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Toolkits

TCI’s mission is to empower educators to help all learners succeed in the diverseclassroom. Recognizing that some students may benefit from extra support,History Alive! Pursuing American Ideals includes the following writing, reading,and analysis skills toolkits. These pages provide information and practice exercisesto build student competence and confidence in these areas. Handouts with samplesand graphic organizer templates will guide students in applying their skills forsuccess in all their studies.

WritingToolkit 311

ReadingToolkit 332

History and Social Science Analysis Skills Toolkit 343

311Toolkits

WritingToolkit

To theTeacher

Essay writing is an essential skill for students to acquire if they are going to suc-ceed in school. In the course of this program, students have four opportunities towrite formal essays on historical questions. These essay assignments occur inChapters 2, 25, and 48, and after Chapter 60. This Writing Toolkit provides basictools for supporting students who need help writing a five-paragraph essay.It includes the following:

• a graphic organizer for planning a five-paragraph essay• a sample essay• instructional pages on the parts of a five-paragraph essay• an overview of the writing process• instructional pages on the writing process• an essay scoring rubric

The Writing Toolkit can help students master the basics of the five-paragraphessay format. As students gain proficiency, they should be encouraged to expandthe form, refine their language and ideas, and bring creativity to the writingprocess.

Using the Graphic Organizer to Improve StudentWritingGraphic organizers are a useful way to organize ideas and information at theprewriting stage of crafting an essay. The Graphic Organizer for a Five-ParagraphEssay is an easy-to-follow template that can be applied to a variety of essaywriting assignments. It follows the standard five-paragraph essay format—introduction, three body paragraphs, and conclusion—and contains prompts toremind students of the essential elements of an essay—hook, thesis statement,topic sentences, and supporting details. This graphic organizer can be photocopiedand handed out, or students can reproduce it in their notebooks, adding more rowsor otherwise adjusting it as needed.

312 Toolkits

Tips forTeaching Students to Use the Graphic Organizer• On a blank transparency, demonstrate how to construct the graphic organizer while studentsdraw and label one in their notebooks. Discuss each part of an essay.

• Use color to help students differentiate between the parts of an essay. Project a transparencyof the graphic organizer and circle or highlight each part of the essay using a different color.Suggest that when drafting their essays, students might want to write or highlight the variousparts of the essay in different colors.

• Remind students that the graphic organizer is to be used at the prewriting stage. It is a tool tohelp them organize their material and create a plan for their essays. They should not worryabout filling it in with polished prose or even complete sentences.

• Have students identify the main parts of the sample essay in this toolkit. Project or hand outthe sample essay to pairs of students. Have students use the essay to complete the graphicorganizer in their notebooks.

313Toolkits© Teachers’ Curriculum Institute

Graphic Organizer for a Five-Paragraph Essay

Topic:

Paragraph 1Introduction

Hook:

Thesis statement

Paragraph 2Body

Topic sentence:

Evidence:

Explanation:

Evidence:

Explanation:

Paragraph 3Body

Topic sentence:

Evidence:

Explanation:

Evidence:

Explanation:

Paragraph 4Body

Topic sentence:

Evidence:

Explanation:

Evidence:

Explanation:

Paragraph 5Conclusion

Reworded thesis:

Summary:

314 Toolkits © Teachers’ Curriculum Institute

Sample Essay

In the presidential election of 2000, George W.Bush lost the popular vote, but he won the election.His victory shocked a lot of people. They had noidea that a president can be elected without gettingthe most popular votes. According to the Consti-tution, a candidate must win a majority of thevotes of the Electoral College. This system hasseveral flaws: it permits a candidate who loses thepopular vote to be elected, it deprives voters ofrights, and it favors some voters over others. TheElectoral College contradicts our most basic ideasof how democracy works; it should therefore beabolished and replaced with direct elections.

The Electoral College violates an importantprinciple of American democracy: that “we thepeople” elect our leaders. According to George C.Edwards III, professor of political science at TexasA&M University, “The choice of the chief exec-utive must be the people’s, and it should restwith none other than them.” Under the ElectoralCollege system, however, the people don’t votefor a candidate. They vote for electors from theirstate who are pledged to vote for that candidate.It is the electors’ vote that decides the election,not the people’s. Furthermore, most states give alltheir electoral votes to the candidate with the mostpopular votes statewide. This “winner take all”system, in effect, gives no voice to people whodon’t vote with the majority in their state.

The Electoral College is undemocratic becauseit favors voters in states with small populations.Each state gets as many electors as it has law-makers in the House and Senate. Since each stateautomatically gets two electors for its senators,small states have a big advantage. In 2004, forexample, Wyoming (population 0.5 million)

got three electors, while California (population35.5 million) got 55. That’s one elector for every167,000 Wyomingites and one elector for every645,000 Californians. This differential helpsexplain how a winning candidate can lose anelection. When every vote is not equal, a candidatemight not win the right combination of states toget the most electoral votes.

The Electoral College betrays the fundamentalbelief that in a democracy, the majority rules.Usually the Electoral College produces the samewinner as the popular vote, but it doesn’t have to.In a close election, the people’s choice can lose. In2000, Al Gore won the popular vote by more than500,000 votes, but George Bush won the electoralvote 271 to 267. Although defenders of the systemclaim that the chances of this happening are tooremote to worry about, it has happened three othertimes, in 1824, 1876, and 1888.

Every American schoolchild learns that votingis the right and responsibility of every citizen. Ourelectoral system, however, makes voting into ameaningless exercise for many citizens. In theElectoral College, the people don’t really elect thepresident, a losing candidate can win, some votescount more than others, and some votes don’tcount at all. It is time to abolish the ElectoralCollege and replace it with direct elections. Ifvoting is truly a cornerstone of democracy, thenAmericans must demand a process that is trulyfair and democratic.

The Electoral College Must Go!


Developing aThesis Statement

The thesis is the main point of your essay. It reflects your opinion or analysis of a topic or issue.It is expressed in a thesis statement, which is usually, though not always, a single sentence.

In a persuasive essay, your purpose is to convince the reader to agree with your thesis. To developa thesis, consider your topic carefully: what do you think about it, and why? You might need to dosome research, since forming an opinion on an issue or topic requires that you know somethingabout it. Your thesis statement should clearly state the position you plan to argue.

Here are some suggestions to help you develop a thesis statement:• If given a question as an essay assignment, use your answer as the thesis statement.• Take some preliminary notes on the essay topic before developing your thesis statement.• Avoid stating a fact as a thesis. Your thesis should be a position that is open to debate andworth discussing.

• Avoid making an all-or-nothing or exaggerated claim that is difficult to support. Use qualifyingwords such as almost, often, rarely, usually, or most.

Use this checklist when writing your thesis statement:• Does my thesis statement clearly communicate the main point I want to make about the topic?• Is my thesis statement a claim that deserves discussion?• Will I be able to prove, defend, or explain my thesis statement?


Writing the Introduction

The introduction, or opening paragraph, prepares your reader to read your essay. It “hooks”the reader’s interest, draws the reader into the issue or topic you plan to discuss, and presentsyour thesis statement.

The introduction is your chance to get the reader’s attention. The way you do this depends onyour purpose for writing. For a persuasive essay or editorial, consider these possibilities:• a quotation from an expert• an anecdote or real-life example• a striking statistic• an intriguing question• a statement of opinion• an interesting or controversial fact

Use this checklist when writing your introduction:• Does my introduction create interest in the topic of my essay?• Does my introduction summarize the arguments I plan to make?• Does my introduction contain a clear statement of my thesis?

In the presidential election of 2000, George W. Bushlost the popular vote, but he won the election. Hisvictory shocked a lot of people. They had no idea thata president can be elected without getting the mostpopular votes. According to the Constitution, a candi-date must win a majority of the votes of the ElectoralCollege. This system has several flaws: it permits acandidate who loses the popular vote to be elected,it deprives voters of rights, and it favors some votersover others. The Electoral College contradicts our mostbasic ideas of how democracy works; it should there-fore be abolished and replaced with direct elections.

The thesis statementcommunicates themain point of theessay.

The introductiondraws the reader intoyour topic.


Writing Body Paragraphs

The body of the essay is where you provide arguments and evidence to support your thesis.Each body paragraph develops a single argument and provides solid evidence to support it.A five-paragraph essay has three body paragraphs.

The key elements of a body paragraph are the topic sentence and supporting details. Thesedetails can take two forms: evidence, such as statistics, examples, or quotations that prove yourargument; and explanation, in which you emphasize the importance of the evidence and showhow it supports your argument.

Use this checklist when writing the body of your essay:• Does each body paragraph include a topic sentence and supporting details?• Does each body paragraph focus on one argument?• Does each argument support the thesis statement?• Do the details clearly support the main ideas?• Is each body paragraph organized so that the reader understands the main idea?

The Electoral College is undemocratic because it favorsvoters in states with small populations. Each state getsas many electors as it has lawmakers in the House andSenate. Since each state automatically gets two electorsfor its senators, small states have a big advantage. In 2004,for example, Wyoming (population 0.5 million) got threeelectors, while California (population 35.5 million) got55. That’s one elector for every 167,000 Wyomingitesand one elector for every 645,000 Californians. Thisdifferential helps explain how a winning candidatecan lose an election. When every vote is not equal, acandidate might not win the right combination of statesto get the most electoral votes.

Explanation empha-sizes the importanceof the evidence.

The topic sentencestates the main ideaor argument.

Factual evidencesupports yourargument.

Writing aTopic Sentence

The topic sentence states the main idea of a paragraph. A good topic sentence is clear and helpsthe reader follow your argument.

The topic sentence is usually the first sentence of a paragraph. This signals to the reader what youare about to argue or show.

Sometimes you want the reader to draw a conclusion from the evidence. Then it makes sense topresent supporting details first and the topic sentence later. Here is how this might work:

Use this checklist when writing topic sentences:• Does my topic sentence communicate the main idea of the paragraph?• Does my topic sentence help the reader follow my argument?• Does my topic sentence avoid being too general or too narrow in its focus?


The Electoral College betrays the fundamental belief thatin a democracy, the majority rules. Usually the ElectoralCollege produces the same winner as the popular vote, butit doesn’t have to. In a close election, the people’s choicecan lose. In 2000, . . .

The topic sentenceexpresses the mainpoint.

Most of the time, the Electoral College produces the samewinner as the popular vote. But because of the way thesystem is set up, it doesn’t have to. In a close election, thepeople’s choice can lose. In 2000, Al Gore won the popularvote by more than 500,000 votes, but George Bush wonthe electoral vote 271 to 267. Such an outcome betrays thefundamental belief that in a democracy, the majority rules.Although defenders of the system claim that the chances ofthis happening are too remote to worry about, it has hap-pened three other times, in 1824, 1876, and 1888.

Here, the main pointflows from the evi-dence.


Providing Supporting Evidence

In each body paragraph, you must present evidence to support your main point. Such evidencemay include facts, statistics, examples, quotations, eyewitness accounts, and expert opinions.

In a persuasive essay, supporting evidence is crucial. If you can’t prove your arguments withsolid evidence, you won’t convince anyone. In a single body paragraph, one or two types ofevidence may be enough to support your main idea. But in your essay as a whole, you will bemore persuasive if you present a variety of evidence. For example:

Fact: Each state gets as many electors as it has representatives in Congress, plus two.

Statistic:Wyoming (population 0.5 million) got three electors in 2004. California (population35.5 million) got 55.

Example: . . . it has happened three other times, in 1824, 1876, and 1888.

Expert opinion: According to George C. Edwards III, professor of political science at TexasA&M University, “The choice of the chief executive must be the people’s, and it should rest withnone other than them.”

Quotation: As The New York Times pointed out in 2004, the Electoral College “makesRepublicans in New York, and Democrats in Utah, superfluous.”

Use this checklist when presenting supporting evidence:• Do I provide evidence to support all my arguments?• Is my supporting evidence clear and convincing?• Does my essay contain different kinds of evidence?


Explanation

In a persuasive essay, explanation is where you drive your point home. Explanation shows howthe evidence supports your point, which may not be obvious to the reader. Imagine a reader saying“So what?” to the evidence you have presented. Explanations are your answer.

Sometimes it is effective to acknowledge an opposing viewpoint in order to show why you makethe stronger case. It shows that you are considering other views, which is a mark of objectivity.

Use this checklist when writing explanation:• Do I show how the evidence supports my thesis statement?• Do I acknowledge other viewpoints and explain why I make the stronger case?

Since each state automatically gets two electors for its sen-ators, small states have a big advantage. For example, in2004 Wyoming (population 0.5 million) got three electors,while California (population 35.5 million) got 55. That’sone elector for 167,000 Wyomingites and one elector for645,000 Californians. This differential helps explain how awinning candidate can lose an election. When every vote isnot equal, a candidate might not win the right combinationof states to get the most electoral votes.

Explanation showshow the facts supportthe argument.

In a close election, the people’s choice can lose. In 2000,Al Gore won the popular vote by more than 500,000 votes,but George Bush won the electoral vote 271 to 267.Although defenders of the system claim that the chancesof this happening are too remote to worry about, it hashappened three other times, in 1824, 1876, and 1888.


Writing the Conclusion

The last paragraph of your essay is the conclusion. Here you should summarize your mainarguments, restate your thesis, and leave your reader feeling you have pulled everything togetherin a convincing way.

To be effective, a conclusion must do more than simply summarize and restate. It should alsocontain something new—a fresh idea or connection, an additional piece of information, somestriking language—to keep readers engaged to the very end. Here are some other ideas for craftingan effective conclusion:• End with a question that will keep readers thinking.• Acknowledge an opposing viewpoint and argue against it convincingly.• End with a call for action.• End with a striking quotation.• End with a relevant anecdote.

Use this checklist when writing your conclusion:• Did I restate my thesis?• Did I summarize my main arguments?• Did I include a fresh or thought-provoking idea?• Did I pull everything together in a convincing way?

Every American schoolchild learns that voting is the rightand responsibility of every citizen. Our electoral system,however, makes voting into a meaningless exercise formany citizens. In the Electoral College, the people don’treally elect the president, a losing candidate can win,some votes count more than others, and some votes don’tcount at all. It is time to abolish the Electoral Collegeand replace it with direct elections. If voting is truly acornerstone of democracy, then Americans must demanda process that is truly fair and democratic.

Restate your thesis.

Summarize yourmain arguments.


Overview of theWriting Process

Good writing is the result of a multistep process that takes time and practice. The writing processcan be divided into stages: prewriting, drafting, revising, and finalizing. Each stage consistsof several steps. You can adjust the writing process to suit your writing assignment. Feel free tobacktrack to an earlier stage or rearrange the order of steps as you write.

Stage 1: Prewriting• Develop a thesis.• Develop supporting arguments.• Research and gather information to support your thesis.• Evaluate your sources.• Plan out your essay using the graphic organizer.

Stage 2: Drafting• Use the graphic organizer as a guide, adding any new ideas as you go along.• Write an engaging introduction that includes your thesis.• Discuss each supporting argument in one body paragraph.• Sum up your main points in a conclusion.

Stage 3: Revising• Reread your draft and identify places that need improvement.• Rewrite, reorganize, and add or delete material if necessary.• Edit your writing for style and accuracy.• Consult with peer reviewers.• Evaluate suggested changes and make revisions.

Stage 4: Finalizing• Proofread for errors in spelling, grammar, usage, and mechanics.• Make corrections.• Compile a bibliography or source list.• Print a final copy.

Prewriting: Using Primary and Secondary Sources

Historians and researchers divide historical sources into two types: primary and secondary.

Primary sources are accounts by people who witnessed or lived through the events beingdescribed. An example of a primary source about the Civil War is a letter written by a Unionsoldier to his family. Artifacts and printed material from a historical era, such as sheet music andadvertisements, are also considered primary sources.

Secondary sources are accounts by people who did not live through the events being described.Secondary sources interpret and synthesize primary sources and other types of information.An example of a secondary source about the Civil War is a television documentary created bya 20th-century filmmaker. Other kinds of primary and secondary sources are listed below.

Primary SourcesDiaries, journals, and logsLettersSpeechesInterviews and oral historiesMemoirsAutobiographiesMagazine and newspaper articlesPhotographsHome moviesField notesSheet musicPaintingsArtifacts

Secondary SourcesBiographiesGovernment and organizational recordsStatistical recordsEditorialsMagazine and newspaper articlesEncyclopedias, almanacs, and otherreference works

Nonfiction booksTelevision and film documentariesPublic opinion polls


Prewriting:Taking Notes and Citing Sources

As you research your topic, make notes of the information you want to use and the sources fromwhich it comes. If you are using Internet resources, print out relevant material from the Web sites.If you are using print resources, take notes. Always keep track of the title, author, publisher, dateof publication, page numbers, and Web address of any source you use.

Use a copy of this page for each source. Use the bottom (and the back if necessary) to take notes.

Title: __________________________________________________________________________

Author(s): ______________________________________________________________________

Publisher and copyright date: _______________________________________________________

Pages used: _____________________________________________________________________

Internet address: _________________________________________________________________

Is it a primary or a secondary source? ________________________________________________

What information does this source provide about my topic?



Prewriting: Evaluating Evidence

To be persuasive in your essay, you will need to provide relevant and accurate evidence to backup your position. You can use facts, statistics, examples, reasons, quotations, and anecdotes. Torecognize useful evidence, ask yourself these questions:

Is the information relevant?• How closely is the information related to the topic of my essay?• Does the information help me prove or defend my argument?• Is the information complete, with nothing important left out?

Is the evidence accurate?• Is the information fact or opinion?• If it is fact, can I verify it elsewhere?• If it is fact, does it contradict anything else I have read?• If it is opinion, is it supported with facts?• If it is opinion, is it an authoritative, or expert, opinion?


Prewriting: Evaluating Sources

As you conduct research on your essay topic, you may come across sources that are notcompletely accurate. Keep the following in mind:

Is the author or publication biased? A biased source lacks objectivity and displays a slantedpoint of view. An author’s viewpoint can be influenced by many factors, such as politics,gender, and ethnic background. Publications can be similarly influenced. Here are questionsto help you determine the extent to which bias may affect the accuracy of your source:

• Why was this source created? Is it meant to inform, entertain, or persuade?

• Do the author and publisher have a reputation for accuracy?

• Do the author or publisher provide a bibliography of sources?

• Does the source include all relevant facts?

• Does the source include statements of opinion?

• Does the source use questionable claims as supporting evidence?

• Does the source use loaded language to try to provoke an emotional response?

• Does the source make broad generalizations that cannot be supported by evidence?

• Does the source acknowledge other points of view?

Is the source out of date? Older sources, particularly primary sources, can be invaluable fortheir insight into a previous era. However, they may contain inaccuracies. Recent sources areusually better for essays on current topics or fast-moving issues. Find out when your sourcematerial was written or published. Be sure the date is appropriate for your purpose.


Prewriting: PlanningYour Essay

Before you draft your essay, you need to plan how you will arrange your arguments and evidence.A graphic organizer will help you organize your material, but you still have to decide in whatorder to present your arguments so that your essay will be persuasive.

Consider the main points you want to make. Ask yourself these questions:• How are my main ideas related? Present them in a logical order that makes the relationshipclear.

• Does the reader have to understand one idea in order to understand another? If so, present themost fundamental idea first.

• Do my main arguments differ in importance or weight? If so, consider presenting your argu-ments in order from most important to least, or vice versa. Either way can be effective.

• Are my arguments obvious, or are they obscure and hard to understand? Consider presentingfirst the argument that is easiest for the reader to grasp. Then draw the reader into moredifficult ideas.

Once you have decided on a plan, use the Graphic Organizer for a Five-Paragraph Essay to mapout exactly what you are going to say in each paragraph. The graphic organizer is a tool to helpyou write clearly and coherently at the drafting stage. You do not have to fill it in with completesentences if you don’t want to. But do include enough information to make it clear which argu-ment, evidence, explanation, or commentary you plan to present.


Drafting: Developing Style

It is time to put your ideas into words. Good writing is always clear and coherent. But it is yourindividual writing style that will set your essay apart. Your writing style is affected by severalfactors: your choice of words, tone, sentence structure, grammar, and mechanics.

To write clearly and coherently,• focus on one idea at a time. Follow your graphic organizer.• make sure each sentence in a paragraph relates to the main point.• make sure each paragraph relates to the thesis.• eliminate unnecessary details.• use transitions to show how your ideas relate to one another.• don’t be afraid to repeat key words and phrases.

To develop your writing style,• consider your audience. Who will read your essay?• be aware of your tone. Tone reflects your attitude toward your subject.• write in a natural voice, avoiding slang and jargon.• use the present tense except when writing about past events; then use the past tense.• use the passive voice sparingly. The active voice is generally stronger, more concise, andeasier to understand.

• use specific, concrete language.• use a variety of sentence lengths and types.


Revising: ImprovingYour Essay

Once you have finished your draft, it is time to step back and evaluate your work.Follow these steps for revision:

• Take a break after writing the draft. Come back to it with fresh eyes.

• Remember the purpose of your essay by rereading your assignment.

• Reread your essay. Read it silently and then read it aloud.

• Mark the places that seem to need improvement.

• Rewrite and edit, making all necessary changes. Use the checklist and writingtips below.

• Proofread for errors in spelling, grammar, usage, and mechanics.

Essay Checklist• Does my essay include a well-written introduction and conclusion?

• Do I state my thesis in both the introduction and the conclusion?

• Does each body paragraph have a topic sentence that supports my thesis?

• Does the evidence in each body paragraph support the topic sentence?

• Do I adequately explain how the evidence supports my point?

WritingTips• If your essay seems disorganized, go back to your graphic organizer. Did you followyour plan? If so, then think about how you could reorganize your material to makeyour essay more orderly and logical. Move, add, or delete material as necessary.

• If the writing seems unclear or choppy, use transitions to connect your ideas and helpyour writing flow. Transitional words and phrases include before, after, finally, most ofall, first, last, like, unlike, likewise, nevertheless, in contrast, because, therefore, since,for that reason, and, also, furthermore, for example, and in other words. If you usedsentences from your graphic organizer, edit them to flow with the surrounding text.

• If your essay seems boring, try varying your sentence length and structure. Replacevague words with strong, specific, or colorful words.


Revising: Giving and Getting Feedback from Peers

A helpful way to get feedback on your writing is by sharing your work with a classmate. Peerreview works best when both individuals know their roles.

Tips for Reviewing• Ask questions that require more than a “yes” or “no” answer. This will help the writer be morereflective about his or her writing.

• If you like something about the essay, say so. Positive feedback shows the writer what he orshe has done well. This is as helpful as criticism in learning to improve one’s writing.

• Be specific. For example, “When I got to this sentence, I got confused” is more helpful than“This part is confusing.”

• Criticize the writing, not the writer. Begin your comments with “I,” not “You” or “Your essay.”This helps keep the writer from feeling hurt or defensive.

• Write your comments on the draft, but don’t edit or make changes. It is the writer’s decisionwhether to incorporate your suggestions or not.

Writer’s Role Reviewer’s Role

• Bring a copy of your revised draft.• Don’t reveal the substance of your

essay before the reviewer hasread it.

• Share any concerns you have aboutyour writing.

• Respond thoughtfully.Try not to bedefensive since that might discouragehonest feedback.

• If you want more feedback, askfor it.

• Read carefully. Write your commentson the draft for the writer to keep.

• Ask thoughtful questions.• Try to address the particular concerns

the writer has expressed.• Keep your comments constructive.

Give praise as well as criticism.• Be honest.


Essay Rubric

Use this table to help you evaluate your own and other essays.

Criteria

Score

4 3 2 1

Purpose Essayachievesits purpose(to describe,persuade,narrate) verywell.

Essayachievesits purposereasonablywell.

Essaystruggles toachieve itspurpose.

Essay doesnot achieve itspurpose.

Organization Ideas arevery clearand logicallyorganized.

Ideas are rea-sonably clearand logicallyorganized.

Ideas aresomewhatunclear anddisorganized.

Ideas areunclear anddisorganized.

Content Essay pro-vides rich anddetailed sup-port for itsarguments.

Essay pro-vides detailedsupport for itsarguments.

Essay pro-vides supportfor its argu-ments.

Essay doesnot providesupport for itsarguments.

Style Writing uses awide varietyof vocabularyand sentencestructure; hasno grammar,spelling, orpunctuationerrors.

Writing usesa variety ofvocabularyand sentencestructure; hasfew grammar,spelling, orpunctuationerrors.

Writing doesnot varyvocabularyor sentencestructure; hassome gram-mar, spelling,or punctuationerrors.

Writing usespoor vocab-ulary andsentencestructure; hasmany gram-mar, spelling,or punctuationerrors.

332 Toolkits

To theTeacher

Reading skills are critical to students’ success in all of areas of study. In socialstudies, students will have great difficulty learning and understanding history ifthey struggle with reading comprehension.

This Reading Toolkit provides basic tools for supporting students who needadditional guidance and structure. It includes• a Prereading Guide that can be used before any chapter.• instructional pages on understanding organizational text patterns.• instructional pages that develop comprehension strategies.• instructional pages that develop vocabulary strategies.

Make the following pages available to your students as an independent tutorial,for class instruction, or for use with peer tutoring.

ReadingToolkit


Prereading Guide

What is the title of the chapter?

List the section heads and the bold key terms in the text below.

Section Heads KeyTerms

Quickly sketch or describe three images from the chapter. Write a one-sentencecaption that explains how you think the image relates to the chapter.

Based on the information above, what predictions can you make about the mainidea of the chapter?

Read the chapter summary. Write one sentence that explains what you think isthe main idea of the chapter.

What questions might you ask to help focus and guide your reading?


Organizational Text Patterns

Expository texts, such as chapters in textbooks, have different organizationalpatterns. These patterns, or structures, can often be identified by signal words.

Text Pattern: Cause and Effect

What is it? Text organized to show cause and effect identifies the reasons thatevents occur and their results.

How to do it. Signal words that help identify a cause-and-effect pattern includethe following:

as a result because consequently due toeffects of for for this reason hencehow if . . . then in order to is caused byleads to may be due to so so thatthereby therefore thus when . . . then

Try it. Read the following passage. Then list causes and effects in a graphicorganizer like the one below.

As a result of the Civil War, many Americans began thinking of the United Statesas one country, rather than as a collection of sovereign states. Slavery no longerexisted because of the war. There were terrible costs, though. Due to the war,more than 620,000 soldiers lay dead. Croplands lay in ruins. It would take gen-erations for the South to recover.

Graphic Organizer: Cause and Effect

Cause Effect




Text Pattern: Compare and Contrast

What is it? Text with a compare and contrast organizational pattern tells aboutthe similarities and differences of two or more objects, places, events, or ideas.

How to do it. Signal words that help identify a compare and contrast patterninclude the following:

although as well as as opposed to bothbut by contrast compared with different fromeither . . . or even though however instead ofin comparison in the same way just as likemore . . . than on the other hand otherwise similar tosimilarly still unlike yet

Try it. Read the following passage. Then list similarities and differences in agraphic organizer like the one below.

Both the Union and the Confederacy had advantages and disadvantages goinginto the Civil War. The North had a larger population and more factories andrailroads than the South, but it lacked strong military leadership. The South hadserious economic problems, but it had capable generals and the advantage offighting a defensive war.

Graphic Organizer: Compare and Contrast

Topic 1 Topic 2

Write characteristics ofTopic 1 here.

Write characteristics ofTopic 2 here.

Write characteristics ofboth topics here.




Text Pattern: Proposition and Support

What is it? Text with a proposition and support organizational pattern presentsan argument with supporting examples.

How to do it. Signal words that help identify a proposition and support patterninclude the following:

additionally because believe clearlyconclusively consider first for examplefor instance furthermore generally howeverif . . . then in fact it could be argued most convincingnever not only . . . but often suggestthink this means truly typically

Try it. Read the following passage. Then list a proposition and supportingexamples in a graphic organizer like the one below.

The Articles of Confederation did not establish an effective form of governmentbecause Congress’s powers were limited. Not only was Congress not allowed toimpose taxes, but Congress had to ask the states for funds to do anything. Toooften, the states ignored the requests. Additionally, Congress could not interveneto resolve disputes between individual states. It could be argued that Shays’Rebellion best shows the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. Whena group of farmers seized the weapons at a national arsenal, Congress did nothave an army to stop them. The state militia had to restore order.

Graphic Organizer: Proposition and Support

Proposition:

Support:

Support:

Support:




Text Pattern: Sequencing

What is it? Text organized to show sequencing describes the order in which aseries of events or steps in a process occur.

How to do it. Signal words that help identify the sequencing pattern includethe following:

after afterward before during earlierfinally first following initially lastlater meanwhile next not long after nowpreviously second since soon thenthird today until when

Try it. Read the following passage. Then show the sequence of events in agraphic organizer like the one below.

Article V of the U.S. Constitution lays out several methods for amending theConstitution. All but one of the Constitution’s 27 amendments have followed thesame process. First, a bill to amend the Constitution is proposed in Congress.Thousands of these bills have been introduced since the first 10 amendments(the Bill of Rights) were ratified in 1791. Next, the amendment needs approvalof a two-thirds majority of the House of Representatives. If it does not receivea two-thirds majority, the amendment process does not continue. After the Houseof Representatives has approved the amendment, the Senate must approve theamendment by a two-thirds majority. In some cases, amendments have passed theHouse of Representatives, but have not received enough votes in the Senate. Ifsuccessful in both the House and the Senate, the amendment is then sent to thestates for approval. At this point, three-quarters of the state legislatures mustratify the amendment in order for it to become law.

Graphic Organizer: Sequencing

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Comprehension Strategy

Comprehension strategies help you better understand and remember what you read.

KWL: Know /Want / LearnedFollow these steps to fill in the graphic organizer:

Step 1 Brainstorm what you know about the topic of the chapter.

Step 2 Create questions that show what you want to find out when you read this chapter.

Step 3 Read the chapter. Make a list of the important details that you learned.

What I Know What I Want to Find Out What I Learned




REAP: Read / Encode / Annotate / PonderFollow these steps to complete the graphic organizer below as you read the chapter:

Step 1 Read (R) the text. Write in the title of the chapter.

Step 2 Encode (E) the text. Use your own words to describe the main idea of the chapter.

Step 3 Annotate (A) the text. Summarize at least three important points from the chapter.

Step 4 Ponder (P) the text. Write down at least one question that you now have afterreading this chapter.

R E

A P




SQ3R: Survey / Question / Read / Recite / ReviewFollow these steps to read the chapter:

Step 1 Survey the chapter by looking at the title, subheads, captions, and illustrations.Read the introduction.

Step 2 Question. Turn the title and subheads into questions to focus your reading.Look up the meaning of any new vocabulary.

Step 3 Read. Search for answers to your questions.

Step 4 Recite. Recite the answers to your questions aloud or in writing. Reread if youhave any unanswered questions.

Step 5 Review. Look over the chapter and summarize what you have learned.


Vocabulary Strategy

Vocabulary strategies help you recognize and remember key terms as you read.

Supported DefinitionsFollow these steps to complete the table below:

Step 1 List each key term from the chapter.

Step 2 Create a symbol or an illustration to represent each term.

Step 3 Write a definition of each term in your own words.

Step 4 Write a sentence that includes the term and the topic of the chapter.

KeyTerm Symbol Definition Sentence


Vocabulary Strategy

Vocabulary strategies help you recognize and remember key terms as you read.

Illustrated DictionaryFollow these steps to complete the table below:

Step 1 List each key term from the chapter.

Step 2 Read the passage where the key term is found. Then write what you thinkthe term means in the “My Definition” column.

Step 3 Describe at least one clue from the text that supports your definition.

Step 4 Find the term in the glossary of your book and write the definition in thelast column.

KeyTerm My Definition Clues Glossary Definition

343Toolkits

To theTeacher

Success in social studies depends on proficiency with fundamental criticalthinking skills. Students will enter your class with varying levels of ability incomprehending social studies texts. Without fluency in such skills as distinguish-ing fact from opinion, students will have great difficulty understanding history.You can use the following skills pages to bring your students up to speed.

You may want to make transparencies of the skills pages and work through theexercises as a class, modeling each skill as well as providing students the oppor-tunity to practice the skill. Or, photocopy and distribute the pages for students tocomplete in class or at home.

As you review students’ work with them, be sure to ask students to explain howthey reached their answers. This sort of “thinking out loud” will help them tobecome more conscious of their own thought processes. Listening to their class-mates’ explanations will also show students other ways to read for meaning.

History and Social Science Analysis Skills Toolkit


Sequencing Events on aTimeline

What is it? A timeline shows when, and in what order, past events happened. Organizing eventsalong a timeline helps you see how the events are related to one another in time. Understandingthis relationship can also help you remember the sequence of events.

How to do it. First, locate the dates in your reading. Find the earliest and latest dates you want torecord. Then choose start and end dates for your timeline. For example, if your dates range from1812 to 1926, your timeline might begin at 1800 and end at 1930. Using a ruler, divide the lineinto equal units of time. Finally, place the other dated events from the reading along your timeline.

Try it. Read this passage and list dates to show on a timeline.

The first major event of the civil rights movement took place in 1955. In Montgomery,Alabama, African American residents organized a successful boycott of the city’s busesto protest the bus segregation law. Following a philosophy of nonviolent protest, studentsacross the South staged a series of sit-ins at segregated lunch counters in 1960. Then, in1961, a group of students rode interstate buses to test the country’s new laws prohibitingsegregation on interstate transportation.

The civil rights movement gained momentum and national attention when a quarterof a million demonstrators gathered in Washington, D.C., in 1963. Their goal was toencourage Congress to pass a new civil rights law. In 1964, a new Civil Rights Act waspassed, outlawing discrimination in public accommodations. The movement continuedwith efforts to regain African American voting rights. In 1965, the Voting Rights Act waspassed. Though the civil rights movement continued, this was a major victory

From your list of dates, create a timeline for the civil rights movement.

1950 19701960 19651955


Analyzing Cause and Effect

What is it? A cause is something that brings about a particular result, which is called an effect.An event may have more than one cause or more than one effect. Analyzing cause and effect canhelp you understand why historical events happened.

Both causes and effects can be either immediate or long-term. An immediate cause or effecthappens shortly before or after an event. Long-term causes and effects generally unfold overmany months or years.

How to do it. To identify cause and effect, consider the following questions:• What was the trigger that made an event happen? (immediate cause)• What were the conditions that contributed to the event? (long-term cause)• What was the direct result of an action? (immediate effect)• What were some lasting consequences? (long-term effect)

Try it. Read this passage about the 1929 stock market crash.

Business thrived in the 1920s. As Americans saw business profits growing, many thoughtthey could make a lot of money by buying shares in successful companies. The promiseof financial gain drew new investors to the stock market, which caused a steady rise instock prices. Stock prices peaked on September 3, 1929. After that, prices began drop-ping, sometimes in small increments, sometimes in tumbles like the huge drop on BlackTuesday—October 29, 1929. Many people wanted to sell their shares, but very fewpeople wanted to buy. Soon thereafter, thousands of banks failed because people whoinvested in the stock market could not repay their loans. The stock market crash andthe bank failures helped bring about the worst economic crisis in American history:the Great Depression.

Fill in a diagram to show the causes and effects of the 1929 stock market crash.

Long-TermCause

1929 StockMarket Crash�

ImmediateCause

�

ImmediateEffect

�

Long-TermEffect

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Making Predictions

What is it? By analyzing cause and effect, you can often make predictions. Makingpredictions means making an educated guess about the likely outcome of certain eventsor actions.

How to do it. Here are three ways to make predictions:1 Look for patterns. Do the causes and effects over time seem to follow a regular pattern?2 Consider what might come next in a sequence. Where does this chain of events seem tobe leading?

3 Look for correlations (connections) between historical events. Are there other events inhistory or other places in the world with a similar situation?

Try it. Often new inventions trigger a chain of events with a variety of outcomes. Considerthe example of the cotton gin.

In 1793, the United States produced about 180,000 pounds of cotton. Seventeen yearslater, the harvest had grown to an astounding 93 million pounds. What spurred thisincredible change? It was the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793.

The cotton gin is a machine that removes the seeds from cotton. Before the gin, oneperson took all day to clean one pound of cotton. In contrast, one small cotton gin couldclean 50 pounds in a day. Later, horse-driven gins could clean thousands of pounds perweek. With cotton in high demand by textile mills in the North and in Britain, this cropquickly became extremely profitable for southern farmers.

Answer these questions to predict other impacts of the cotton gin.

�

EliWhitneyinvents thecotton gin.

Cottonbecomesprofitable.

Which crops will southern farmers be more likely to plant?Less likely?

What will happen to the demand for farmland?

What will happen to the demand for fieldworkers?

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Recognizing the Role of Chance, Error,and Oversight in History

What is it? Many things affect the course of history, even accidents and mistakes. Chanceis an unexpected or accidental event. Errors are mistakes people make, such as using poorjudgment. Oversight occurs when someone does not pay close attention to what is important.

How to do it. Look for examples of chance, error, and oversight in your reading. What was theeffect of each accident or error? How might the outcome have been different?

Try it. Read the following passage about the American Revolution. Notice any chance happen-ings, errors, or oversights.

In 1777, the British planned to capture Albany, New York. Three British armies wereto attack from different directions to take the city. By controlling Albany, they couldprevent colonial forces from joining together.

General Burgoyne to the north and Lieutenant Colonel St. Leger to the west set offas planned. However, General Howe to the south decided to attack Philadelphia beforeheading to Albany. Once his troops occupied Philadelphia, he stayed there. While heenjoyed the company of wealthy British supporters, George Washington attacked andprevented Howe’s army from ever setting out for Albany.

Meanwhile, Burgoyne was clumsily moving his army through the woods. He hadplanned for his army to live off the land, but his troops were an easy target for localmilitias. As a result, his men suffered without food and supplies. As for St. Leger, hewas only partway to Albany when colonial soldiers forced him to retreat.

With only limited troop strength in New York, the British lost the Battle of Saratogalater that year. It was the turning point of the war.

Identify two errors or oversights and their consequences. An example has been done for you.Can you think of a chance occurrence that might have changed the outcome?

Error or Oversight Consequence

General Howe decided to attackPhiladelphia instead of marching toAlbany.

Attacked in Philadelphia, Howe’sarmy never got to Albany to supportBurgoyne and St. Leger.


Framing Questions to Research

What is it? Framing questions to research means identifying specific information you wouldlike to know about a topic. When you frame a question, you focus your search for answers.

How to do it. As you read, think about what information is not stated. What questions do youhave? Write them down. Then choose one question to start your research. Write down any newquestions that come to mind as you learn more. You may need to revise your original question.If your question seems too broad, reframe it to focus your research.• Too broad: What was the role of city planning in 20th-century America?• More focused: How did city planning help San Francisco recover after the earthquake

of 1906?

Try it. Read the following passage.

Labor leader Mary Harris Jones, commonly known as Mother Jones, went toPennsylvania in 1903. She was going to support a strike by 75,000 textile workers.To her surprise, she found that about 10,000 of the workers were children. Jones leda “March of the Mill Children” from Pennsylvania to Oyster Bay, New York. Shepetitioned President Theodore Roosevelt to support child labor laws.

Mother Jones’s march helped people across the country become aware of child labor.Reformers demanded an end to child labor. By 1909, 43 states had passed laws thatoutlawed the hiring of children.

One question on the topic of child labor is suggested below. Frame three more questionsfor research on this topic. Which would be a good question to start researching?

Why were there nochild labor laws beforeMother Jones’s march? Child

Labor


Distinguishing Fact from Opinion

What is it? Statements that can be proven to be true are facts. Statements that reflect someone’spersonal viewpoint are opinions. Recognizing the difference between fact and opinion will helpyou determine how reliable a source of information is.

How to do it. To recognize a fact, look for information that can be checked elsewhere. Oftenthis type of text tells who, what, where, when, or how much. If you can find the same infor-mation in a reliable source, such as an encyclopedia, it’s likely a fact.

To recognize opinions, look for words such as think, feel, or believe. Also look for words thatcarry a value judgment, such as most, best, impressive, or wonderful. An author’s predictionsmay be an expression of opinion. For example, “With a little time and money, we could solve thepollution problem in our town.” That’s the author’s opinion.

Try it. As you read this passage, identify facts and opinions. List at least one of each, and answerthe questions. An example has been done for you.

As the only U.S. president to resign from office, Richard Nixon remains a controversialhistoric figure. Though most remembered for his role in the Watergate scandal, PresidentNixon had many accomplishments while in office. Nixon was elected the 37th presidentof the United States in 1968. In foreign policy, his goal of détente took him to China andthe Soviet Union. In February 1972, his visit to China opened up diplomatic relationswith that communist country. In May 1972, he signed the SALT I Treaty with the SovietUnion. This arms limitation treaty was a political triumph for Nixon.

FactHow might youprove this fact? Opinion

What suggests thatthis is an opinion?

Richard Nixonwas the only U.S.president to resignfrom office.

Use a history bookor encyclopedia.

Richard Nixonremains a contro-versial figure.

the words remainsand controversial


Selecting Useful Information

What is it? When you research a topic, you need to determine which information is useful andwhich isn’t. Useful information is relevant, essential, and verifiable. Information is relevant ifit is connected to your topic. Information is essential if you cannot answer your research questionwithout it. Information is verifiable if you can find it in other reliable sources.

How to do it. Examine each piece of information in your reading. Does it help define, explain,or give details about your topic? Can you verify the information?

Try it. Suppose that you are researching this question: What was daily life like for a Civil Warsoldier? You have found firsthand information in letters from a Union soldier to his mother.In a table, list information from the reading. Decide whether it is relevant, essential, andverifiable for your topic. An example has been done for you.

For a few days . . . both armies are on very friendly terms. Well today I was out onthe line and there was a lot of Rebs there and one of them invited me to go with him . . .Had a great chat . . .

Desertions from their army are quite numerous . . . I had on a pair of fine Gaiters andone of them asked me the price. I told him and he said they would cost in Petersburg$150. Common shoes cost 60 & 70 Dolls. Common letter paper 50 cts per sheet &mighty hard to get at that. They say themselves that they have had no coffee or sugarfor 4 weeks.

You need not be alarmed about my health for I have good heavy blanket and warmclothes. My boots was not very good but we have all drawed a good pair of governmentshoes . . . There is about half a dozen men in our regiment that are sick.

Information Relevant? Essential? Verifiable?

Union soldier reports many desertions fromthe Confederate army.

yes, part ofsoldier’s daily life

maybe not,for this topic

probably

—Papers of Tilton C. Reynolds, 1851–1963. Library of Congress: Manuscript Division.


Selecting Credible Sources: Primary Sources

What is it? A primary source is a record or an artifact from the past that was created by some-one who witnessed an event or lived through an era. Examples are letters, diaries, interviews,photos, and things such as tools, clothing, or weapons.

How to do it. To select a primary source that is credible, or believable, you must ask questionsabout the source.• Who created this source? What was its purpose?• Is there any reason to think that the creator might exaggerate, leave out important information,or not tell the truth?

You might need to find out more about the source or its creator. You might also compare thesource to other views of the same event.

Try it. Suppose that you are researching this question: Who was to blame for the BostonMassacre? “Boston Massacre” is the American name for a fight between British troops and acrowd of angry colonists in 1770. The colonists started a small riot, and British soldiers killedfive of them. Consider the following primary sources, and answer the questions about them.1. Trial testimony of Dr. John Jeffries, who treated a wounded colonist who later died2. Trial testimony of one of the British soldiers who fired at the colonists3. A flyer entitled “An account of a late military massacre at Boston,” published in New Yorkin 1770

4. An engraving that shows soldiers firing on unarmed citizens, created by Paul Revere, asilversmith living in Boston in 1770

SourceCredible ornot credible? Why?

What else would you like toknow about the source?

1 Not very credible It is unclear whether Jeffries wasan eyewitness.

Did Jeffries have political leaningstoward either the Patriots or theBritish?

2

3

4


Selecting Credible Sources: Secondary Sources

What is it? A secondary source is a record created by someone who did not personallyexperience the event described. Examples of secondary sources include encyclopedias, almanacs,biographies, and textbooks.

How to do it. To select a secondary source that is credible, or believable, you must ask questionsabout the source.

• Who is the author? What is the author’s background? What else has the author written?Does the author belong to a group with a certain point of view?

• How recently was the source created or updated? If it was created long ago, where could youlook for more recent sources?

• Why was the source created? Is it meant to give facts or to explain what happened? Does ittry to persuade you to see things a certain way?

Try it. Suppose that you are researching this question: What was everyday life like for enslavedAfricans in the American colonies? Consider the following secondary sources, and complete thetable. Tell what you would like to know further about each source.

1. Myths and Realities: Societies of the Colonial South, by Carl Bridenbaugh, 1952. Bridenbaughwas a professor of American history at the University of California, Berkeley, and at BrownUniversity.

2. Resource Guide: Slavery, on Digital History, a U.S. history Web site developed and maintainedby the University of Houston, updated December 2005.

3. American Slavery as It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses, published anonymously in 1839.Written by Theodore Dwight Weld, an antislavery activist.

4. Slavery Defended: The Views of the Old South, edited by Eric L. McKitrick, 1963. A collectionof proslavery writings from the mid-1800s.

Source Author Date PurposeWhat else would you like toknow about the source?

1 C. Bridenbaugh 1952 To explain and teach What else has he written? Are any ofhis books more recent than 1952?

2

3

4


Drawing Sound Conclusions

What is it? Sometimes writers state their conclusions directly. Other times it is up to you, thereader, to draw conclusions from the reading. A sound conclusion is based on solid evidenceand your knowledge of the subject.

How to do it. First, read the passage. What facts are given? Looking at these facts together,what do they suggest to you that is not stated in the reading?

Try it. Read the following passage about the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.

By the end of 1970, Congress had repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which hadallowed Presidents Johnson and Nixon to escalate the conflict without a formal declara-tion of war. In February 1971, Congress passed legislation forbidding U.S. troops fromoperating outside the borders of South Vietnam. Two years later, when Congress learnedthat Nixon had secretly bombed Cambodia without congressional approval, it passedthe War Powers Resolution. This law placed strict limits on a president’s power to usethe armed forces in hostilities without congressional authorization. Early in 1973, theUnited States began withdrawing all troops from Vietnam

Identify two more facts from the passage. What conclusion could you draw from these facts?How could you test your conclusion to see if it is sound?

ConclusionFact

Congress repealed the Gulf ofTonkinResolution in 1970.

Fact

Fact


Identifying Frame of Referenceand Point of View

What is it? Someone’s frame of reference includes all the things that influence how that personthinks and the way that person sees the world. Point of view is a person’s individual opinionor perspective.

How to do it. First, identify everything you know about the writer of the passage. Considerbackground, age, culture, the historical period in which he or she lived, and beliefs. Next, lookfor expressions of the person’s perspective. They may be stated directly—“I believe that . . .”Or they may be expressed in value judgments, such as “the worst ever . . .” How do you thinkthis person’s frame of reference might have influenced his or her point of view?

Try it. During the Civil War, the Union at first refused to enlist African American soldiers.Consider these two quotations from that time.

Do you know that this is a white man’s government; that the white men are able todefend and protect it; and that to enlist a Negro soldier would be to drive every whiteman out of the service?

—Ohio governor David Todd, in response to a group ofAfrican Americans who asked to form a regiment

Why does the government reject the Negro? Is he not a man? Can he not wield asword, fire a gun, march and countermarch, and obey orders like any other? . . .Men in earnest don’t fight with one hand, when they might fight with two, and aman drowning would not refuse to be saved even by a colored hand.

—African American antislavery leader Frederick Douglass

Identify the point of view and frame of reference of each man. How do you think frame ofreference might have shaped each man’s perspective?

DavidTodd Frederick Douglass

Point ofView

Frame ofReference


Identifying Bias, Stereotyping, and Propaganda

What is it? Bias is a one-sided or slanted view. A stereotype is an oversimplified image of agroup or an idea. Propaganda means the spreading of one-sided views to influence people’sopinions or actions. To evaluate historical evidence, you must be able to recognize bias,stereotyping, and propaganda.

How to do it. To identify bias, look for exaggerations and emotionally charged images orwords. Are opinions stated as if they were facts? What information is left out? In what waydoes the piece focus on one side of an issue?

To recognize a stereotype, look for exaggerations and for overly negative or positive statementsor images.

To recognize propaganda, ask yourself: Does the piece present only one side of the story? Doesthe piece appeal to people’s desire to belong or be part of a group? Does it connect the cause to arespected group or symbol?

Try it. In World War I, the British were at war with the Germans. This poster was created duringthat war. Answer the questions below.

1. What is the bias of this poster? What emotionally charged words and images does it use?

2. What stereotype of the Germans does thisposter present?

3. What stereotype of the British does thisposter present?

4. What is the propaganda message of this poster?

Priv

ate

Col

lect

ion/

The

Bri

dgem

anA

rtL

ibra

ry


Conducting a Cost-Benefit Analysis

What is it? One way to make decisions is to conduct a cost-benefit analysis of your options.In this process, you compare the costs (disadvantages) of choosing a certain course of actionwith the benefits (advantages) of choosing that course.

How to do it. Identify the option you are considering. Make a list of all the costs of pursuingthat option, and another list of the benefits. Compare the two lists. Are there more costs thanbenefits? Does any one cost weigh too heavily? Are the benefits guaranteed outcomes, or is therea chance they won’t happen?

Finally, make the decision. Based on your analysis of the costs and benefits, which choice makesthe most sense?

Try it. Suppose that you are a young man living in China in 1852. You are trying to decidewhether to immigrate to California. You have heard stories of “Gold Mountain”—of great wealth,fine homes, and plenty of food. You have also talked to one man who returned empty-handed. Hetold you that he was badly treated in California. Meanwhile, your village has fallen on hard times.War, poor economic conditions, and overcrowded farms have forced your family into poverty.You have barely enough to eat. You will need to leave your family behind if you go to California.

Complete the cost-benefit analysis below of the option of immigrating to California.

Put a star by any costs or benefits that are guaranteed.

Do you consider any of the costs too great?

What choice do you make? Why?

Costs Benefits

Might be badly treated in California. Could make lots of money in California.


Interpreting Political Cartoons

What is it? Political cartoons appear on the editorial pages of newspapers. They may be funny,but their purpose is to carry a message or an opinion. Cartoonists use characters and symbols—animals, people, or objects—to communicate their point. Interpreting a political cartoon meansfiguring out the cartoonist’s message.

How to do it. Identify the symbols and characters in the cartoon. What does each one stand for?Are there labels or captions to give you clues? Are the characters and symbols simplified or exag-gerated to make a point? What details are emphasized? What action is taking place in the cartoon?Fit these pieces of information together to determine the cartoon’s message.

Try it. Interpret this political cartoon by answering the questions below.

1. What are the characters and symbols in the cartoon, and what does each one represent?

2. How do the words help you identify the cartoonist’s intention?

3. What action is taking place in the cartoon?

4. What opinion is the cartoonist expressing?

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