tools of the mind: research on an early childhood...

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Tools of the Mind: Research on an Early Childhood Educational Model

Tools of the Mind:

Research on an Early Childhood Educational Model

Carlyn Knight

Sonoma State University

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Background

Tools of the Mind is an educational model based on the theories of Lev Vygotsky,

a 20th century Russian educational theorist. It was developed in the 1990’s by

Elena Bodrova, PhD and Deborah J. Leong, PhD. The authors state that it began

as a search “for tools to support the cognitive development of young children”

(Bodrova & Leong, 2001, p.4). Just as physical tools empower us to do things

beyond our normal ability, Tools of the Mind was created to empower the mental

capacities of developing minds. However, the authors believe that these tools do

more than enhance cognitive abilities. Based on Vygotsky’s theories they believe

these tools can change how a child attends, remembers, and thinks. The tools,

therefore, are to help children “learn how to learn.” (Bodrova & Leong, 2007,

p.4) It sounds like a lofty goal, yet Tools of the Mind is the subject of one of the

chapters in a recently published book Nurture Shock (Bronson and Merryman,

2009) and the authors report impressive results from three studies.

Reflecting on the historical, political, and social context in which this model was

developed reveals several noteworthy events. Although Vygotsky’s work was

written before 1934, his work was suppressed in Stalin’s police state. It wasn’t

until after the Cold War that Vygotsky’s work came to light and began to exert

considerable influence in the field of educational psychology. Piaget and

Vygotsky both espoused a constructivist view of cognitive development and the

importance of play for the young child. However, Vygotsky introduced the idea

of the zone of proximal development. Dr. Bodrova first worked at the Institute of

Pre-School Education and the Centre for Educational Innovations in the Russian

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Federation. She came to the U.S. in 1992 and began collaborating with Dr.

Leong. Tools of the Mind was first tested in 1997. By this time Vygotsky’s

theories had grown in influence, research and understanding of brain development

had reached a new summit, and there was dissatisfaction in student achievement.

(It is interesting to note that “No Child Left Behind” was signed and put into law

in 2001.) All of these factors contributed to the development and implementation

of this new educational model.

Theoretical Underpinnings

Vygotsky’s perspective is articulated as Cultural-Historical Theory (Pass, 2005,

p. 277). In this theory, Vygotsky asserts that social interaction is necessary for

children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a

community’s culture. Cognitive development was viewed by Vygotsky, as a

socially mediated process. He agreed with Piaget that children are active and

constructive in their learning. However, Vygotsky differed from Piaget in that he

saw children as dependent upon the assistance that adults and more-expert peers

provide in learning (Berk, 2005). Vygotsky defines development as two different

levels. Both levels are accessible to the child at any given time.

The lower level is what the child can do independently, without

help from anyone. The upper level of the child’s ability is what

that same child can do with assistance from another person either

directly or indirectly. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is

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the distance between the lower and upper levels. It defines where

the child’s learning happens. (Bodrova and Leong, 2006, p. 168)

In Vygotsky’s opinion the two primary means of learning occur through social

interaction and language. The assistance that a peer or a teacher offers is referred

to as scaffolding. Scaffolding provides a metaphor or word picture of a house

painter who uses a scaffold to reach parts of the house that would otherwise be

out of reach. In the same way adults and peers can help a child ‘reach’ a new

concept or skill by giving supporting information (Mooney, 2000).

There are similarities and differences between Vygotsky’s theories and

information processing theory. Topics like metacognition, self-regulation, and

executive function have an important focus in their conversations, as do memory

and focused attention. However, Vygotsky is interested in the developmental

process and understanding why and how children improve in learning as they

grow older. Furthermore, Vygotsky looks at the social and cultural context of

learning, as well as the emotional aspects that are involved – which are not

addressed by information processing theory. (Bodrova and Leong, 2007, pp. 33-

34)

Play, according to Vygotsky, is crucial to the mental development of the young

child. Vytgotsky (1966) wrote:

Play is the source of development and creates the zone of proximal

development. Action in the imaginative sphere, in an imaginary

situation, the creation of voluntary intentions and the formation of

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real-life plans and volitional motive – all appear in play and make

it the highest level of preschool development. (p. 96)

Vygotskyians contend that play, rather than providing limitless freedom,

“presents the context in which children face more constraints than in any other

context… (Yet) children are extremely motivated to abide by these limits”

(Bodrova and Leong, 2001, pp. 15-16).

The theoretical underpinnings that guide the approach of Tools of the Mind are:

the Cultural-Historical perspective, socially-mediated constructive learning, the

Zone of Proximal Development, scaffolding, and play. These are the means by

which language and thinking develop best in young children. Bodrova and Leong

apply Vygotsky’s theory to development and learning in early childhood: from

infants through the primary grades. The focus is on relationships among peers

and teachers, and activities that support cognitive development. In 2009, Bronson

and Merryman observed several pre-K and kindergarten Tools of the Mind classes

and they noted that although the main elements of the day are similar to a

traditional class (with things like recess and lunch), there are some differences in

the way the room appears.

The wall calendar is not a month-by-month grid, but a straight line of days on a

long ribbon of paper. Gone is the traditional alphabet display; instead, children

use a sound map, which has a monkey next to Mm and a sun next to Ss. These

are ordered not from A to Z but rather in clusters, with consonants on one map

and vowels on another. (p. 161)

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Bodrova and Leong do not delineate specific environmental features that must be

part of the physical environment, other than emphasizing the importance of

creative dramatic play.

The Role of the Teacher

Tools of the Mind is not a set curriculum, but rather a philosophical and

theoretical approach to early childhood education. There are several examples of

how individual teachers implemented these ideas and the authors also write of

training teachers in this approach. However, there are not explicit materials that

are used or even outlined schedules that are prescribed. Bodrova and Leong

(2007) state that “Play is the leading activity and most of the teachers’ efforts

should be directed toward play…” (p. 153). Their aim is for children to reach a

level of mature play which is distinguished from immature play by these

characteristics:

1) The ability to pretend without actually having a prop, and/or using

objects in different roles (symbolic representations)

2) Language is used for dramatization

3) Multiple themes are interwoven,

4) Roles are multifaceted

5) An extended time frame occurs

These imaginative situations can extend over days, surviving interruption and

restarting again, with changes occurring in response to the player’s new ideas and

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roles. (Bodrova and Leong, 2007, 2012) One example that was given was a

dramatic play area set-up as an airport that lasted for several weeks:

The literacy center is a ticket counter, with a travel agency

complete with child-made passports, tickets, and travel brochures.

In the block area the children have constructed a walk-through X-

ray scanner from cardboard boxes. A smaller box with openings

on both ends functions as the screening device for carry-on

luggage. There is an airplane cockpit made out of a big piece of

cardboard with child-drawn instruments, an upside-down egg

carton for a keyboard, and a paper plate that functions as the

steering wheel. (Leong and Bodrova, 2012, p. 28)

To help scaffold this rich and mature play, the teachers have important roles. One

prominent responsibility is to identify many different roles that pertain to specific

play themes. In most preschools there is a dramatic play area and children enjoy

dressing up and pretending they are firefighters, mommies and daddies, doctors,

police officers, etc. However, play is often not sustained for a long period of

time. Another familiar difficulty is to have the majority of the children wanting to

enact the same role. For example if the dramatic play area is set up as a doctor’s

office, most of the preschoolers may seek to be a doctor or nurse. Often their

knowledge about who the doctors/nurses interact with, what they say in these

situations, and what they do, is very limited. However, with a teacher’s help there

are many other roles that the children can learn about (i.e. the patients and their

many needs, the office staff, the adjoining hospital with x-ray technicians, lab

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workers, etc.). With this growth in knowledge and understanding, play is opened

up to more roles and richer scenarios. Preparation for play can be done in a

variety of ways. In all methods, the teacher’s emphasis is on what people do, as

opposed to the objects that they use. Before a field trip, specific roles can be

identified ahead of time and they can be explained and acted out during the trip.

Books are another source of information about various roles in different

occupations. Stories can also be used to help develop play; chapter books aid in

developing sequential episodes. Classroom visitors are one more rich resource.

(Bodrova and Leong, 2007, pp. 142-151)

Another unique distinction of Tools of the Mind is the use of children’s “play

plans.” The child plans the role he/she will play. The teacher helps the child to

focus on what he/she will do in this role. The authors state that “it is the action of

mentally planning that is the major benefit to the child” (Bodrova and Leong,

2001, p. 18). Yet they also share that they believe play plans on paper are more

valuable than oral plans alone. I will highlight these advantages later in this

paper.

The role of the teacher is multi-faceted. To begin with, the teacher is one who

plans and prepares the environment and the learning opportunities. Some of

these experiences will be led and guided by a teacher; others will be for the

children to engage and explore in independently. Another important role of the

teacher is observing the child, understanding who he is, and learning what is

within his ZPD. In this way diverse and individual needs are comprehended and

met. Engaging in educational dialogue is another Vygoskyian role of the

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teacher. In interactions and discussions with students the teacher provides a

“template for learning” (Bodrova and Leong, 2007, p. 85). This is done through

the types of questions she asks, the strategies she uses to solve problems, and the

way she models types of learning. An important goal is for children to grow in

conceptual knowledge with an understanding of how things fit in a bigger picture

of learning. In these ways teachers are both planners and participants in shared

activities with children.

Vygotsky stresses the importance of language and social interaction in cognitive

development. He writes about the influence of culture in this process, through:

families, schooling, and the community at large. Tools of the Mind reiterates

these beliefs; yet the role of community and parents is not delineated with a

specific role in the classroom. Field trips in the community and imaginative play

with real-life scenarios are two ways that the cultures of community and family

can intersect in the culture of school.

Cognitive and Language Development

Supporting and promoting cognitive and language development is foundational to

the Tools of the Mind approach. This educational model was given its name

because Vygotsky believed that it is when thinking and speech unify, “thinking

acquires a verbal basis and speech becomes intellectual, because it is used in

thinking” (Bodrova and Leong, 2007, p. 67). Language becomes a tool for

private speech and verbal thinking - -which has a transforming effect on cognitive

development. The authors state that it is sometime “between 2 and 3 years of age,

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(that) thinking and speech merge” (Bodrova and Leong, 2007, p. 67). Therefore,

this early childhood educational model focuses on supporting both cognitive and

language development through all of its activities.

As stated earlier, Vygotsky believed learning is a socially-mediated process. The

Zone of Proximal Development is seen as “a strategy for learning and

development” (Bodrova and Leong, 2007, p. 40). In Tools of the Mind there are

three specific tools or “tactics” which are covered with explicit attention to

promote cognitive growth. In the beginning the tactics are introduced and

supported with adult assistance, just as we would introduce and assist in the

introduction and use of a physical tool like a hammer. Eventually the goal is for

the child to use these tools independently.

The first tactic is using mediators. Mediators can be both internal and external

tools which aid and assist behaviors and mental processes. Examples of

mediators that adults use in everyday life are: arrows or signs on a road, chants or

mnemonic devices, and graphic organizers. For young children mediators need to

be external and evident. Research by Leont’ev (1981, 1994 as cited by Bodrova

and Leong, 2007, p. 53) revealed that in early childhood children are not able to

create or use external mediators unassisted. However, they were able to

accomplish this skill in the “context of meaningful activity shared with adults” (p.

55).

Play plans were mentioned earlier as a distinctive part of Tools of the Mind. In

2007, Bodrova and Leong write about the importance of planning play and

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“encourage” the creation of written plans” (p. 151). In an earlier writing (2001)

the authors state their preference much more strongly, saying “we found that

planning on paper is much more effective than planning orally” (p. 19). They

speak of these written plans as being an external mediator with cognitive and

social benefits. Children think ahead of their scenario, work out possible conflicts

ahead of time, and use the plans to refresh their memory and to regulate their own

behavior. Play plans are attributed with increasing play to a rich and mature level.

The plans provide a way for parents to share in their child’s day and act as a

vehicle for home discussions. They also document increasing literary

understanding and skills. Finally, they guarantee a moment of one-on-one time

with teacher and child each day.

Scaffolded writing can develop from written play plans. Some of the main

elements of this teacher-assisted writing are: the child dictating his/her own

words, the teacher drawing a line for each word of the child’s dictation (which

acts as an external mediator), and the use of private speech during this exercise.

This process will develop in various ways depending on the child’s knowledge of

literacy. Teacher and child may repeat the sentence pointing to the lines for each

word or eventually the child will draw the lines for each word uttered. As the

words are written the special alphabet chart, which is called a “sound map”, can

be used to help the child find the appropriate letter.

Written play plans are just one example of an external mediator which aids

children in developing self-regulation, deliberate memory, and focused attention.

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Other examples of mediators are: a carpet square to define body space at Circle

Time, a visual schedule to aid a child with the routine of the day, a timer for turn-

taking, and a song to signal transition times. The goal of mediation is to trigger or

remind a behavior ahead of time and encourage self-regulation. This is in contrast

to rewards or reinforcements that are given after a behavior has occurred, and are

regulated by a teacher.

The second tool or tactic used in Tools of the Mind is language itself.

Although infants use speech for mainly public purposes, the function of speech

changes as the child grows older. Private speech becomes a tool that the child

uses to gain self-regulation as well as learn. (Bodrova and Leong, 2007, p. 66).

“According to Vygotsky, (1987), private speech in young children is a precursor

of verbal thinking since it serves as a carrier of thought at the time when most

higher mental functions are not fully developed” (as cited by Bodrova and Leong,

2001, p. 14). Within the classroom, teachers can scaffold the development of

private speech in the following ways:

1) By modeling thinking aloud when solving a problem or demonstrating a

process.

2) By providing opportunities for children to see and hear their own thinking

through speaking thoughts aloud (i.e. sharing with partners in Circle Time or

whispering their thoughts when appropriate).

3) Using external mediators that prompt private speech (i.e. a visual reminder of

what to do at transition times).

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Teachers can also scaffold the growth of meaningful language by:

1) Overtly naming/explaining activities of both children and teachers

2) Provide context and visual cues for new vocabulary, ideas and concepts

3) Check for understanding

Teachers can support children’s emergent writing skills by providing literacy and

drawing tools in many areas of school, allowing children to label construction

work, enhance their dramatic play, or come up with other ideas. Children may

also dictate stories to adults, or they may scribble and then “read” their own

stories.

The third and last formal tactic discussed in Tools of the Mind is using shared

activities. In shared activities there is social context where learning can occur

within the ZPD (with a more knowledgeable peer or teacher assisting a child who

is less knowledgeable). Learning also occurs through the process of

communicating and sharing with another person. This can happen through

talking, writing, drawing, etc. whereby concepts that have been internalized in a

“folded state” can be exposed. A “folded state” occurs when a concept is vaguely

understood. However, in the process of communicating about a concept the gaps

and shortcomings in understanding can be more easily recognized and clarified.

Another person’s perspective must be taken and thinking is expanded.

Another benefit of shared activity is the occurrence of other-regulation. Other-

regulation occurs when one person regulates another person’s behavior or when

that person is being regulated by someone else. Children need to learn to be both

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the regulator and the recipient of regulation. Interestingly, Vygotskyians believe

that other-regulation comes before self-regulation and it can be used to aid in

development. (Bodrova and Leong, 2007, p.81) Reflection is thought to be an

important part of self-regulation; other-regulation is reflecting outwardly. Later

these same assessments may be applied to oneself. Other-regulation can be

capitalized upon by activities such as: children getting to find the mistakes in a

teacher’s example, and using external mediators to help children focus on desired

self-regulated and other-regulated behavior.

A common thread that runs throughout the approach of Tools of the Mind, is the

prominence it gives to cognitive skills, most notably these three: self-regulation,

deliberate memory, and focused attention. (Bodrova and Leong, 2007, p. 207)

Through the use of the ZPD and the tactics of: mediators, language, and shared

activities -- cognitive and language development are supported.

Analysis

The program’s results seem to be equally effective with children who speak one

language or those who are learning a second language. Tools of the Mind was

first tested in 1997 with a population of ten kindergarten classes in Denver,

Colorado. These classes had one-third to one-half of the population with limited

English-language skills, and these children began school nearly a year behind. At

the end of the year, those who were part of the Tools of the Mind program tested

almost a year ahead of the national standards and were 97% proficient. Then in

2001 another research study began in New Jersey with 70% of the children from

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homes where English is not the primary language spoken. This study was

supposed to last for two years; however, at the end of the first year the principal

made the decision to implement Tools of the Mind in the control classrooms too.

The decision was based on the children from “Tools” classrooms who

demonstrated superior self-regulated behavior. The principal stated she felt that it

was “unethical” to keep this program from all of the children. (Bronson and

Merryman, 2009, pp. 162-164)

In the first of four phases of implementing Tools of the Mind, the authors

discovered that there were cultural differences that did not translate from Russian

classrooms to American classrooms. Some of these differences had to do with:

language systems, developmental differences and educational methods. Before

phase two began, new techniques were created that incorporated the principles of

Vygotsky yet met the needs of American children.

In phase two “ progress (of the children) outweighed the effects of demographic –

African-American and Latino students did as well as their Caucasian and Asian

counterparts” (Bodrova and Leong, 2001, p. 27). Additionally, Tools of the Mind

developed the ELA system with Dr. Dmitri Semenov. ELA stands for “Early

Literacy Advisor,” and it is a computerized system that can aid teachers in

diagnosing and prescribing individual educational needs. The ELA also addresses

developmental patterns and teaches about concepts in the Vygotskian theory.

(Bodrova and Leong, 2001, p. 4)

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Tools of the Mind coincides with many concepts and research-based ideas of

supporting the cognitive and language development of young children.

Bidirectional models of child development acknowledge that structure and

function both impact development. Bjorklund (2012) writes that “cognitive

development proceeds as a result of the dynamic and reciprocal transaction of

internal and external factors” (p.8). The result is that “the architecture of the brain

will change as a function of the information it receives” (p. 10). In Tools of the

Mind the authors say that the developmental accomplishments for preschoolers

and kindergartners will not be accomplished through maturation alone. Their

belief is that young children need creative, imaginary, make-believe play to

achieve thinking on an internal mental plane. This is the beginning of abstract

thinking when one has the ability think and maneuver objects in the mind, as

opposed to physically manipulating objects. Symbolic function begins in

imaginative play when children are able to use actions, objects, language, or items

to represent something else. When children are acting out roles there are outward

actions, as well as the beginning of internal thoughts – which is a transition to the

beginning of working on an internal plane. (Bodrova and Leong, 2007, pp. 124,

133)

The importance of strategies is another concept that is backed up by research, and

emphasized in Tools of the Mind. “Tools” provides external strategies using

mediators and modeled private speech in shared activities that assists the child

until he/she can internalize and use these strategies independently. Bjorklund

confirms the findings of Leont’ev (1981, 1994) writing:

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…more explicitly training children to use an organizational

strategy have yielded positive results. Young children, under

certain instructional conditions, use an organizational strategy and

display elevated levels of memory performance (Lange & Pierce,

1992; Schwenck et al., 2007). In other words, young children are

capable of organizing information for recall, but they generally fail

to do so spontaneously. (p. 274)

In Bjorklund’s discussion of event memory he gives the analogy of children

watching a baseball game compared to adults watching the same game. A child

might focus on something insignificant without explicit instruction. Tools of the

Mind makes use of strategies within the context of developmentally appropriate

play to develop self-regulation, deliberate memory, and focused attention.

Research by Nelson (1993, 1996) demonstrating that preschool children tend to

organize events in terms of scripts further validates “Tools” approach. The

emphasis on dramatic role-playing is supported by all that it contributes to

memory organization. (as cited by Bjorklund, 2012, pp. 321-322)

Finally, Tools of the Mind seeks to develop a “flexible cognitive set” advocated

and sought out by many researchers. In studies done by Cheyne and Rubin

(1983) and Smith and Dutton (1979) one group of children was allowed to play

with objects and another group of children were given direct instructions on how

to use these objects. Later both groups needed to use the objects as tools to

retrieve a toy. The children who were allowed to play with the object were just as

good, or better, than the children who were given precise directions. Peter Smith

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(1982, 2005) hypothesizes that since objects in sociodramatic play can be used for

multiple purposes, this helps children to understand that objects can be used to

solve problems in many ways. (as cited by Bjorklund, 2012, p. 240)

Conclusion

The strengths of this educational model are numerous. It is backed up by research

and new understanding of brain functioning and development. Developmentally

appropriate activities are used and dynamic assessment is advocated to make

known how the child is learning. Tools of the Mind is grounded in the educational

theory of Vygotsky and is a complex and interwoven approach using:

The Strategy & Umbrella of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

ZPD Tactics Used:

External Mediators(provide scaffolding through social mediation)

Language(private speech modeled & encouraged in public domain)

Shared Activities(provides social mediation & scaffolding)

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All of the above strategies/tactics are implemented with the goal of moving

from an external and supportive presence to an internalized and

independent skill.

Another strength of this model is that these tactics benefit second language

learners. The external mediators provide contextual cues, the private speech

is modeled and encouraged, and shared activities provide community and

immersion in the second language. One drawback is that sociodramatic play

is a primary emphasis in this model, and research by Tabors (2008) revealed

that this type of play can be difficult for children who are acquiring a second

language (p. 121). However, with rich role development (which is advocated

by Tools of the Mind ) these children might find “supporting roles” which

allow them to observe actions and gain formulaic speech while still being

part of the group – all which helps them to gain social and communicative

competence. Tabors (2008) cites a similar approach in the Language

Acquisition Preschool (LAP) at the University of Kansas (pp. 118-121). I

have personally observed a young child whose speech is developmentally

young spontaneously take on a “supporting role” that required little

language. On several occasions she has acted the part of a dog that works

with the firefighters. Her role has been a big part of the scenario, yet the

language demands have been minimal. During this time, however, she is part

of the social group and she is observing and learning from her peers as her

language skills develop.

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Tools of the Mind is dependent upon the implementation of discerning teachers

who maintain fidelity to the program. I believe this is both the strength and

weakness of the program, yet it is consistent with the art of teaching and the worth

of relationships. Human development, unlike a mathematical equation, cannot be

programmed. Instead it takes nurturing, observation, and wise action.

Self-regulation, deliberate memory and focused attention: these are three of the

prominent cognitive skills that Tools of the Mind seeks to impart. As we

continue to learn more about the development of language and thinking, it is

imperative that we intentionally apply this understanding to what is best for young

children. I believe that is the goal of this educational model.

In closing, I leave you with a quote from Bjorklund (2012) regarding the link

between tool use and play, which aptly and soundly applies to the goals of Tools

of the Mind:

Once children learn about tools…they seem to become part of their

basic toolkit of problem-solving skills – and an essential

component of human cognition. (p. 241)

References

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Berk, Laura E. (2005). Infants, children and adolescents. U.S.A.: Pearson Education,

Inc.

Bjorklund, David F. (2012). Children’s thinking: cognitive development and individual

differences. U.S.A.: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Bodrova, Elena & Leong, Deborah J. (2001). Tools of the mind: a case study of

implementing the Vygotskian approach in American early childhood and primary

classrooms. Switzerland: International Bureau of Education. Retrieved from

www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/innodata/inno07.pdf

Bodrova, Elena & Leong, Deborah J. (2006). Adult influences on play: the Vygotskian

approach. In D. Fromberg & D. Bergen (Eds.), Play from birth to twelve and

beyond: Contexts, perspectives and meanings (pp. 167-172). New York:

Routledge.

Bodrova, Elena & Leong, Deborah J. (2007). Tools of the mind: the Vygoskian

approach to early childhood education. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson

Prentice Hall.

Bronson, Po & Merryman, Ashley. (2009). Nurtureshock: new thinking about children.

New York, NY: Grand Central Publishing.

Leong, Deborah J. & Bodrova, Deborah. (2012, January). Assessing and scaffolding

make-believe play. Young Children, 67(1), 28-34.

Mooney, Carol Garhart. (2000). Theories of childhood. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/innodata/inno07.pdf

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Pass, Susan. (2007). When constructivists jean piaget and lev vygotsky were

pedagogical collaborators: A viewpoint from a study of their communications.

Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 20, 277-282. doi:

10.1080/10720530701347944

Tabors, Patton O. (2008). One child, two languages. Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H.

Brookes Publishing Company.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1966). Play and its role in the mental development of the child.

Voprosy psikhologii, 6, 76-99.

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