can be recalled
may be a function of many factors which influence retrieval from memory, (Bettman, Johnson &
Payne, 1991). Similarly, stimuli-based processing may be impacted by issues such as selective
perception and retention, (van Osselaer and Alba, 1998, Russo et al, 1998 Kindra, Laroche,
Muller, 1994). Thus, the source of the information about a product is likely to have an impact on
what type of decision strategy is used, which will, in turn, have an impact on consumer choice,
(Biehal & Chakvavarti, 1983; Bettman, Johnson & Payne, 1991). Other issues, such as the
importance of the choice also have an impact on the type of processing that is likely, as addressed
below.
D. Decision Processes and Involvement: Implications and Issues
The importance of the decision task also has an impact on how consumers make decisions
and the type of decision strategies that are likely to be used. Many theories of consumer choice
suggest that there are three different types of decision processes: a simple, habitual process, a
process with moderate processing, and a process with extensive processing, as described in the
paragraphs below, (Howard & Sheth, 1969; Hansen, 1972; Howard, 1977; Engel, Blackwell &
Kollat 1978, Bettman, 1979).
Generally speaking, when purchasing a product, a consumer goes through a sequential
decision making process, which involves 1. activation: the individual perceives gaps between
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1994). In situation of 1. “earlier learning”, which occurs when “decisions are made routinely
or habitually, without much apparent search and evaluation preceding the decision and
consumption” (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994), the decision process may be shortened, as also
may be the case when 2. “evaluation and attitude formation occurs during actual
consumption” , (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994). In the second situation, a consumer may
perceive that the identification and evaluation of many alternatives prior to the decision may be
greater than the effort and cost of trial and error learning during consumption. Under these
circumstances, the benefits of search may be limited, in the minds of the consumer, (Moorthy,
Ratchford and Talukdar, 1997) . The third occurrence of truncation may occur when 3. “The
duration of the process varies”. Some decisions may take fractions of a second, as in the case
of many routine, repeat purchases, whereas some decisions may take years, as in the case of
important consumption decisions that have serious personal, social, performance, physical,
psychological or financial consequences, (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994, Berkowitz et al, 1998;
Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999). Habitual decisions
are often truncated, in that they are just made based on what the consumer usually buys, whereas
for new consumers of tobacco, the external information source of reference groups, which will be
further described, is largely definitive of choice:
EARLIER LEARNING MODEL
EVALUATION / ATTITUDE DURING
CONSUMPTION MODEL
VARYING DURATION MODEL
(HERE, THE LENGTH OF TIME FOR
EACH PHASE CAN VARY ACCORDING
TO INVOLVEMENT LEVELS)
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EARLIER LEARNING MODEL
EVALUATION / ATTITUDE DURING
CONSUMPTION MODEL
VARYING DURATION MODEL
(HERE, THE LENGTH OF TIME FOR
EACH PHASE CAN VARY ACCORDING
TO INVOLVEMENT LEVELS)
Activation: gap recognized Activation: gap recognized Activation: gap recognized
Intention: Decide what to buy
based on what consumer usually
buys.
Decision: Purchase product Search and Evaluation: consider
purchase options using internal and
external sources of information.
Decision: Purchase product Consumption and Evaluation
contemporaneously; evaluate as you
use product.
Intention: choose a particular
product based on search and
evaluation
Consumption: product is used Decision: purchase product
Consumption: product is used
The ‘important’ consumption decisions, those, that is, with ‘serious consequences’and
greater personal relevance, are generally referred to as high involvement decisions, (Petty,
Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983), and typically entail extensive information processing regarding
product attributes, whereas when there are less serious or relevant consequences, the involvement
of the consumer in the decision is said to be lower, (Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler,
Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999), and information processing in the decision making process is
also reduced, (Howard & Sheth, 1969; Hansen, 1972; Howard, 1977; Engel, Blackwell & Kollat
1978, Bettman, 1979). The type of decision process, the level of involvement and the type of
decision truncation used, (heuristics), will impact the type of marketing communication strategy
that will have the maximal impact on the consumer, will be addressed, including a discussion on
how to disrupt the consumption process.. A discussion of the types of heuristics that can
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potentially be used can also illuminate the understanding of these complex processes, will be
addressed below.
E. Heuristics: Types and Implications
In the case of limited processing, due to any of the factors identified in the previous
sections, it is likely that consumers will use some form of decision shortcut, known as heuristics,
in making their choices, (Bettman, Johnson and Payne, 1991; Payne, Bettman and Johnson, 1993,
Kahneman, Slovic and Tversky, 1982). There are a number of different types of heuristics, and
they can be used alone, or in combination with other heuristics, can be constructed at the time
processing is occurring or could be planned in advance, (Bettman, 1979; Bettman and Park, 1980
a, b) and vary in terms of accuracy and effort needed in use, ( Bettman, Johnson and Payne, 1991;
Payne, Bettman and Johnson, 1993). Further, heuristics also can vary on a number of other
factors, as follows.
Heuristics can be compensatory, where high values on some attributes can compensate
for low values on others, or non-compensatory, where excellent values on some attributes cannot
compensate for poor values on other attributes. Heuristics can be consistent or selective, in that
the same amount of information may or may not be processed for all alternatives considered.
There may be varying levels of processing involved in each heuristic, and search for information
may be by looking at all the characteristics of each individual product, and then comparing the
products, or by comparing each product feature or attribute, one by one, amongst competing
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alternatives, (Schkade and Johnson, 1985). Some heuristics include quantitative reasoning
operations, whereas others do not. Finally, heuristics may or may not generate an evaluation of
each alternative9. Things purchased or used out of habit tend to be noncompensatory, selective,
alternative based, qualitative, and no evaluation of all alternatives are formed. Things bought or
used ‘because that’s what your friends buy or use’ are noncompensatory, selective, alternative
based, qualitative and no evaluation of all alternatives are formed.
A number of different types of heuristics have been identified, and have been summarized
by Bettman, Payne and Johnson, (1991), in the following table10:
Heuristic Compensatory (c)
versus Non
Compensatory
(nc)
Consistent (c)
versus Selective
(s)
Attribute-based
(at) versus
Alternative based
Quantitative (qn)
versus Qualitative
(ql)
Evaluation
Formed? Yes or
No
Weighted Additive c c al qn yes
Equal Weight c c al qn yes
Elimination-by-Aspects
n s at ql no
Satisficing n s al ql no
Lexicographic n s at ql no
Majority of
Confirming
dimension
c c at qn yes
Frequency of Good
and Bad Features
c c al qn yes
A general understanding of the possible heuristics that consumers use in choice is
9This section represents a brief summary on the characteristics of heuristics.
10Extracted from Bettman, Payne and Johnson, 1991, at 61.
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important, because different people use different heuristics in a different circumstances, and the
type of heuristic used will have an impact on the effects of a marketing communication strategy,
as will be addressed further. In addition, the type of heuristic used will impact where marketing
communications efforts could influence the decision process, as will be described in Section IIIC.
Besides the type of decision problem and cognitive processes that impact consumer
choice, there are two other main factors which have significant impacts on why people choose to
consumer certain products, goods and services. They are the characteristics of the decision
maker and the characteristics of the context of the decision. Each will now be addressed.
F. Characteristics of the Decision Maker: Individual Differences and Market
Segmentation
In order to understand what products, goods and services are consumed, and why they are
consumed, an important strategy is to identify relatively homogeneous segments of consumers
and ascertain what goods and services fulfill each group’s wants, needs and values, a process
known as market segmentation, (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994). Segmentation variables
include, inter alia, demographic: age, sex, gender, and others, geographic: region, city,
metropolitan area, density of population, rural, urban or suburban areas, and others,
psychographic: the individual’s attitudes, interests and opinions, personality and lifestyle, and
buying situation information: benefits sought, usage rates and states, awareness and intentions
and type of buying activity. (Berkowitz et al, 1998; Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994; Beckman,
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Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999). Further, issues such as ability11
and knowledge of decision makers, expertise, inferences, decision making process used, levels of
involvement, mood, (Sinclair and Mark, 1995) and other factors may impact the usefulness of
certain types of marketing communication. Specifically, the effect of all types of marketing
communications will have a differential impact correlated to the nature of the specific market
segment, or relatively homogenous group, under consideration, (Yoon, 1997; Law et al, 1998),
due to individual differences in choice. The specifics of the characteristics of the decision makers
in the smoking context is discussed in Section III of this paper.
G. Characteristics of the Decision Making Context
It is a matter of common sense, (that has been supported by marketing research), that
choice decisions are made within an environment of social context, (Aaker and Williams, 1998;
Aaker and Maheswaran, 1997); “decisions cannot be made in a social vacuum: rather, many
social factors can influence decision making”, (Bettman, Payne and Johnson, 1991). Two factors
pertaining to the decision making context will be considered here: the role of reference groups in
decision making, and the role of marketing communications in choice.
Reference groups are people that “serve as a point of comparison or reference, for an
individual who is forming general or specific values, beliefs or attitudes, or is learning modes of
behaviour”, (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994; Berkowitz et al, 1998; Beckman, Kurtz and Boone,
11For example, some consumers may be inclined to use quantitative heuristics or processing
styles, if they have cognitive ability in this area, (Bettman, Johnson and Payne, 1991).
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1997; Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999; Rotheram-Borus et al., 1998). Groups tend to
have three types of influence on individuals; informational, utilitarian and value-expressive,
(Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994), where informational influences invoke a desire to make
informed decisions, utilitarian influences suggest compliance with group norms for rewards and
punishment avoidance, and value-expressive influences suggest the need for psychological
association, (the need to belong, fit in), as demonstrated by an acceptance of positions or
opinions of others. Different consumers are affected by reference group influence to varying
degrees, depending on whether the decision maker is typically a high or low self-monitor
personality. High self monitor looks to others for definition of self, and the low monitor relies
less on the opinion of others for such definition, (Aaker and Williams, 1998; Bem, 1974; Gill et
al., 1987; Ethier and Deaux, 1994). High self monitors will be influenced more by the actions
and norms of reference groups, as compared to low self monitors. As will be shown below, new
smokers are most highly effected by reference group considerations.
Marketing communications, as a context of decision making, includes any information
external to the consumer that, by design, has an impact on choice. These communications
include advertising, packaging, labelling, brand and branding information, personal selling, sales
promotion or direct marketing, sponsorships, or public relations campaigns. In this section, only
the concepts of incidental advertising exposure, brands, packaging and labelling will be
addressed, given the nature of the issues of this project.
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Incidental advertisement exposure occurs when an individual is exposed to
advertisements about a product that are not specifically targeted to that individual. In particular,
decision makers can be exposed to advertisements outside of their normal environment. For
example, if a consumer travels to different countries, or is exposed to information media that is
not subject to national laws, these exposures may have some influence on the consumption
choices of decision makers, (Aaker and Williams, 1998; Shapiro, MacInnis and Heckler,
1997).Smokers could be exposed to cigarette messages by these means, however, there is no real
solution or steps that can be taken to prevent this type of exposure.
Brands are a “colour, name, sign, symbol or any combination of these used to distinguish
one competing product from another”, and summarize many characteristics about the product or
service in question, (Kindra, 1995). More specifically, the Tobacco Act , 1997 defines brand as
‘a brand name, trade-mark, trade-name, distinguishing guise, logo, graphic arrangement, design
or slogan that is reasonably associated with, or that evokes, a product, a service or a brand of
product or service, but does not include a colour’. Brand is an important consideration in
consumption decisions, since brand name or symbol, itself, can increase or decrease demand for
a product, even when the products are identical. (Sullivan, 1998). Research has suggested that
brand loyalty may cause consumers to limit the amount of marketing communication
information they process, since brand loyal consumers, within certain limits, tend to selectively
perceive environmental information that confirms their brand opinions, and filter out non-
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congruent information, (van Osselaer and Alba, 1998, Russo et al, 1998). Specifically, brand
loyalty is the consumer’s identification and mental associations with these symbols or other
information, (Keller, 1993) which lead to the ‘consistent purchase of a single brand over time’,
(Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994); it is “the biased behavioural response expressed over time by
some decision-making unit with respect to one or more alternative brands out of a set of such
brands and is a function of psychological (decision-making, evaluative processes”, (Jacoby and
Kryner, 1973). Current research acknowledges the recognition, self-identification and ‘ego
significance’ of the consumer-brand relationship as a form of individualized recognition of
‘brand personality’. Consumers who thus identify with these personalities tend to have increased
usage, affect and preference (Aaker, 1997; Fournier: 1998) for that brand. Habitual smokers
typically have high brand loyalty, purchasing the same product over and over. New smokers,
however, start with no real brand loyalty, since they are not experienced with the product.
However, they see what their reference groups, including what friends and family purchase and
use, and once smoking is initiated, strong brand loyalty develops quite rapidly.
Packaging and labelling are other forms of marketing communication. Packaging is the
designing and production of the container or wrapper for a product, (Kotler, Armstrong,
Cunningham, 1999). Labelling is part of packaging, and identifies the product or brand, through
the use of colour, print size and font attributes, logos, as well as giving product information, such
as product content, country of production, date of production, use of product, and safety of
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product, (Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999; Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994). Both
packaging and labelling can be used for promotion, and increasingly, the nature of the package is
being considered by companies as ‘five second commercials’ and ‘the least expensive form of
advertising, about the product features, (Kotler, Armstromg, Cunnigham, 1999 at 281).
Packaging, and, by extension, labelling, (Kindra, 1995) can promote products by creating and
sustaining brand awareness, image and appeal, reinforcing all other marketing communications,
encouraging ready recognizability and product uniqueness, informing the consumer about a
brands characteristics, widening or narrowing a products’ appeal, enhancing product
performance, aiding in product proliferation, providing a symbol of corporate recognition,
protecting brand from copying and counterfeiting and reminding satisfied, repeat purchasers of
brand identity, Packaging and labelling represent important marketing communication
techniques to influence consumer choice12. It must be remembered, however, that where brand
loyalty exists, messages must be extremely pervasive to have any effect, (Vakratsas and Ambler,
1999).
H. Theories of Attitude Change and Persuasion
It is a generally accepted principle that purchase decisions are made, because of
consumer’s attitudes towards what they are purchasing, (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980: Bettman,
1986; Day 1973; Kassarjian, 1982; Petty and Cacioppo, 1983). Attitudes can be changed using
12See also, discussion in section IIIA.
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two distinct routes: the central route, which emphasizes the central merits of the decision
objects under consideration, and where persuasive arguments are considered and processed by
decision makers. In contrast, attitudes can be changed using the peripheral route, where
changes are made without consumers thinking about the central merits of the decision object:
peripheral cues, which are not diligently considered or processed have an impact on attitudes of
the decision maker, (Petty and Cacioppo, 1981). When levels of processing are high, due to
some combination of motivation, opportunity and ability to process, as discussed in section IIB,
messages relaying central merits of products should be used, whereas when levels of processing
are lower, peripheral message contents will have a significant impact and should be used.. These
findings were proposed, formally, as the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion,
(hereinafter, the ELM, Petty and Cacioppo, 1981; 1986), and is one of the most widely accepted
models in marketing and psychological literature. The ELM assumes that consumers are
interested in forming correct and valid attitudes that assist them in decision-making, but are
limited in doing so by the mechanisms discussed in section IIB of this work, including the
motivation, level of involvement, ability and opportunity to process communications.
The central and peripheral routes to persuasion are seen as a continuum; on the one
extreme, consumers are very effortful in processing information, and they “draw upon prior
experience and knowledge to carefully scrutinize and elaborate the issue-relevant arguments in
the persuasive communication along the dimensions that are perceived central to the merits of the
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attitude object”13
. At the other extreme, when motivation, involvement, opportunity or ability to
process are lower, attitudes are changed by peripheral means, including classical conditioning14,
on-line inferences15
, heuristics retrieved from memory16
, or category based processing17
. This
model, therefore, has implications for how to accomplish attitude change for smoking behaviour,
which will be addressed in section III of this paper.
Generally, however, in order to achieve attitude change, the level of processing that is
likely to be used must be identified. Once this identification has been accomplished, it will be
evident which of central or peripheral information will have a maximized impact on the relevant
decision makers. However, there may be issues about the persistence of persuasion, which are
the extent to which attitude changes withstand the passage of time, (Cook and Flay, 1978).
Attitudes may be resistant to change, particularly when attitudes are initially formed through
13Petty, Unnava, and Strathman, 1991.
14Where cues such as store atmosphere, pleasant music, color, or other features of the
communication that are not central to the decision object have an influence on the decision,
(Staats and Staats, 1958).
15Where consumers assume that how they behave (i.e. purchase and consumption) is indicative of
the attitudes that they hold towards the decision object, (Bem, 1972)
16See section IIE for a discussion of heuristic strategies.
17Petty, Unnava and Strathman, 1991. Category based processing is where the consumer looks at
a categorical feature of the decision object (i.e. low price), and assumes other features about the
object (i.e. low price, therefore must be poor quality), Sujan, 1985).
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direct experience, (Wu and Shaffer, 1987), or central processing18
.
The next section of this report is an application of the general consumer behaviour
literature to the issue of tobacco product usage and choice.
III. Tobacco Usage and Choice: Application of Consumer Behaviour Literature
A. Market Segments of Tobacco Users
The first step in the application of the literature to tobacco choice and consumption is to
divide the users of tobacco products into segments, as described in Section II E. This is an
important first step, because the nature of each segments is not the same, therefore different
marketing communication strategies must be designed for each segment. Only cigarette users will
be considered in this application.
These segments emerge on the basis of involvement, brand loyalty, decision processes
and use of heuristics, information sources, and the impact of context, including packaging and
labelling and reference group influence. As will be shown below, there are two main segments19
18Research concerning what makes attitudes consistent to change is sparse, but suggests that
attitudes are more resistant when they are accessible, supported by a network of relevant beliefs,
and decision makers are motivated to use these beliefs to defend their positions, (from Petty,
Unnava, and Strathman, 1991 at 264: see Wood, 1982, Wu and Shaffer, 1987). Research
specific to tobacco use should be initiated to determine moderator and mediator variables thathave an impact in this context.
19Only these two main segments will be addressed here, although, as is noted in this work,
‘interested habs’ also represent a communication opportunity.
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in the ‘smoker’ market: the new and potential users of cigarettes; the neophyte smokers,
hereinafter known as the ‘neos’, and the habitual smokers, hereinafter known as the ‘habs’.
Neos are largely of adolescents, at the ‘activation’ stage of the decision process. They
may feel a disparity between their own self-image and their perception of the ideal image of a
reference group, (Lackman and Lansa, 1993; Peterson and Rollins, 1987; Stafford, 1966; Kindra,
Laroche, Muller, 1994; Berkowitz et al, 1998; Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler,
Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999). Neos are impacted the most by utilitarian and value-expressive
group influences, (Kindra, 1995). By participating in tobacco use, neos may rewarded on
tobacco consumption with a feeling of belonging, a removal of the threat of rejection, and thus
will meet the expectations of his or her referents, (Kindra; 1995). Because of the serious social
consequences involved for potential and new users, the other complex factors that impact the
process of beginning to smoke, and parental influence, (Lackman and Lansa, 1993; Millar and
Hunter, 1991, Foxman et al, 1989), it is likely that this decision process is one of relatively high
involvement.
However, it is also possible that this segment uses processing heuristics as well. In
particular, because one of the main influences on neos is what choices their reference groups are
making, it is likely that a satisficing decision heuristic is being used: processing is
noncompensatory, selective information processing is used, alternatives are decided not on
attributes, but more, what their reference groups are choosing, the decision is qualitative, in as
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much as no quantification of costs and benefits of smoking use are calculated, and no specific
evaluation of all alternatives is formed. Once the reference group choices are evident to the neos,
it is likely that they will display brand loyalty to the choice of the reference group. This makes
sense, given that neos search for identity amongst their peers: they are likely to be high self
monitors, and look to the external information sources of reference groups and product
packaging for consumption direction.
Specifically, the impact of packaging on the neos has been addressed in previous
research. An expert panel report to determine the prevention of smoking initiation through plain
packaging of tobacco products, entitled “When Packages Can’t Speak; Possible Impacts of Plain
and Generic Packaging of Tobacco Products’, (Health Canada, 1995), found:
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1. “that plain and generic packaging would have a noticeable impact by limiting the capacity of consumers to associate specific positive
images with specific brands,
2. that plain and generic packaging would lead to lowered recall, recognition and brand recall, without significant effects with respect to
recall and recognition of HWMs,
3. that packaging would be important and would have perceived utility for encouraging teen and adult smokers to stop smoking, and for
discouraging non-smoking teens from starting to smoke,
4. that plain and generic packaging of tobacco products, (all other things being equal), through its impact on image formation and
retention, recall and recognition, knowledge and consumer attitudes and perceived utilities, would likely depress the incidence of
smoking uptake by non-smoking teens, and increase the incidence of smoking cessation by teen and adult smokers. This impact
would vary across the population. The extent of change in incidence is impossible to assess except through field experiments
conducted over time.”
This tobacco-related research , shown above, supports the notion of the significant impact
of reference groups for adolescent smokers: an Environics study found that many subjects felt
that adolescents start smoking because of a feeling of “peer pressure, or need to project a more
‘positive’ self-image”, (1998), (also see Raj, 1985; Centre for Behavioural research in Cancer,
1992).
The uptake of smoking may require higher levels of selective information processing,
particularly in terms of brand personality and brand characteristics, is based on utilitarian
reference group influence. The identification with the reference group is tied into these
characteristics, and should this information be unavailable, the self-identification that enhances
and ensures brand loyalty is decreased. This may lead to a loss of attractiveness of the product
itself, and to a reduction in uptake figures of consumption. Plain packaging would have an
impact on brand loyalty, increase the efficacy of HWMs, and by extension, likely reduce
consumption. However, the issue of plain packaging will not be further addressed here.
Habs are quite different in nature than neos. Habs purchase and consume tobacco
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products out of habit and routine, and so it is likely that they use low involvement decision
processes when buying tobacco products, (Sengupta, Goodstein and Boninger, 1997). In
particular, once the habs regularly consumes tobacco, s/he tends to develop strong brand loyalty,
which reduces the probability that the first three stages in the decision process will be revisited,
(Raj, 1985). Habs also use a type of decision heuristic to make product choices: they purchase
and consume what they are used to. When strong brand loyalty exists, habitual or routine
processes which truncate the decision process may be expected, (Berkowitz et al, 1998;
Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999). Packages and
labelling will have less of an impact on this group, simply because research has shown that brand
loyalty is a more compelling influence on consumers of this type than marketing communication
of any sort, (Vankratsas and Ambler, 1999). Similarly, because habs have an established pattern
of brand loyalty, it is unlikely that reference groups will have a tenable impact on consumption
choices. Information sources for the habs is largely internal, that is, what that segment has
retained in memory.
It must also be noted that, within the habs segment, there are different identifiable groups.
Some of the habs are not interested in smoking cessation, whereas others are. The habs that are
interested in cessation likely have higher levels of information processing occurring, in that they
are likely to be motivated to acquire cessation information. These “interested habs”, which
display higher levels of processing, will be more likely to respond to HWMs, or other marketing
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communication techniques, and in particular, those communications that use some combination
of central and peripheral routes to persuasion, (ELM, Petty and Cacioppo, see section IIH).
In summary, the characteristics of neos and the majority of the habs20
can be set out as
follows:
Segment
Characteristic Neos Habs
Levels of involvement High: a new decision which
allows for social acceptance,therefore an important step with
serious social consequences
Low: a habitual, routine decision
Levels of information processing High for utilitarian
considerations only
Low
Brand loyalty Very low before introduction,
but once reference group
preferences known, high.
High: tend to purchase the same
product habitually
Decision process length Low: decision a reflection of
context of decision making and
utilitarian influence of referencegroups
Very low: habit, routine,
therefore all steps of decision
process not revisited
Heuristic used Satisficing Habit of purchase and
consumption
Impact of Marketing
Communications
Potentially impactful: if brand
missing, may lead to lack of self-
identification which decreases
appeal.
Not likely to have significant
impact since levels of
involvement and processing low,
unless marketing communication
carefully designed.
Impact of Reference Groups High Not Significant
Sources of Information External: reference groups and
packaging
Internal: memory
20See comments on “interested habs”, in the paragraph above.
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Given the identification of these market segments and their essential characteristics, the
determination of what marketing communications should be used and allowed is significantly
clearer. There are common communication principles that can be applied to both groups, as well
as segment specific adjustments that must be made in order to maximize the usefulness of
communication strategies, as addressed below21.
B. Strategies for Communication : General Discussion
For both the habs and the neos, there are some basic principles of marketing
communication which will lead to the maximal effectiveness of marketing communications, and
in particular, the impact of HWMs. First, the message content has to be carefully planned, with
consideration to the characteristics of the market segment targeted. The theory of ‘resource
matching’ in marketing communications suggests that persuasion is more likely to occur if the
type of message communicated is congruent with the type of information processing that the
segment is likely to utilize in its consumption decision process, (Perrachio and Meyers-Levy,
1997; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1998, Petty Cacioppo, Schumann, 1983). In the case of low
motivation to process, a message communicating an easily applied decision rule for impression
formation (Chaiken, 1989, Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983). In contrast, where high
motivation to process is higher , communications that encourage the forming of well reasoned
attitudes with relatively high levels of certainty ( Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983) are most
21The issue of the usefulness of plain packaging has been addressed by the Expert Panel in 1995, and will
not be specifically readdressed here.
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effective for persuasion.
In the case of the habs, there is a low motivation to process due to the nature of the
choice decision. Thus, a relatively easy to understand HWM would likely be the most effective
communication strategy. With respect to the neos, a message of requiring high levels of
processing would likely be effective, if concerning issues of an utilitarian and value-expressive
nature. However, if the HWM was informational, a lower cognitively demanding HWM would
likely have the most impact. In both cases, however, it would be important to relate the HWM as
directly and specifically to the individual, since research shows that individuals have an
unrealistic optimism which is reduced if the message is specifically made self-relevant. The self-
relevance works to enhance message accessibility and is used by the individual as a diagnostic
cue, (Raghubin and Menon, 1998). For example, if potential risks to the individual are made
salient, in the sense of pointing out that ‘it can happen to you”, the individual may start to realize
that ‘bad’ things can happen to them, too. In the case of low involvement, a HWM would have
to create strong memory associations in order to create meaningful memory nodes for the
individual decision maker, (Sengupta et al., 1997). In particular, using the elaboration likelihood
model as a basis for communication strategy (Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983), peripheral
cues could lead to attitude and message persistence if the cue was related to the product or
service being communicated about, (Sengupta et. al, 1997). The cue should be frequent, highly
memorable to ensure cue accessibility, and relevant to the product. (Sengupta et al, 1997.)
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In both groups, because brand loyalty and brand identification is relatively high, once use
is initiated, there may be many reasons why the processing of HWMs may be impaired. First, if
a brand loyal individual has pre-exposure to what s/he believes is predictive brand information,
further learning of equally predictive attribute information may be blocked, (van Osselaer and
Alba, 1998). Thus, in the case of HWMs, the brand loyal tobacco user may not typically
elaborately process information contained within that message format. Second, brand loyal
consumers could use processing heuristics, which are essentially mental shortcuts to decision
making, where only certain presented information is processed by those individuals, (Keller,
1993). The research indicates that the use of processing heuristics tends to reduce the probability
of elaborate information processing, (Keller, 1993). Third, prospect theory (Kahneman and
Tversky, 1991; Robertson and Kassarjian, 1991) would suggest that the immediate loss of the
pleasure of tobacco use may loom more significantly in the minds of habitual, brand loyal users
than the far away gains of good health, and as a result, users would be less inclined to include
HWMs in their consumption decision processes. Fourth, there is also an ambiguity of feedback,
a lack of immediacy of consequences, and an overweighting of certain outcomes, in that health
problems from tobacco use to not typically reveal themselves immediately and are not
completely predictable, (Bettman, Luce and Payne, 1998, Kahneman and Tversky, 1991, Thaler:
1980). These factors may also contribute to the blocking of learning about tobacco risks through
HWMs. Finally, the fact that brands and messages about brands are stored separately in memory
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nodes also has an impact on the processing of information about brands, (Pham and Johar,1997).
As a result, of these possibilities, much attention must be paid to the manner in which HWMs are
communicated to this segment.
In cases of low involvement, different versions of the marketing communication are
advisable and leads to greater recall, keeping in mind that the effect of a particular marketing
communication tends to wear out after a period of 3 to 15 months, (Vakratsas and Ambler,
1999). Messages should be rotated so that people don’t become used to the message content. The
pulsing of message content, which is ‘sometimes communicating a HWM, and sometimes not”,
might also be a useful strategy to prevent the wearout and decreasing marketing communication
effectiveness over time, which occurs in many messages, (Naik et al, 1998).
In both market segments, it is important to remember that the HWMs must be as self-
relevant as possible, since unrealistic optimism is reduced when subjects experience a negative
personal event, (Raghubir and Menon, 1998). This is known as the self-positivity bias. If it is
easier for the consumer to recall incidents of risk, perceptions of risk that are self-relevant are
increased, (Raghubir and Menon, 1998).
In summary, the decision processes of the Neos and the Habs are as follows:
Neos Habs
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Neos Habs
Activation: Neos see that members of reference group
are smoking, and in order to feel like they belong, also
try smoking. After a time, neos become addicted to
nicotine and begin to exhibit purchase (which is illegal
for underage smokers) or at least consumption
behaviour similar to Habs.
Activation: Habs feel the physical and psychological
need for tobacco and seek the product to fulfill these
needs. Habs tend to use an ‘earlier learning’ model of
decision making.
Search and evaluation: Neos generally smoke what
their friends smoke, so the search is limited to
observing their reference group choices and following
those choices: satisficing heuristic used.
Intention: Habs decide what to buy based on what they
usually buy: habit heuristic used.
Decision: The product is either purchased or acquired
through reference group who, if under the legal age for
smoking, acquire cigarettes illegally.
Decision: The product is purchased
Consumption: The product is consumed. Consumption: The product is consumed
C. Strategies for Changing Consumption Process
The consumption of cigarettes for the neos and the habs is governed by different
processes and influences, therefore different methods and strategies of communication should be
designed for each group.
The neos do not, at the early stages of consumption, have a physical addiction to the
nicotine found in cigarettes. However, they are ‘activated’ by another influence. Specifically, one
of the primary motivations for smoking is the gap that neos perceive between how they currently
(non-smoking) fit into their smoking reference groups, and how they would like to fit in (would
like to be the same as other smoking group members) . Since smoking appears to be a way to
become ‘one of the gang’, smoking seems to ensure that the experienced gap is decreased. One
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of the ways of stopping neos from smoking is to influence reference groups, as a whole, to not
take up smoking. This goal is likely to be best met with an integrated approach to marketing
communication, since the level of processing involved in cigarette use is likely low. In
particular, although HWMs on packages will be noticed, particularly if the communication is
designed for maximal effectiveness, as will be described in Section IIIC i, the advertising
message is not likely to be readily adopted, due to the principles of selective retention and limited
processing motivation and attitudinal resistance to change22. An integrated marketing
communication strategy would include “personal selling” of the message, where some
spokesperson could go to the schools, ‘hangouts’, or other places that the neos frequent, and
describe the dangers of smoking and the advantages of not being a smoker. The spokesperson
would have to be someone that could attest to these advantages or disadvantages, (congruency of
spokesperson with message), be someone with whom the neos could relate, and be someone
whom the neos look up to, (Pracejus, 1998, Petty, Cacioppo, Shumann, 1983). The
spokesperson, if congruent, would represent a peripheral cue which, according to the Elaboration
Likelihood theory, (Petty, Cacioppo, Schumann, 1983) is likely to have an impact on low
processing decisions23
.
22
See footnote 18.
23This theory suggests that there are two routes to persuasion, the central route, (for cases of
medium or high level of processing), and the peripheral route, for lower levels of processing,
(Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983). Thus, in the case of the neos, a spokesperson that is
carefully chosen may have a significant impact on smoking behaviours.
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Neos may also be impacted at the activation stage by increasing their motivation to
process in another manner. Competitions to quit smoking, with specially designed prizes that
would be attractive to a reference group, reduction of school detentions or assignments, or other
almost “sales promotion” style communications may also motivate higher levels of processing
for this group, (Kotler et al, 1999; Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994). Flyers given out to students,
including “I am a non-smoker” buttons, pens, or other items could be distributed. Finally, public
relations events, such as non-smoker event sponsorships such as dances, free health and quit
smoking clinics in the schools, or other similar activities could also be held. If such a strategy is
implemented, it will be critical to identify what strategies and incentives are suitable for the neos
who are likely to smoke, so as not to either ostracize or further dichotomize the positions of
smokers and non-smokers, and actually be effective for getting possible neos to avoid taking
their first cigarettes. It is recognized that efforts have been made by schools to prevent smoking.
However, even more significant, national campaigns of this nature should be emphasized.
Research specific to Canada, the various regions, and cultural groups or other identifiable
segmentation variables for neos in this country should be undertaken to support and
operationalize these strategies.
Advertising, alone, will not maximize the impact of health warnings against smoking for
neos. An integrated marketing communication plan must be used to ensure that smoking simply
does not start.
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and attitude change for the ‘interested habs’24
, who are interested in quitting smoking, and are
more likely to be motivated to process information about cessation, and will be more likely to
take advantage of the other aspects of the integrated marketing communication..
D. Strategies for Communication: Additional Themes
There are two other main themes with respect to the communication strategies for
cigarettes that must be addressed. In particular, it must be determined whether pictures,
pictographs, graphics or words, or some combination thereof, are the most effective means of
communicating a HWM. Second, what size, colour, and level of vividness of HWMs would be
most effective, while not impairing the tobacco industry’s ability to communicate brand
information.
i. Message Design: Pictures, Pictographs, Graphics and Words
In the overwhelming consensus of current studies25, marketing research has found that, as
24See discussion of habs and ‘interested habs’, section IIIA.
25Virtually all current research finds that pictorial stimuli increases recall, and studies that imply
otherwise can be easily distinguished. For example, Mackenzie, 1986, has suggested that it is
attention to an aspect of an advertisement, rather than the pointing out to subjects of an inclusion
of a pictorial stimuli, ensures recall of messages. He does not, however, find that pictorial
stimuli do not enhance recall. Popper and Murray, 1989, find that for HWMs on smokeless
tobacco, neither font nor color background had an impact on message communication. However,
this study only tested extremely limited parameters, in that only two fonts and two colors were
tested, and visual images were not included. Thus, this study cannot be seen as evidence against
the increased recall for pictorial stimuli. Kisielius, 1996 suggests that vividness may not have an
impact on attitudinal judgments, however, does not specifically address pictorial stimuli in his
research. A further search of the literature did not reveal articles that suggested specifically that
pictorial stimuli do not enhance recall.
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compared to word-only communications, the inclusion of pictorial stimuli in marketing
communications increase levels of recall for messages, (Leong, Ang, Tham, 1996; Miniard et al.,
1991; Mitchell, 1986; Childers and Houston, 1984; Gardner, 1986; Kieras, 1978; Kisielius, 1982;
Lutz and Lutz, 1977; Nelson, 1979, Holbrook, 1981; Unnava et al., 1991; Costley and Brucks,
1992): there seems to be truth in the saying, “a picture is worth a thousand words”.
Theories postulating why this occurs include applications of the Elaboration Likelihood
Model, (Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983), and those that suggest visual and word and other
memories may be stored in different memory nodes,(Tarasolli, 1998, Pham and Johar, 1997). In
any event, it is clear that by presenting two kinds of stimuli, there are stronger memory
associations, or more memory nodes activated in the memory network, which lead to enhance
recall, (Leong, Ang, and Tham, 1996; Scott, 1994; Anderson, 1983; Sengupta et al., 1997). Even
though there is still debate about the actual mechanisms for this outcome, it is clear that the
current research supports the argument that both pictorial stimuli and words be included in
HWMs.
Another reason for including not only text, but also pictorial stimuli would be for the
purpose of reaching consumers who have difficulty with text comprehension. If clear pictorial
stimuli were included, these consumers would be able to more clearly understand the HWMs26
.
The actual nature of the pictorial stimuli requires a more careful examination. Section
26Similarly, braille lettering, for sight-impaired consumers could also be used to ensure message
communication.
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IIIA of this paper has identified that there are two possible market segments of smokers: the neos
and the habs. The habs typically will have a low involvement processing style, since the habit
has been established. The neos start off with a higher level of involvement for utilitarian
messages, however, once the neos start to purchase and smoke regularly, common sense suggests
that they likely will rather speedily evolve to a low involvement processing style as well.
Because of this, it is important that the HWMs are relatively easy to process, and that the
message and pictorial stimuli are very clear, in accordance with the resource matching theory,
(Keller and Block, 1997; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1997; Peracchio and Meyers-Levy, 1997).
Furthermore, applying this theory, the pictorial stimuli and the words of the HWMs should be
congruent, in that both communicate a related message to the consumer. As has been described in
section IID, consumers are not likely to process exhaustively, so combinations of words and
pictorial representations that have to be ‘figured out’ are not likely to be processed enough to be
encoded.
The valence of the picture and message, which is, essentially whether it creates, good or
bad moods is another issue that must be extensively considered. Research has suggested that
people who are in good moods tend to process more heuristically than when they are in poorer
moods, (Sinclair, 1995; Isen and Daubman, 1984), which would suggest that HWMS should be
designed to effectively worsen the mood of the potential consumers, (Brown, Homer and Inman,
1998). This would coincide nicely with prospect theory, (Kahneman and Tversky, 1979), which
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suggests that ‘losses loom larger than gains”: framing the effects of smoking as a loss of life,
family, health, and so on, should be an effective communication strategy, (Levin, Schnieder and
Gaieth, 1998). In addition, research also suggests that products that have negative messages are
less likely to be chosen, (Garabino and Edell, 1997), thus implying that a negatively framed
message should decrease product choice or usage. Both studies cited here used negative framing
only with respect to message content, and did not test if text or pictorial framing had differential
impacts.
There is also research which suggests that people prefer happy, ‘hedonic’ messages, and
choose products with those messages, (Baumgartner, Sujan, and Padgett, 1997). This study
considered television advertisements, only, and did not consider framing in the context of text,
pictorial or some combination of the two. However, even though research has not considered the
differential impact of framing for various media, it is a generally accepted principle, (Tversky
and Kahneman, 1981) that framing can lead to preference reversals. For example, suggesting to
individuals that beef was ‘75% lean as compared to 25% fat’, (Levin and Gaieth, 1988), or
suggesting mortality rates in terms of ‘lives saved’ or ‘lives lost’ , (Tversky and Kahneman,
1981), has been shown to impact preference. This principle, as stated above, can be applied to all
forms of communications, although research would have to be undertaken to identify any
differential impacts of framing on text, pictorial stimuli, and various combinations of each,
(Bettman, Johnson and Payne, 1991).
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Further, people may, in fact, tend to avoid processing messages that have such a negative
content that the message is difficult to process, (Luce, 1998). It is possible that if the image or
message is too ‘shocking’ or graphic, it might be just ignored, (Environics, 1998). From this
perspective, it may be worthwhile to run or at least pre-test different versions of the HWMS;
most that are negatively framed, but also a few that are positively framed, because of this
somewhat contradictory research27
.
Finally, with respect to the choice of a picture, a pictogram or a graphic, to be used in
combination with the word content, the efficacy of each will depend on what stimuli is used, as
well as how comprehensible it is. Arrows, circles and graphics of that nature do not relate to the
word message content, and therefore will not enhance the communication. However, graphics
such as skull and crossbones, for example, if related to the message, “Smoking Kills”, would be
effective. Pictures or pictograms of scenarios of smoking or hazards of smoking would be
effective, as long as they were easily understood, (Keller and Block, 1997; Meyers-Levy and
Tybout, 1997; Peracchio and Meyers-Levy, 1997). If the size of the HWMs is not sufficient to
make a detailed picture cognisable, a less detailed picture, or a more simplistic stimuli should be
used. Pictures have been found to be up to 60 times more effective at communication than words
alone, (Liefeld, 1999). Again, as discussed earlier, the critical issue is that the words and the
27“Industry bashing” was not well received by the subjects in the Environics 1998 study, and
current research also warns against it, particularly if it is perceived by the consumer as ‘unfair’,
(Shive, Edell and Payne, 1997).
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pictorial stimuli be congruent, and easy to process, given the nature of the target segments, and
the size of the HWMs.
In summary, text with pictorial stimuli will be the most effective method of
communication, and the efficacy of just text, or just pictorial stimuli will depend upon the
understandability and ease with which the message of the text or pictorial stimuli can be
processed.
ii. HWMs: Size, Colour and Vividness
The preponderance of marketing research shows that larger communication size tends to
be more effective than smaller size, (Hendon, 1973; Aaker, Batra and Myers, 1992; Finn, 1988;
Rouse, 1991; Vincent, 1991; Gronhaug, Kvitastein, Gronmo, 1991). Cunningham, 1999, sets out
the tobacco related studies that suggest larger health warning labels:
Environics Research Group Ltd., Qualitative (Focus Group) Report regarding Health warning Labels and
Images on Cigarette Packages: Final Report March 29, 1999.
Informa Market Research Co. Ltd. Focus Group research on New Health Warnings on Tobacco Packages, May 1999.
Environics Research Group Ltd., The Focus Canada Report 1999-1.
Borland, R., Hill, D., Initial Impact of the New Australian Tobacco Health Warnings on Knowledge and
Beliefs, Tobacco Control. 1997: 6:317.
Goldberg, G.E., Liefeld, J., Kindra, G., Madill-Marshall, J. Lefebvre, J., Martohardjonon, N., Vredenburg, H.,
When Packages Can’t Speak, Possible Impacts of Plain and Generic Packaging of Tobacco Products: Experts Panel
Report Prepared at the Request of Health Canada, March 1995.
Centre for Behaviourial Research in Cancer, Health Warnings and Contents Labeling on Tobacco Products
Prepared for Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy ,Tobacco Task Force, 1992.
There are two factors which may lead to the choice to use a larger sized HWM. First,
large message size may lead to inferences about the effort put into communication, or perhaps,
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even inferences about the importance of the attribute being communicated, (Kirmani, 1990,
Moriarty, 1986). It may be that smokers may infer that an increased size of HWMs means that
the communicator either has more definitive information about the message, (i.e. the government
has more proof of the health effects of smoking) or that it is increasingly more urgent or
necessary to communicate that message to the consumer, (i.e. people are having more ill effects
faster, or more dramatically). Of course, the hypothesized effects of this initial inference would
wearout within 3-15 months of initiation, (Vakratsas and Ambler, 1999), however, the
communication strategy could have significant impact over that time period. It is likely, based on
the research, that an increased size of HWM would be a signal to consumers, although the
strength of the signal would decrease over time. Alternative sizes, as well as varied message
content, could alleviate this wearout.
Besides the rather transitory benefits of increased HWMs size, as described above, the
prominence hypothesis, as briefly described in section IIIB suggests that those attributes that are
more visible, or more salient will be processed more than other attributes in the communication,
(Gardner, 1983; Coupey, Irwin and Payne, 1998; Schkade and Johnson, 1985). It can be therefore
hypothesized that in order for a HWM to get more weight than the brand information, it must
have greater than 50 per cent of the package although the actual amount greater than 50 per cent
would have to be established through experimental means, (Nowlis and Simonson, 1997). Less
visual competition with the HWMs, specifically with reduced brand information, would ensure
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maximized levels of recall and recognition of the HWMs, and possibly, as addressed in section
IIC, a greater likelihood of encoding28. This is largely because higher competition between focal
and non-focal objects reduces the amount of attention paid to the focal point of the message,
(Janiewzewkski, 1998). Legibility would also be improved, given a larger size, (Centre for
Behavioural Research in Cancer, 1992).
Colour can also have an impact on attention paid to a message. Research has shown
positive correlations between the use of multiple colours and message readership, and / or recall,
(Gronhaug, Kvitastein, Gronmo, 1991; Finn, 1988; Geboy, 1996). If few resources are devoted
to message processing, as they would be in the case of neos or habs reading the message,
messages with some colour outperform black and white messages, in terms of persuasions of
subject, (Meyers-Levy and Peracchio, 1995). This is because the colour may be used as a
heuristic cue to infer quality or goodness, because colour makes objects more pleasing, generally,
(Ball, 1965; Click and Stempel, 1976). Highlighting, where relevant aspects of the message are
given colour while the less relevant aspects are not, can be used, as well as full colour. Studies
have shown that black on white, (Human factors Association of Canada, 1993)or black on
fluorescent may be effective, in terms of wording, (Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer,
28Note, some research has suggested, “At least 75% of the package front and back should beallocated for health messages...”, Canadian Cancer Society, “Confronting the tobacco Epidemic:
Recommendations for Regulations under the tobacco act: A report submitted to the honorable
Allan Rock, Minister of Health”, March, 1998, p. 61. Other research implies 60 percent of the
packages is appropriate, as will be further discussed.
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1992)The efficacy of each method of including colour in the words, the pictorial stimuli or both,
will have to be determined by experimental testing, as these issues must be considered for the
specific context of HWMs29
.
Colour is also related to the message vividness. Vividness is a measure of how much the
message ‘jumps out’ at the consumer. This includes how bright, noticeable and eye-catching the
message is. Research generally shows that the HWM should be as vivid as possible, (Keller and
Block, 1997), which includes large size and brilliant colours, since vivid information tends to
have higher levels of information processing associated with it, (Keller and Block, 1997, Shapiro,
MacInnis and Heckler, 1997; Vakratsas and Ambler, 1999)30
. Since smokers are low level
processors, generally, stimuli that generate higher levels of processing are advantageous in terms
of readership, recognition, recall, and by extension, impact on choice.
As a result of the need for vividness and prominence, as discussed above, it would be
significantly less useful for HWMs to be communicated solely in the inside of tobacco
29Popper and Murray, 1989, suggest that neither the size of type of the HWM nor the use of
colour in the written message impact communication effects. This study is distinguishable from
the work proposed here because it is the size of the actual HWM, itself, not the size of font, that
will be changed. Similarly, colour will possibly be not only used in the word message, but also
in the pictorial stimuli as well.
30Kisielus, 1986 is less certain about the effects of vividness on processing, however, the
preponderance of evidence seems to suggest that vividness increases the possibility of higher
levels of processing.
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packaging. Maximal impact would occur if the messages were in both package areas.
It is also likely that people may be ‘embarrassed’ to carry unattractive, ugly, or ‘horribly
shocking’ packages of cigarettes, (Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer, 1992). The
distinctiveness of the packaging can be used as one strategy to assist in cessation of smoking
behaviours. Care must be taken, however, that consumers, especially neos who may tend to use
‘fad’ or ‘fashionable’ novelty products, (Kotler et al, 1999) do not choose to carry distinctive
packages for ‘shock’, or ‘making a counter-culture statement’ values.
With respect to the ability of tobacco companies to continue to communicate their brand
information, research shows that even though the focal attribute,( in this case, the HWMs that are
greater than 50 per cent of the package front would get more attention than the brand
information), the non-dominant attribute will still be considered, (Coupey, Irwin and Payne,
1998; Brown, 1993 (t.v. advertisements); Heath et al, 1994; Janiszewski, 1990). Thus, it is
unlikely that the tobacco industry’s ability to communicate their products will be impaired by a
HWM more than 50 per cent of the surface area of the package31
. This is particularly true
because no attempt is being made to enforce plain packaging requirements at this time. The
industry can still use graphics, logos, brand names, borders, colours, font types and sizes to
communicate their products.
Messages : should include those that communicate:
-addictive nature,
31Of course, this statement only holds within specific limits: it is not being suggested here that
5% of the package would be adequate for brand information communication.
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-assist smokers to quit
-dangers of passive smoke
-dangerous contents of smoke-adverse health effects of smokes
-message should be made personally relevant
-symbols to be used with caution: often misinterpreted, multiple meanings
-people don’t like being seen with long warnings, top of pack warnings, fluorescent background warnings
-legibility is important: black on fluorescent and black on white very legible
Packaging /
Communication: -standard packaging should be used: (plain packaging)
-dangerous contents, including what each is and does, should be communicated
-panel not less than 25% of front and
-should be boxed with clear border
-top of package
-use strong contrast colours
-large enough font to be read at a distance
-space between lettering sufficient for legibility
-border inside boxed area to maximize legibility of warning statements-no word hyphenation
-back of packaging almost all other health information about smoking risks, and should say elaboration of front, health risks, passive
exposure risks, dangers of smoking in pregnancy, addictive nature of tobacco, benefits of quitting, where to get help
quitting (a help-line phone number should be included)
-background colour of package to be specified, as well as size, colour and font of brand name, minimum letter height
-message wearout (habituation) will occur, therefore rotate messages
Target market: should include:
-adolescents
-smokers contemplating quitting
-pregnant women
- parents
-smokers with smoking related illnesses
Other studies also support the fact that tobacco companies can still communicate:
Cunningham, 1999, states that a HWMs taking up 60% of the package front would not be an
appropriation of trademark, Environics, (1999) states that tobacco companies are “easily able to
display their trademarks in 20 or 40 percent of the package front. and in the June 24, 1999 report,
also states, “the size of the health warnings tested (60% of package) was seen to allow sufficient
space for brand trademarks, text and other identifiers used by the industry to distinguish their
products”.On the preponderance of evidence, tobacco companies can still communicate, even
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with significantly larger HWMs than are in place now. The research that is currently being
completed in this study has been also considered in other jurisdictions, such as Australia. In an
extensive series of papers and reports, the Australians found the results on the above.
These findings support many of the conclusions drawn in this paper. In particular, two
market segments have been identified in this paper. It has been suggested that the nature of the
message should be specifically aimed at each target separately, in order to make the HWM as
self-relevant as possible for each group. Pictorial stimuli be used, however, have cautioned
against the use of symbols or graphics, if they do not relate to the word message. This research
has suggested that the size of the HWMs be over 50 percent of the package to maximize impact,
based on current research. Colour should be used in the message, probably black on white or
black on fluorescent for the words, to ensure legibility, but it would be useful to have the image
attached to be as vivid (bright, eye-catching) as possible. Messages should be rotated, to prevent
message wearout, and different versions of the message, most negative, but also, some positive,
should be utilized. Of course, plain packaging would also be useful in ensuring the maximal
impact of a HWM, however, this possibility has not been considered in this work. It is clear that
the research that exists, both in consumer behaviour, and with respect to tobacco use, itself,
strongly supports the contents of this paper.
From the preceding discussion, therefore, it is clear that careful use of marketing
strategies will maximize the effectiveness of the HWMs in alleviating the effects associated with
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smoking.
iii. Other Packaging Considerations and the Use of Sliders and Inserts
The nature of the package also has an impact on consumption of cigarettes. Currently,
the package is very convenient: cigarettes fit nicely into shirt pockets, purses, other pockets, or
other limited space areas. The package holds the cigarettes conveniently in place, and do not
allow for much loose tobacco seepage into other areas. If the packaging was less convenient,
consumers might become ‘fed up’ with carrying the cigarettes, and it would potentially be less
likely for them to carry the product regularly. It is not feasible or practical to institute these
changes over the short term, although as a longer term strategy, this may be considered.
Sliders in the packages, which could contain HWMs could also be used in the package.
Sliders can appear in two formats; information could be on the back of the internal cardboard
section, which holds the actual cigarettes, and when the package is opened, the back of the
package would be visible. Although this strategy does increase the space in which information
could be presented by consumers, it is not practical, since, in order to look at this information,
consumers would have to turn the package upside down, which would make many or all of the
cigarettes fall out. Since the processing is likely to be low, consumers would probably not be
willing to risk the cigarettes falling all over the ground, in order to read the back of the internal
packaging information. This problem could be alleviated if packages could be designed to
prevent this cigarette fall-out.
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Given the current packaging, a better alternative would be to have a cardboard insert
between the two parts of the cigarette package, that would automatically pop out and in when the
package was opened and closed. When the package is opened, a HWM or information
concerning cessation assistance, or any other message could pop out. The action of ‘popping
out’ brings attention to the stimuli, simply because of the movement of the package, and could
possibly enhance processing. However, this proposed package design would have to be both
developed and tested, in both experimental and usage situation settings, in order to be certain of
the efficacy of this conceptualization. It is also recognized that such pop-out materials would
increase, to some extent, the costs of packaging.
Inserts, such as brochures or cards containing HWMs and cessation information could
also be included within the cigarette packages. However, because these would not be attached to
the package, it is possible that consumers would just throw the materials away with the plastic
wrap and foil. Pop outs, which are securely attached to the package, represent a better alternative
because, although they also increase environmental wastage, their duration will survive until the
package is thrown out, thus ensuring the greatest message repetition for a package message.
Different formats of packaging, once developed, could be readily tested in an
experimental setting. The experiment would consist of samples of neos and habs, and non-
smokers, expose them to different package formats, and record the verbal protocols that the
subjects state, as they are examining the packages. Moreover, if and experimental, behavioural
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laboratory32
, complete with video and sound recording devices were available for this testing,
both the verbal protocols, and the actual actions of the subjects could be analysed for use and
attention patterns. It is anticipated that at least33
100-150 of each of the groups of subjects would
be needed in this experimental design, to ensure the results of this experiment. Once subjects
were exposed to the packaging, the recording of the verbal protocols and behaviour would begin,
and after the trial was over, subjects would be asked for information concerning what they
thought about the packaging, their preferences with respect to the packaging, and other issues. In
addition, if other, less convenient package designs were developed, as suggested in the first part
of this section, they could be tested in this format.
Further details about the experimental design, time lines, and costs of the research will be
generated, if required. This research, however, is necessary to test the usefulness of slides on the
back of packages, slides that pop out, and other package designs. Since it is quite likely that
package design will have an impact on consumption and communication, this research would be
advisable.
IV Conclusions: Summary of Findings
The issues presented for consideration in the introduction have been considered in this
paper for two tobacco user segments, the habitual, routine, low involvement user, and the
32Such as the one developed at the University of Alberta, by Professor Richard Johnson.
33In some cases, because not all subjects are completely usable, more than 150 subjects per cell
may have to be tested.
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potential smoker. The following conclusions can be drawn from this analysis:
Consumer Behaviour:
1. Consumers face large number of product alternatives, and as alternatives and features
of alternatives increase in numbers, processing becomes more difficult: Consumers want to
minimize processing, and so will use mental shortcuts for routine product choice decisions,
(Kindra, Laroche and Muller, 1994; Bettman, Johnson & Payne, 1991; Bettman, Luce and Payne,
1998; Moorthy, Ratchford and Talukdar, 1997).
2. Consumers may not process all information because of limited processing capacity,
(Simon, 1995; MacInnis, Moorman, Jaworski, 1991;Keller, 1993; Chaiken, 1989, Petty,
Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983; Perrachio and Meyers-Levy, 1997; Meyers-Levy and Tybout,
1998, Petty Cacioppo, Schumann, 1983), lack of motivation to process, (Payne, Bettman and
Johnson, 1993; Bettman, Luce and Payne, 1998; Moorthy, Ratchford and Talukdar, 1997), or the
information may not effectively perceived by the consumer, due to factors such as selective
exposure, perception or retention, (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994; Haugeland, 1981, Newell and
Simon, 1972; Bettman, 1979; Cowan, 1988, also see van Osselaer and Alba, 1998, Russo et al,
1998). Consumers, for example, may not perceive HWMs, may not want to process the
information, or may not retain the information in memory.
3. Information must be both available and processable to be usable by consumers, Russo,
Krieser and Miyashita, 1975). Information can be external to the consumer or internal, (Lynch &
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Scrull, 1982), and may be subject to information retrieval problems, (Bettman, Johnson & Payne,
1991; Biehal & Chakvavarti, 1983). HWMs are external information sources, and so, in order to
have any impact, consumers must see the HWMs and the message contained within it must
match the level of processing that the consumer is doing. Both new and habitual smokers have
low processing levels.
4. Decision processes can be extensive or truncated, (Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994),
depending on how important the decision is to the consumer, (Howard & Sheth, 1969; Hansen,
1972; Howard, 1977; Engel, Blackwell & Kollat 1978, Bettman, 1979; Moorthy, Ratchford and
Talukdar, 1997; Ross, 1979; Berkowitz et al, 1998; Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler,
Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999). This level of importance is known as consumer involvement:
the more important the decision, the more ‘involved’ consumers are, (Petty, Cacioppo and
Schumann, 1983; Ross, 1979; Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994, Berkowitz et al, 1998; Beckman,
Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999). Low involvement decisions
typically have little information processing done by consumers, whereas high involvement
decisions typically are processed more exhaustively, (Howard & Sheth, 1969; Hansen, 1972;
Howard, 1977; Engel, Blackwell & Kollat 1978, Bettman, 1979). Habitual purchasers of
cigarettes have low involvement in the decision of which brand to purchase, because they do it
out of habit. New smokers are also low involvement processors, in the sense that they tend to use
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or purchase what their reference group uses or purchases.
5. Behavior can be influenced using central or peripheral methods, depending on the
anticipated levels of processing in decision making, (Ajszen and Fishbein, 1980, Bettman, 1986,
Day, 1973, Kassarjian, 1982, Pett and Cacioppo, 1983). Because low involvement processing is
likely, for new and habit smokers peripheral cues are important. If smokers are interested in
cessation, there is will be a tendency towards higher levels of processing, therefore central routes
to persuasion should be used.
6. If consumers process less extensively, as is the case in low involvement decisions,
they tend to use heuristics, or mental shortcuts, for decision making,(Bettman, Johnson and
Payne, 1991; Payne, Bettman and Johnson, 1993, Kahneman, Slovic and Tversky, 1982), the
types which are outlined in Table One, (Bettman, Johnson and Payne, 1991). Habit or routine
purchase, or just doing what the reference group does, (as the new smokers tend to do), are
heuristics.
7. The individual differences of decision makers also has an impact on choice,(Berkowitz
et al, 1998; Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994; Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997; Kotler,
Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999; Yoon, 1997; Law et al, 1998). The smoking market is divided up
into two groups for this paper: the neophyte smokers, the ‘neos’, and the habitual smokers, the
‘habs’.
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8. The decision making social context also has an impact on decisions, Aaker and
Williams, 1998; Aaker and Maheswaran, 1997; Triandis, 1989). This includes reference groups,
(Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994; Berkowitz et al, 1998; Beckman, Kurtz and Boone, 1997;
Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999; Katz, 1982; Rotheram-Borus et al., 1998). Reference
groups have an extremely large impact on the neos.
9. Incidental message exposure, (Aaker and Williams, 1998; Shapiro, MacInnis and
Heckler, 1997) brands and brand loyalty, (Sullivan, 1998; van Osselaer and Alba, 1998, Russo et
al, 1998; Kindra, Laroche, Muller, 1994; Aaker, 1997; Fournier: 1998), as well as packaging and
labeling have an impact on choice, (Kotler, Armstrong, Cunningham, 1999; Kindra, Laroche,
Muller, 1994; Gershman, 1987; Morrison, 1994; Hawkins, Best and Coney, 1992). No solutions
or steps can be taken to avoid incidental exposure, however, brand loyalty can be impacted by
changed labels and packaging, as will be described below. Font size, colour of package, font
style, borders, and even brand name communicate messages to the consumer about the type of
people that would smoke that type of cigarette. For example, a Matinee smoker would probably
be different than a Player’s smoker, even based on the brand name, alone, or even with the slight
variation in font that is shown here. These sophisticated, subtle messages have an impact on
choice, which develops, over time, into brand loyalty.
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Tobacco Usage and Choice: Application of Consumer Behaviour Literature
1. There are two market segments of smokers, the habs and the neos. The characteristics
of each segment is summarized in Table Two. Habs also can be internally grouped into habs that
are interested in cessation (interested habs) and those that are not (habs).
2. Communications must consider levels of involvement, (Perrachio and Meyers-Levy,
1997; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1998, Petty Cacioppo, Schumann, 1983) motivation to process,
(Chaiken, 1989, Petty, Cacioppo and Schumann, 1983) type of message content, (Kahneman and
Tversky, 1991; Robertson and Kassarjian, 1991; Raghubin and Menon, 1998; Sengupta et al.,
1997; Bettman, Luce and Payne, 1998, Kahneman and Tversky, 1991, Thaler: 1980) brand
loyalty, (van Osselaer and Alba, 1998; Keller, 1993) and pulsing issues, (Shapiro, MacInnis, and
Heckler, 1997; Naik et al, 1998). Neos seem to mainly care about what their reference group is
doing, so the decision is one that requires little thought: just follow the crowd. Thus, neos are a
low involvement group. Habs simply repurchase what they normally buy, therefore they are a low
involvement group as well. As a result, there is little information processing that is likely to
occur for either group, so the message must be easy to understand, in order to match the
cognitive resources of the consumer with the message difficulty. Specifically, consumers of
cigarettes have low processing, therefore messages must be easy to understand. Messages must
be personally relevant to have maximal impact.
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3. Pictures, pictographs or graphics that match the message content of the words in the
HWM should be used, (Leong, Ang, Tham, 1996; Miniard et al., 1991; Mitchell, 1986; Childers
and Houston, 1984; Gardner, 1986; Kieras, 1978; Kisielius, 1982; Lutz and Lutz, 1977; Nelson,
1979, Holbrook, 1981; Unnava et al., 1991; Costley and Brucks, 1992). Care should be taken,
however, that, if using symbols, the symbols are not ambiguous, and also, if graphics are used,
they must be relevant to the message.
4. The nature of the pictorial stimuli should be completely clear and easy to understand,
given that low processing is likely, (Keller and Block, 1997; Meyers-Levy and Tybout, 1997;
Peracchio and Meyers-Levy, 1997) for both the neos and the habs.
5. Neos decision process can be stopped at activation by influencing reference groups.
This can be most efficiently accomplished using an integrated marketing communication
strategy. Neos can also be prevented from consuming by stricter cigarette availability conditions.
Habs who are not interested in cessation will be extremely low processors, so peripheral cues at
time of purchase and consumption will be important. Habs that are interested in cessation will
process more significantly, therefore central messages will be most effective to reach and
persuade this group. Habs will all benefit, in terms of increased processing, from an integrated
marketing communications strategy.
6. Mood of the consumer, as generated from the message, may have an impact on levels
of processing, thus both positively and negatively framed messages should be considered,
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catching, which is known as ‘vividness’.
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10. HWMs should be as vivid as possible, (Keller and Block, 1997, Shapiro, MacInnis
and Heckler, 1997; Vakratsas and Ambler, 1999). Fluorescent backgrounds (black ink) and
colorful pictorials are recommended. Some research has suggested a zig zag border, rather than a
straight border. Messages should also be relatively distinctive, as discussed in conclusion 8,
above,(Centre for Behavioural Research, 1992).
11. The tobacco industry’s ability to communicate their brand information is not
significantly impaired because the non-dominant attribute still is processed, irrespective of the
size of the focal attributes, Coupey, Irwin and Payne, 1998; Brown, 1993 (t.v. advertisements);
Heath et al, 1994; Janiszewski, 1990). This is even more true because the industry can still use
graphics, logos, brand names, borders, colours, and font types and sizes to communicate their
uniquenesses, (Environics, 1999).
12. Marketing communications strategies, as discussed above, can contribute to
maximizing the effectiveness of HWMs.
13. Changes in tobacco packaging formats, to reduce the convenience of that form may
be considered for long-term strategic planning.
14. Information presented at the back of the inner packaging of cigarettes is not likely to
be effective because the cigarettes will fall out of the package if it is turned upside down. Inserts
and brochures included inside the package are likely to be quickly thrown away. Thus, a pop-out
slider represents a good opportunity for increased communications. However, the slider will
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need to be designed and experimentally tested, in order to ensure maximized efficacy.
It can be seen from the above analysis that an understanding of consumer behaviour, and
in particular, choice decisions in tobacco products is a multi-step process. However, based on
the current literature, it is clear that marketing communication strategies can be designed to take
these complexities into account. As described in the Section I of this paper, it is hoped that this
report will contribute to the alleviation of the impacts that tobacco use has on Canadian society
by enhancing the understanding of the factors involved in a consumer’s choice of cigarette
products.
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