"..."topia _ draft
DESCRIPTION
This is a beginning proposal for my Masters of Architecture ThesisTRANSCRIPT
Erin Hicks
FALL 2012
... TOPIAFostering a
New Utopian Rhetoric for an contemporary
Society
thesis
2 | Thesis
Cover Photographs:Courtesy of Archizoom No Stop City
"Non-Stop Thinking | Abitare." Abitare - International Design Magazine. http://www.abitare.it/it/architecture/non-stop-thinking/ (accessed December 11, 2012)
Copyright Erin Hicks, 2012. All content property of Erin Hicks. No reproductions or reuse of this material is authorized without the written consent of Erin Hicks.
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CONTENTS
05 Abstract06 Discourse Narrative13 Literature Review Narrative16 Literature Map18 Case Study Analyses17 Project Description18 Bibliography31 Appendices
Panopticon Case Study
ArchigramCase Study
2816
Reformalism
MarxismSocialism
ProgressivismMod
erni
sm
Post
Mod
erni
sm
The Three MagnetsEbenezer Howard1898
The Peaceful Path of Real ReformGarden Cities of TomorrowEbenezer Howard1898
Plan VoisonLe Corbusier1925
A Contemporary City for 3 MillionLe Corbusier1922 Broadacre City
Frank Lloyd Wright1932
Walking CityArchigram1964
Plug In CityArchigram1964
Instant CityArchigram1969
Exodus, The Voluntary PrisonersRem Koolhass1972
The Twelve Ideal CitiesSuperstudio1972
Continuous MonumentSuperstudio1969
No Stop CityAndrea BranziArchizoom1969
New BabylonConstant Nieuwenhuys1967
Une Cite IndustrielleTony Garnier1917
Constructions for a Modern MetropolisMario Chiattone1914
The New City Antonio Sant’Elia1914
Highrise CityLudwig Hilberseimer1924
Berlin Development ProjectLudwig Hilberseimer1928
Flying SettlementWenzel Hablik1907-1914
Bruno Taut1919
The Begum’s FortuneJules Verne1825-1902
News From NowhereJules VerneWilliam Morris1890
Pullman Company TownGeorge Pullman1890
Port SunlightAnonymous1905
House of the Water SurveyorClaude-Nicholas Ledoux1804
PanopticonJeremy Bentham1787
Flying CitiesGeorgy Krutikov1928
PhalansteriesCharles Fourierearly 19th Century
Generic CityRem Koolhaas1994
2000 Ton CityTemporal Cochlea-CityNew York of BrainsSpaceship CItyCity of HemispheresBarnum Jar’s Magnificient and Fabulous CityContinous Production Conveyor Belt CityConical Terraced CityThe “Ville-Machine Habitee”City of OrderCity of the Spendid HouseCity of the Book
Uto
pia
DYSto
pia
"...
”to
pia
page 16
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Abstract
The association between architecture and the utopian discourse has been viewed through many lenses throughout architectural theory. Though many have written about specific utopian communities, very few have investigated the utopian intent and its correspondence to specific elements of architecture. Utopia; after all derives from the Greek translation “no place”, and while many define it as an ideal and perfect oasis, it seems appropriate to ask, is Utopia in fact attainable, or has this Utopian model disintegrated into dystopia?
The objective of this discourse, is not to only define utopia and/or dystopia but to begin defining what is the new “topia” for contemporary society and how this new rhetoric can be interposed to a particular fragment in the industrial landscape that remains as a scar of modernism.
Peter Wilson, of Archigram once said, “it is not necessary to envision some imaginary plateau, more important is it to really look at and to make some sense of today’s fantastic actual conditions.”1 Could, in fact the relationship between contemporary utopias and those of modernism be a utopian revival that intervenes with historical context? With that said, the site chosen for investigation is a factory town located in Cliffside, North Carolina. At this site, there exists an intersection where utopian and dystopian worlds begin to collide and exposes an instability that has transpired through the Industrial Revolution to its demise in Post Modernism. This research will challenge the site to foster a new solution for the abandonment of the industrial ruins that are scattered throughout the landscape. Rather than creating a utopian intervention based solely on a futuristic vision, this experiment will reinvestigate the historical structure that has become a modernist wasteland. and a residue to the community. Cliffside Mill was once a thriving industrial society, where the industry constructed the surrounding community and since it’s closure the site and surrounding context has suffered and become pillaged of the vitality it once exuded. By using the theories of Archigram, Thomas More, Constantinos Doxiadis and those alike will help discover a new “topia” to be implemented and remediate a new vitality to the community.
6 | Thesis
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Discourse Narrative
T his dissertation will not pretend to be a comprehensive
history of the Industrial Revolution nor will it be a complete
chronicle for Modernism and/or Postmodernism. Instead,
it will begin to critically examine the utopian intentions of each
movement, to gain a different understanding for the Post-Industrial
ruins that are left disseminated throughout the urban fabric. This
research thesis will begin to create a critique of scholarly debates
concerning the nature and structure for social reform in modern
utopian architecture; primarily during the modernist period; and
will reflect on how this research can pertain to contemporary
architecture. This theory will work with a comprehensive definition
of utopianism that does not seek for “perfection” but instead the
idea of bettering society. By creating and overlapping information
about the critical and transformative nature of utopianism, it can
then be determined if in fact this notion of Utopianism remains
applicable to the needs of contemporary architecture. Much like
the work of Paolo Portoghesi and Leon Krier, among many others,
this thesis research will propose an architecture that returns to
its roots in practical needs. This architecture will strive to re-
mediate the decomposing urban fabric that has suffered due to
Industrialization and will seek to revive a sense of community and
growth by re-investigating the activist principles of utopianism
into contemporary design.
The Modern Period
It is evident that modernism became a dominant influence in the
early 20th Century and has continued to inspire the generations
that would proceed. This movement, unlike some seen in the past,
wasn’t merely an opposition to aesthetics, but instead was a new
social agenda for a new social reform, and would become a reaction
the Industrial city. For example, R.M. Hartwell, a historian of the
British Industrial Revolution, caused great controversy in his article
‘History and Ideology’. Through his perspective of the Industrial
Revolution and the economic growth, he believed that the myth of
“immiseration” was the “one supreme myth which more than any
other has served to discredit the economic system to which we owe
our present day civilization”.1 Though written in 1974, the content of 1. Hartwell, R.M.. "History and Ideology." Modern Age: A Quarterly
this article remains relevant today as it acknowledges that the ills of
modern society are attributed to Industrialization. The Industrial
Revolution, though promoting prosperity and economic growth,
actually showed slow economic growth and extreme poverty, due
to severe living and working conditions. However, much like the
Industrial Revolution, it too, would fail to bring industrial mass-
production into a universal language.
Though there are many figures in this discourse that have remained
skeptical of the modernist movement, it would be appropriate to
examine the intentions which those architects proposed. In Ziyi
Feng and Li Jin Xing’s article, ‘A Contemporary Interpretation of
Marx’s Thoughts on Modernity’, modernism manifested itself in all
aspects of social life proclaiming that it could solve all problems
concerning economy, politics, culture, society and many other
factors.2 It was at this time that social activism was becoming a
patron-less class and the philanthropist had been long removed.
It was assumed “that the classless society was at hand, and that
no challenging, utopian inspiring classes would again appear, the
new “matter of factness seemed threatening... the future society
would be run by an intellectual elite trained in the sociology of
knowledge, capable of both transforming and controlling history in
the interests of freedom, democracy and rationality.”3 It is here that
an attempt to promote a patron saint was formed by the creation
of the CIAM (Congres Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne)
which was founded in 1928. CIAM was considered to be an avant-
garde association, including architects such as Walter Gropius, Le
Corbusier and many other well now “elitist” architects, which had
intended to serve the interest of society by progressing modernism
and industrialism of architecture forward. Their role would then
be defined as s Socialist, which emphasized their dedication to this
new radical social reform. The only problem, as mentioned before,
these architects were in fact an Elitist group, therefore, they would
Review 8, no. No. 4 (1974): pp. 383.2. Feng, Ziyi, and Lijun Xing. "A Contemporary Interpretation of Marx's Thoughts on Modernity." Frontiers of Philosophy in China 1, no. No.2 (2006): pp. 255. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30209968 (accessed Sep-tember 9, 2012).Hornstein, Shelley. Losing site: architecture, memory and place. Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate, 2011. 3. Shklar, Judith . "The Political Theory of Utopia: From Melancholy to Nostalgia." The MIT Press Vol. 94.No. 2 (1965): pp. 368.
8 | Thesis
never have to suffer the conditions which the general population
would. Therefore, this disconnect would leave them unable to
satisfy the social needs for the larger audience.
Charles Jencks said, “modernism failed as mass housing and
city building partly because it failed to communicate with its
inhabitants,” therefore, it did not make an effective link with the
city and/or history."4 This could provide great insight to thesis
by deciphering the key components of what the CIAM and the
like were trying to achieve. Another architectural theorist and
historian that shared similar views as Charles Jencks was Christian
Norberg Schulz. Though slightly more poetic, Schulz’s theory
would suggest that “modern man becomes “worldless” and thus
loses his own identity, as well as the sense of community and
participation” therefore if this existence becomes meaningless,
mankind becomes homeless.”5 As expressed by these authors,
Modernism failed in many ways. It did not create better living
situations or communities, it didn’t provide economic growth
and instead it had left many communities that were reliant upon
Industrialism abandoned.
Postmodern Critiques
The movement which would soon follow Modernism was termed
Postmodernism. As Modernism rejected history in search of the
new spirit, Postmodernism returned to history in hopes of restoring
a historical dimension. As Manfred Tafuri would say, “build the city
on top of the city” and therefore do not erase the physical history
which creates a richness.6 Some would critique Postmodernism in
that it failed to separate its ideals from Modernism. This argument
may very well be true as Postmodernism served to remediate
the social failures caused by modern architecture. As For Tom
Wolfe, he saw postmodernism as a failure to break completely
from Modernism. That as a society, (we) are still seeking the
4. Jencks, Charles. pp. 375. Schulz, Christian. Architecture: meaning and place : selected essays. New York, N.Y.: Rizzoli International Publications, 1988. pp. 11.6. Manfred Tafuri, “Toward a Critique of Architectural Ideology.” in Architecture Theory Since 1968, ed. K. Michael Hays (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998), pp. 7-11.
same initial goals as Modernist and as he says, “Postmodernism is
defined as a period of slackening, a period where everything is de-
legitimized”.7 Other theorist such as Jean Francois Lyotard, Leon
Krier, and Clement Greenberg all contributed to the dialogue
of Postmodernism. For Jean Francois Lyotard postmodernism
created a liberation of humanity, striving for progression and an
increased amount of power. And lastly Leon Krier, who believed
that each movement could influence each other by gaining a more
positive outcome. Kriers critique of current urban planning and
architecture, are rather nostalgic, however, he begins to shed light
on how the “destroyed fabric of the historic city could be repaired
and a traditional set of well-scaled spaces could be added to these
cores.”8 In this case, how can the intentions of modernity be
salvaged in contemporary architecture that would also constitute
an Activist Architecture?
It is here that it is important to understand what may have caused
the rise for this utopian ideology. “Socialism, reformism, feudalism,
anarchism, communism, the list of -isms can develop at great
lengths, but all are contributing factors to the political radicalism
associated with Modernism in the 1920s and 1930s” and continued
through Post-modernism. 9
The Politics of Utopianism
The notion of Utopia most certainly predates modernism, however
it is in the modernist era that Utopia thrives. This is not to suggest
that “Utopianism” has been nor will ever be achieved. Instead this is
to propose a contemporary revival of the modernist utopian ideals
and how to apply those ideals to contemporary society. There are
several ironies which surround the word Utopia. Whether it be
the fact that Thomas More, who coined the term, was tried for
treason and beheaded or the ambivalence of its definition meaning
7. Jencks, Charles. The New Paradigm in Architecture: The Language of Post-modern Architecture. [7th ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. pp. 51.8. Jencks, Charles. pp. 319. Bowm<http:/an, James. "The New Atlantis » Heroism, Modernism, and the Utopian Impulse." The New Atlantis - A Journal of Technology & Society.Web. 23 September 2012. /www.thenewatlantis.com/publica-tions/heroism-modernism-and-the-utopian-impulse>.
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both no place and good place, or the fact that Utopia suggested a
social freedom however still created parameters that shaped social
factors. It would be safe to assume that these experiments with
Utopianism, was in fact a critique or a response to Modernism,
in hopes to address the issues that were initially created due to
the social unrest in society. Utopianism has often been related to
totalitarianism, which is not the intentions for this thesis. Instead,
it will be beneficial to begin to understand that the impulses
of modern utopianism created a foundation for remediating
social issues. There is much to learn from these early attempts of
utopianism, as it wasn’t merely the desire for spatial change, but
related to the economic and political conditions involved during
this time period.
Timothy Benson, author of Expressionist Utopias, said ““Utopia
functioned within Modernism as a continuous, constructive
means of self-critical renewal, an enactment of the central tenet
of the avant-garde: where creative artistic endeavors can embody
hope and prepare the way for better conditions for humanity.”10 The
key word in that sentence was “hope”. It is not unfathomable why a
society would ambitiously seek out for Utopia, when mankind was
suffering from nearly a millennium of destruction. In the events
of the Industrial Revolution, World War I, the Great Depression,
World War II, the Cold War, all created a social unrest and chaos.
Utopianism was an attempt to create the Ideal City. It may be
important to reiterate that this thesis is not suggesting a return to
the Island of Utopia, by Thomas More, nor to the Contemporary
City for 3 Million Inhabitants by Le Corbusier, instead it is looking
at the utopian intentions and how these ideas may revive a sense of
community in the contemporary industry.
An example of a failing Utopian ideal would be the project, A
Contemporary City for 3 Million Inhabitants, by Le Corbusier.
Corbusier proposed that this Utopian city will erect from a flat site
without a sense of context and scale, thus if something is on the site
he wished to acquire, it would be demolished. The city would be
composed of two superhighways where all means of transportation
would intersect to the heart of the city, all secondary roads would 10. Bowman, James.
be on a street grid. The center of the city would not be affiliated
with religion nor a feudal system, as a means of rejecting history,
instead, Corbusier proposed a series of twenty four sixty-story
skyscrapers that would provide approximately 500,000 to 800,000
workers a place to gather and socially interact around cultural
amenities. Another failure for this utopian idea was his return to
an elitist mentality. Corbusier in fact created a social hierarchy
as he proposed “intellectuals of the bureaucratic and hierarchical
new world” would indulge in living in these luxurious high rise
apartments, while those of a smaller fortune would be shipped out
to satellite towns on the outskirts of the city.11
A key figure to look to would be architects such Frank Lloyd
Wright, who believed that “the industrial city was the symbol
of exploitation of humankind. There, everyone, rich and poor,
was robbed of his true nature which could only be satisfied in a
harmonious relationship with the countryside.”12 Wright was very
much interest in the well being and health of these occupants.
His beliefs were similar to those of marxism which meant that
he believed man can only achieve self-fulfilment provided that
he belonged to a corporation a social community where he had a
definite social role and social circumstances. He would suggest that
each citizen would acquire an acre of land, which they could build
their home, reaping the benefits of the industrial progress. In return,
these citizens would work in an industry that would stimulate their
minds while learning new traits and becoming a successful steward
of society. These places of work and industrialization would be
removed from the living community, suggesting that life and work
should remain separate. Unlike traditional cities, Wright proposed
that there would be no urban centre to relinquish an notion of
social hierarchy therefore there would be no feudal system, and the
power would remain equal among its residents. In place of these
churches or a palace, which used to be the heart of a traditional
city there would be a community and cultural center where people
were encouraged to interact with one another, promoting a sense
of peace and harmony.
11. Eaton, Ruth. Ideal Cities: Utopianism and the (Un)Built Environ-ment. New York, N.Y.: Thames & Hudson, 2002. p. 201.12Eaton, Ruth. p. 209.
10 | Thesis
Though the idea of Utopia seems almost biblical or fantastical, in
its search for Eden on Earth, there are many critiques that reject
the idea of Utopianism. Authors such as Colin Rowe would define
modern utopianism to be “a naive and tragic aspiration on the part of
modern architecture.” 13 Colin Rowe, not only seemed antagonistic
towards the idea of Utopianism but he also rejected Modernism.
Spoken as a true historian, Rowe made it clear in his readings that
he felt modernism failed, and their intentions were destructive on
the historical fabric. Another skeptical visions about utopianism
is the article, Political Theory of Utopia by Judith Shklar. Shkar,
provides a brief review of classical utopia and begins to question,
why, in today’s society are there no attempts in creating a Utopia.
Though she remains skeptical, Shkar provides literary works that
showed little “activism” or hope for that matter, as to the effects
of Utopian Ideals, which becomes evident in projects such as A
Contemporary City for 3 Million Inhabitants.
Research Possibilities
In Kevin Hetherington’s book, The Badlands of Modernity:
Heterotopia and Social Ordering, he says “Many people were
being forced from the land and from their villages and forced to
become vagrant and migrants, known in the discourse of the
time as ‘masterless men’...Old patterns of rights and duties as well
as one’s place in an established social hierarchy were no longer
certain.” 14 This quotes speaks loudly to the objective of this thesis
as it will strive to remediate a sense of community in towns where
modernism and utopianism failed. As Henry-Russell Hitchcock
said, “our own generation has largely failed to cope critically with the
mass of buildings produced in the booming period of our youth”#
These buildings which Hitchcock speaks of are the buildings that
would follow the Industrial Revolution. These buildings seem to be
perfunctory, as it is built with little consideration and no reflection
to what would become of them when the industry moves out. The
13 Ockman, Joan . "Form without Utopia: Contextualizing Colin Rowe." Journal of the Society Of Architectural Historians Vol. 57 No. .4 (1998): pp. 449.14 Hetherington, Kevin. The Badlands of Modernity Heterotopia and Social Ordering. London: Routledge, 1997. pp. 58
question then becomes, what will happen with these structures
that have fallen silent in the backdrop of this contemporary world?
What if these sites could once again prosper, based on the research
of utopian principles in modern architecture? The concern that now
rises of course is the questions regarding Utopianism? In order to
be true to Utopianism, can existing forms from the Post-Industrial
age be remediated to create a new purpose or is this an inverse of
Utopianism as it begins to create a fine line to becoming nostalgic?
There are those like Tafuri and Colin Rowe who appreciate history
and feel that building with consideration to the existing conditions
allows for history to continue unscathed. Then there are architects
such as Corbusier, the epitome of modernism, who rejects history.
Utopianism, modernism and post-modernism has very much in
common, they were sought to be a machine for living. Therefore,
these buildings were in fact a machine for production, that
production created jobs for those operating the machine, and that
job produced a means of living. Again, the goes back to the original
question asked moments before, what becomes of these structures?
A frequent method of dealing with the failures of Modernism in
the past have been much like the Pruitt-Igoe Housing complex
in Saint Louis, Missouri, which was imploded after becoming
nuisance to society. Industries which once thrived are being
forced to close their doors due to the economy, resembling that
of the Great Depression. Those who relied on that industry for a
source of income are being forced out of their homes to leave their
community, and the results are these corpses throughout the urban
fabric, which become sites of vandalism, danger and abandonment.
While engaging on a psychological level, architecture creates a built
memory, a piece of history that represents the thoughts, values and
beliefs which formed it. By demolishing these buildings, it would
be a cultural lobotomy.
As stated several times throughout this dissertation, it will provide
a critical examination of the utopian intentions throughout
Modernism, Post-Modernism and Contemporary architecture.
By doing this it will allow a different understanding for the Post-
Industrial ruins that remain prominent to the city fabric.
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After conducting this research, it will allow for critique of scholarly
debates concerning the nature and structure for social reform
in modern utopian architecture; during each time period; and
will reflect on how this research can pertain to contemporary
architecture. By not defining Utopianism as “perfect” but instead
the idea of bettering society, allows for information to be overlaid
to see if in fact the idea of Utopianism remains applicable to the
needs of Contemporary architecture. It would seem that the
contemporary utopia does not reject modernism, however it
is an attempt to address the issues of modernity that became
absent. By reading sources such as Expanding Architecture
Design as Activism and Design Like You Give a Damn, it becomes
evident that there is still a socialist voice among the architecture
community. It may be too hasty to assume that the utopian rhetoric
of modern architecture remains valid toward the social needs of
our contemporary environment, but it obvious that there are
many utopian fragments and principles from modern architecture
that corresponds to the contemporary design. This architecture
will strive to remediate the decomposing urban fabric that has
suffered due to Industrialization and will seek to revive a sense of
community and growth by reinvestigating the activist principles of
utopianism into contemporary design.
12 | Thesis
rejection of history
ideologyhistory & memory
History
Memory
Ideal Cities: Utopianism and the (Un)Built Environment
Ruth Eaton
The Necessity For RuinsJ.B. Jackson
A Sense of Place, A Sense of TimeJ.B. Jackson
Beyond the Ruins: The Meanings of De-
IndustrializationJefferson Cowie
Joseph HeathcottBarry Bluestone
Corporate Wasteland: The Landscape and Memory of
DeindustrializationSteven High and David W. Lewis
The De Industrialization of America: Plant Closings,
Community Abandonment, and the Dismantling of Basic
IndustryBarry Bluestone
Losing SiteArchitecture, Memory and
PlaceRuth Eaton
The Power of Pro Bono
John CaryExpanding Architecture Design As Architecture
John Cary
Design Like You Give A DamnKate Stohr
Memory and ArchitectureEleni Bastea
Good Deeds, Good Design: Community Service Through
ArchitectureBryan Bell
The Great Inversion and the Future of the American City
Alan Ehrenhalt
Architecture: Meaning and Place
Christian Norberg-Schulz
Studio at Large: Architecture in Service of Global
Communities Sergio Palleroni
The Death and Life of Great American Cities
Jane Jacobs
ModernismRichard Weston
Ruins of ModernityJulia Hell & Andres Schonle
CIAM Discourse in UrbanismEric Mumford
Utopian AdventureVictoria Watson
Rural StudioSamuel Mockbee
The City of Collective MemoryM. Christine Boyer
Architectural Ruins
From a Cause to a StyleNathan Glazer
Erin Hicks | Modernism Again: Re-mediating the Good Intentions and Promises of Modernism | October 1, 2012
Modernism
Phen
omen
olog
yH
ow th
ings
are
inte
rcon
nect
ed a
nd “r
eflec
t” e
ach
othe
r
De-Industrialization
Utopianism
The New Urbanism Movement
Post Critical Age
Neo-Utopianism???
Humanitarian Architecture
Ethics for ArchitectsThomas Fischer
Architecture: Meaning and Place
Christian Norberg-Schulz
“In general, man no longer forms part of a meaningful totality, and becomes a stranger to the world and himself.”
“human life was intimately related to things and places. In spite of hardship and social injustice, man generally had a sense of belonging and identity.” (11)
Modernism breeds a pessimistic generation - a generation where irony and protest substitute enthusiasm and engagement
In general, the loss of things and places makes up a loss of “world”. Modern man becomes “world-less” and thus loses his own identity, as well as the sense of community and participation. Existence is experienced as meaningless, and man becomes homeless.
“The point of departure for any discussion of deindustrialization must be respect for the despair and betrayal felt by workers in their factories, were padlocked, abandoned turned into artsy shopping spaces, or dynamited. Metaphors of defeat and subjection are more appropriate for the workers who banked on good paying industrial jobs for their livelihood and for the community”
“Thus modern Western history was established on an act of repression and separation; repressing archaic spectacles and mythical appearances and separating the time frame of the present from that of the past.” (21)
The City of Collective Memory
M. Christine Boyer
“reconstructed historical environments often betrays a respect for our past.”
“Contemporary American celebration suggests that the past is a remote, ill-defined period or environment when a kind of golden age prevailed, when society had an innocence and a simplicity that we have since lost; a period usually referred to as The Old Days, a time without significant events and a landscape without monuments”
Celebrating the past and seeking to make it part of daily life.
“But there has to be that interval of neglect, there has to be discontinuity; it is religiously and artistically essential.” “there must be rejection or death before there can be renewal and reform.
The Necessity for RuinsJ.B. Jackson
Modernity: emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, a transitional period of social unrest, armed revolutions and rapid industrialization and urbanization, all occurring as logical outcomes of Enlightenment Ideals.
CIAM Discourse in Urbanism
Eric Mumford
Beyond the Ruins: The Meanings of De-
IndustrializationJefferson Cowie
The DeIndustrialization of America
Barry Bluestone
Corporate Wasteland:Steven High and David W.
LewisDe-
Indu
stri
aliz
atio
n
Ideal Cities: Utopianism and the (Un)Built Environment
Ruth Eaton
The Death and Life of Great American Cities
Jane Jacobs
Ruins of ModernityJulia Hell & Andres Schonle
Expanding Architecture Design As Architecture
John Cary
From A Cause to a StyleNathan Glazer
“Images of ruins may represent the raw realities created by bombs, natural disasters, or factory closings, but the way we see and understand ruins is not raw or unmediated. Rather, looking at ruins, writing about them, and representing them are acts framed by a long tradition. This unique interdisciplinary collection traces discourses about and representations of ruins from a richly contextualized perspective. “
Modernism in architecture and urban design has failed the American city. This is the decisive conclusion that renowned public intellectual Nathan Glazer has drawn from two decades of writing and thinking about what this architectural movement will bequeath to future generations. In From a Cause to a Style, he proclaims his disappointment with modernism and its impact on the American city.
not just a radical revolution in style but a social ambition to enhance the conditions under which ordinary people lived, has fallen short on all counts
“Utopias are presented with varying degrees of explicitness. Their ambition is the greatest collective happiness and harmony achieved through efficient social restructuring and scientific progress. They are mostly urban and suggests humankind rational domination of the chaotic forces of nature. Economic and Social Order
“Changes in education and practice will follow these changes in demand and expectations. Currently architectural education mostly prepares student to meet the building needs of relatively wealthy individuals even though most of the growth in population and most of the need for architectural services exists among billions of impoverished people across the planet”
“Design can play a direct role in addressing critical social issues that we face. The process of creating the built environment can allow communities and individuals to improve and celebrate their lives. It can help solve their struggles by reshaping their existence. “(14)
The modernist planners used deductive reasoning to find principles by which to plan cities. Among these the most violent was urban renewal; the most prevalent was and is the separation of uses (i.e., residential, industrial, commercial). These policies, destroy communities and innovative economies by creating isolated, unnatural urban spaces.
Economic and political tool to improve the world through design
PlaceIdentity
Injustice
PlaceIdentity
Justice
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his thesis it will begin to examine the intentions of each movement, to gain understanding for the Post-Industrial ruins that are left disseminated throughout the urban fabric. Much like Paolo Portoghesi and Leon Krier, this thesis is suggesting that architecture returns to its roots in practical needs, therefore striving to remediate the decomposing urban fabric that has
suffered from Industrialization and to revive a social sense of community and growth. By observing such writings it would allow for a critique of each movement, giving validity to why or why not the utopian rhetoric would be applicable to contemporary society. This review will begin by examining the history and ideology of the Industrial Revolution to the history and intentions of modernism followed by the movements which seeked to undo the misfortunes of modernism and to create a Utopian society.
In the article ‘History and Ideology’, Ronald Max Hartwell provides an honest and yet disgruntled account of the Industrial Revolution. As a historian of the British Industrial Revolution, he believed that it is “important to expose the ideological content of historical controversy”. (Hartwell, 380) R.M. Hartwell caused great controversy through his perspective of the Industrial Revolution and the economic growth, as he believed that the myth of “immiseration” was the “one supreme myth which more than any other has served to discredit the economic system to which we owe our present day civilization”. (Hartwell, 380) Though written in 1974, the content of this article remains relevant today as it acknowledges that the ills of modern society are attributed to Industrialization. The Industrial Revolution, though promoting prosperity and economic growth, actually showed slow economic growth and extreme poverty, due to severe living and working conditions. As Modernism emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, it too, created “social unrest, rapid industrialization and urbanization”. (Habermas) Hartwell allows a sense of skepticism to both the Industrial Revolution and Modernism and by doing so, seems to suggest another movement that will endeavor a “fix”, for lack of a better word.
In Ziyi Feng and Lijun Xing’s article, ‘A Contemporary Interpretation of Marx’s Thoughts on Modernity’, modernism manifested itself in all aspects of social life proclaiming that it could solve all problems concerning economy, politics, culture, society and many other factors.(Feng, 255) This text alludes to how modernism was to be a revolution. Modernism was seeking to be a new and radical reform to social issues of all matters. Though naive to say, it would seem to suggest that architecture was ameans of creating an Utopia. That architecture could in fact be a solution to how the make world a slightly better place. However in this time it would seem that social activism was becoming a patron-less class and the philanthropist had been removed, which feels accurate to say, when considering the figure who were leading
this movement. In an attempt to promote a “patron” the CIAM was founded in 1928. Considered to be an avant-garde association; architects such as Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier and many other well now “elitist” architects, had intended to serve the interest of society by progressing modernism and industrialism of architecture forward. The only problem, as mentioned before, these architects were in fact an Elitist group, therefore, they would never have to suffer the conditions which the general population would. So one may be skeptical to the great cause they were seeking, however, I do realize that this may seem to be a rather cynical approach to their discourse on urbanism, and with that said, this source will require more attention to dissect the many changes executed during their 48 year term. It would be clear that the idea is there, but the rigor and execution would deem less than mediocre.
As Modernism is often considered the “architecture of good intentions”; these intentions much like those of the Industrial Revolution would be considered a failure. As Charles Jencks said, “modernism failed as mass housing and city building partly because it failed to communicate with its inhabitants,” therefore, it did not make an effective link with the city and/or history. ( Jencks, 37) This source could provide great insight as this thesis progresses, in that it will remain at the forefront of the intentions proposed. Research will show how the community is affected by such environments and what could make them thrive once again. Another architectural theorist and historian that shared similar views as Charles Jencks was Christian Norberg Schulz. Though slightly more poetic, Schulz’s theory would suggest that “modern man becomes “worldless” and thus loses own identity, as well as the sense of community and participation” therefore if this existence becomes meaningless, mankind becomes homeless.( Schulz, 11) As expressed by these authors, Modernism failed in many ways. It did not create better living situations or communities, it didn’t provide economic growth and instead it has left many communities that were reliant upon Industrialism abandoned. Though these sources provide the skepticism of Modernism and its successes, it would important to find a source that would counteract such claims, without being presented as a textbook of facts. Instead it would be helpful to find a source from someone not of the elitist group who felt that modernism was in fact creating a solution for society.
The movement which would follow Modernism was termed Postmodernism. As Modernism rejected history in search of the new spirit, Postmodernism returned to history in hopes of restoring a historical dimension as well as creating an awareness to those who would be affected, but adding a new twist. (Hutcheon, 185) Though some would say that Postmodernism failed to separate from Modernism; which may very well be true, Postmodernism served to remediate the social failures caused by modern architecture. Theorist such as Jean Francois Lyotard, Leon Krier, Clement Greenberg and Tom Wolfe began defining what postmodernism was and what it should become. For
T
Literature Review
14 | Thesis
Jean Francois Lyotard postmodernism is defined as “a grand narrative such as liberation of humanity, progress, increased power and so forth.” For Tom Wolfe, he saw postmodernism as a failure to break completely from Modernism. That as a society, (we) are still seeking the same initial goals as Modernism and as he says “Postmodernism is defined as a period of slackening, a period where everything is de-legitimized.” ( Jencks, 51) Which begs for more understanding to decipher whether Wolfe believes that Postmodernism is slacking because of lack of creativity and drive, or whether it is because we aren’t striving for new goals in architecture and (we) are recreating another failing system? And lastly Leon Krier, believed that each movement could influence each other by gaining a more positive outcome. Kriers critique of current urban planning and architecture, are rather nostalgic, however, he begins to shed light on how the “destroyed fabric of the historic city could be repaired and how a traditional set of well-scaled spaces could be added to these cores.” ( Jencks, 38)
As, Henry-Russell Hitchcock said, “our own generation has largely failed to cope critically with the mass of buildings produced in the booming period of our youth.” (Hitchcock, 31) This quote situates this thesis to accept the failings of modernism as well as to continue being critical of these “mass of buildings” and how to use these structures once more. This quote also seems to suggest that these once prospering places of manufacturing, are now becoming corpses throughout the urban fabric. This thesis is to help better understand how the contemporary society of today can help remediate these industrial ruins that remain mystifying throughout the urban fabric. The question then becomes, what will happen with these structures that have fallen silent in the backdrop of this contemporary world? A frequent method of dealing with the failures of Modernism, one might envision the implosion of Pruitt Igoe, in St. Louis, where such social problems and devastation became a spectacle seen by everyone. These remnants remain a testament of time; a past that once seemed promising, a present that has been crippled, and a future that could create new life. The last sources that will provide a great amount of information is Ideal Cities: Utopianism and the (Un)Built Environments by Ruth Eaton and the The Architecture of Fantasy: Utopian Building and Planning in Modern Times by Ulrich Conrad and Hans G. Sperlich. In the Ideal Cities, Ruth Eaton provides an extensive narrative of the Western societies attempts to create a Utopia and a perfect city. Her research travels from the founding father of Utopia, Thomas More to key players such as Archizoom and Superstudio, who did not humor the utopian methodology. This source provides a lot of information that is present in an unbiased collection of work much like a textbook of information. The only thing that is missing is an opinionated source. With more observation, it will unravel the opinions of many writers from the 14th Century to current day. In the book by Ulrich Conrad and Hans G. Sperlich, it may easier to criticize the usefulness of this text because it was written in 1962, and it isn’t the “utopia today”, however it does remain relevant, in its knowledge of Utopian environments. This book provides an interesting assortment of projects that allude to the notion of Utopia. Projects that do not necessarily scream UTOPIA has several feature that are reminiscent to the idea at large. The most useful information however will come from the section called documents. In this section there are written statements, letters and critical appraisals of from many different fields all reflecting on their ideas in the “Utopian Circular Letters” . These writing consist of people such as Adolf Behne, Walter Gropius, Bruno Taut, Kasimir Malevich and many more. This literature review was a chance to tap into the many different components that would lend itself to the idea of Utopia. It would begin by looking at history and memory, and how that spoke to Modernism who in fact tried to dismiss history. Then it allowed the opportunity to understand the components of Modernism which was trying to remediate what history had contributed, such as the Industrial Revolution. Modernism sought to provide a solution for the social issues that arose during Post Industrialism, instead it made a contribution
to the social unrest that was spread through the world. Utopia isn’t a new idea, however it was an idea that modernist began to cling to when searching how to alleviate the ills of modern society. It would seem that our society is in quite the same predicament. Industries continue to suffer in our economy, leaving peoples living conditions below par at best, while others are forced from their homes. Community lose faith and hope as they turn from being a prosperous area to resemble that of a slum and the identity is lost forever. By conducting this literature review, it allows substance behind endeavors that seek to make contemporary society a more utopianistic environment.
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16 | Thesis
Reformalism
MarxismSocialism
ProgressivismMod
erni
sm
Post
Mod
erni
sm
The Three MagnetsEbenezer Howard1898
The Peaceful Path of Real ReformGarden Cities of TomorrowEbenezer Howard1898
Plan VoisonLe Corbusier1925
A Contemporary City for 3 MillionLe Corbusier1922 Broadacre City
Frank Lloyd Wright1932
Walking CityArchigram1964
Plug In CityArchigram1964
Instant CityArchigram1969
Exodus, The Voluntary PrisonersRem Koolhass1972
The Twelve Ideal CitiesSuperstudio1972
Continuous MonumentSuperstudio1969
No Stop CityAndrea BranziArchizoom1969
New BabylonConstant Nieuwenhuys1967
Une Cite IndustrielleTony Garnier1917
Constructions for a Modern MetropolisMario Chiattone1914
The New City Antonio Sant’Elia1914
Highrise CityLudwig Hilberseimer1924
Berlin Development ProjectLudwig Hilberseimer1928
Flying SettlementWenzel Hablik1907-1914
Bruno Taut1919
The Begum’s FortuneJules Verne1825-1902
News From NowhereJules VerneWilliam Morris1890
Pullman Company TownGeorge Pullman1890
Port SunlightAnonymous1905
House of the Water SurveyorClaude-Nicholas Ledoux1804
PanopticonJeremy Bentham1787
Flying CitiesGeorgy Krutikov1928
PhalansteriesCharles Fourierearly 19th Century
Generic CityRem Koolhaas1994
2000 Ton CityTemporal Cochlea-CityNew York of BrainsSpaceship CItyCity of HemispheresBarnum Jar’s Magnificient and Fabulous CityContinous Production Conveyor Belt CityConical Terraced CityThe “Ville-Machine Habitee”City of OrderCity of the Spendid HouseCity of the Book
Uto
pia
DYSto
pia
"...
”to
pia
Photo by Justin Schmidt
I
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Literature Map
Reformalism
MarxismSocialism
ProgressivismMod
erni
sm
Post
Mod
erni
sm
The Three MagnetsEbenezer Howard1898
The Peaceful Path of Real ReformGarden Cities of TomorrowEbenezer Howard1898
Plan VoisonLe Corbusier1925
A Contemporary City for 3 MillionLe Corbusier1922 Broadacre City
Frank Lloyd Wright1932
Walking CityArchigram1964
Plug In CityArchigram1964
Instant CityArchigram1969
Exodus, The Voluntary PrisonersRem Koolhass1972
The Twelve Ideal CitiesSuperstudio1972
Continuous MonumentSuperstudio1969
No Stop CityAndrea BranziArchizoom1969
New BabylonConstant Nieuwenhuys1967
Une Cite IndustrielleTony Garnier1917
Constructions for a Modern MetropolisMario Chiattone1914
The New City Antonio Sant’Elia1914
Highrise CityLudwig Hilberseimer1924
Berlin Development ProjectLudwig Hilberseimer1928
Flying SettlementWenzel Hablik1907-1914
Bruno Taut1919
The Begum’s FortuneJules Verne1825-1902
News From NowhereJules VerneWilliam Morris1890
Pullman Company TownGeorge Pullman1890
Port SunlightAnonymous1905
House of the Water SurveyorClaude-Nicholas Ledoux1804
PanopticonJeremy Bentham1787
Flying CitiesGeorgy Krutikov1928
PhalansteriesCharles Fourierearly 19th Century
Generic CityRem Koolhaas1994
2000 Ton CityTemporal Cochlea-CityNew York of BrainsSpaceship CItyCity of HemispheresBarnum Jar’s Magnificient and Fabulous CityContinous Production Conveyor Belt CityConical Terraced CityThe “Ville-Machine Habitee”City of OrderCity of the Spendid HouseCity of the Book
Uto
pia
DYSto
pia
"...
”to
pia
18 | Thesis
s t u d i e scaseGASOMETER | THE TANKS AT TATE | ARCHIGRAM | SUPERSTUDIO
ERIN HICKS6.0.1
FALL 2012
The Tanks at Tate Herzog de Meuron
The Continuous Monument Superstudio
Instant City Archigram
GASOMETERVienna Austria
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s t u d i e seter Kropotkin had written in
1912, “But enough! I have before me so many figures, all telling the same tale, that examples could be multiplied at will. It is time to conclude, and, for every unprejudiced mind, the conclusion is self-evident. Industries of all kinds decentralize and are scattered all over the globe; and everywhere a variety, an integrated variety, of trade grows, instead of specialization. (75)
The Gasometers of Vienna are located in Simmering industrial zone. For nearly 90 years the Gasometers of Vienna served as gas storage tanks to supply gas to Vienna. After converting the cities gas to natural gas between 1970 and 1978, it left the gasometers rendered useless. Therefore the gasometers closed their doors.
The Gasometers of Vienna, stands a
testament for the idea of Adaptive Reuse. Instead of allowing this structure to decay in the heart of Vienna, the city chose to preserve the monument with a new multi-functional program. Therefore opening its doors to the community rather than becoming a monument to corporate abandonment.
The significance of this case study is to prove that though the industry has left the current facility, that facility does not have to become a relic left as a testament for its failure. What happens to the community when the industry leaves? Does the community become abandoned as displaced workers are forced to leave? Is there a new program that could be proposed to make that context self sufficient?
By Jean Nouvel, Coop Himmelb[l]ea, Manfred Wehdorn, Wilhelm Holzbauer
Photo courtesy of http://www.corbisimages.com/stock-photo/rights-managed/42-15405251/gasworks-simmering-in-vienna-austria?popup=1
P
Gasworks SimmeringVienna, Austria
20 | Thesis
Gasworks Simmering
In 1892, an international competition was held for a new city gasworks in the city of Vienna. An engineer by the name of Shimming won the competition and four years later Theodor Herrmann, a technical consultant for gas engineering was hired to consult during the production. Construction began October 27, 1896 and was completed July 17, 1899, later opening on October 31, 1899. Standing as a testament to the Industrial Revolution, the Gasometers remained in service until 1986.
Each gasometer has a cylindrical plan and constructed in brick. to read iden-tically. The external diameter is 64.9 meters (approximately 213 feet) and has a foundation base of 1.7 meters (approximately 5.5 feet). The internal diameter that would house the water tank is 62.9 meters (approximately 206 feet). The dome shape roof spans 63.6 meters built using an iron structure with a timber decking clad in zinc sheets. 1
1. http://www.cse.polyu.edu.hk/~cecspoon/lwbt/Case_Studies/Gasometer_City/Gasometer_City.htm
aerial view Vienna Austria via google earth
aerial view Vienna Austria via google earth
Gasworks, Simmering 2012
Gasworks, Simmering
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In the image on the upper right displays the plan and section for the gasometers. As each tank creates a means of housing, building B, designed by Coop Himmelb(l)au also offeres a shopping mall within the interior. In addition to the original tank, Himmelb(l)au created a structure that served much like a parasite to the existing structure that houses program such as a concert hall, student hostels, and health facilities.
diagram by Erin Hicks
toxic diagram by Erin Hicks
gasometer building a interior renderingJean Nouvel
gasometer building c gasometer building d
section and plans
Jean Nouvel's design for Gasometer Building A including apartments that lined the parameter of the structure, and opened to an interior courtyard. It was intended to be a reflection of old verses new.
Manfred Wehdorn's design for Gasometer Building C includes apartments that lined the parameter of the structure, and opened to an interior courtyard. The apartments inside have access to green terraces that fill the space.
Wilhelm Holzbauer's design for Gasometer Building D occupies the center of the existing building with lift and stairs, The interior is composed of three compact sections that are divided by indoor gardens and penetrates the perimeter of the existing building, creating a connection to the exterior.
Photos courtesy of http://www.wiener-gasometer.at
22 | Thesis
he Tanks at Tate Modern was designed by swiss architects Herzog & de Meuron and stood
as icon in the London Olympics of 2012. Located on the south bank of the River Thames this project was a part of the International Design Competition which launced in 1994 and opened in January of 2000. The Tanks at Tate Modern is project that utilizes the redevelopment of three industrial chambers which were rendered "useless" since 1981's decommissioning of the former Bankside Power Station's Oil Tanks. 1
The Bankside Power Station was constructed by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott, who also designed Battersea Power Station and Liverpool Cathedral. Familiar with these massive structures, the building is 660 feet long, constructed with steel frame and brick cladding, which a chimney that stands at 325 feet high. Built in phases, to
1. hhttp://www.designboom.com/architec-ture/the-tanks-at-tate-modern-by-herzog-de-meuron/
continue expanding this sector created electricity while the two other phases were constructed until 1952. The final phase consisted of a building divided into three sections: the main turbine hall, the switching room and the boiler room.
Each tank is approximately seven metres high with a diameter of 30 metres. This brutalist form was built to hold the fuel that would power turbines that create electricity for the majority of the capital from 1952 until 1981. Constructed with massive thick walls, these labyrinth like structures serves as a fort protecting the community in the likelihood of an explosion. Needless to say the architecture for this form was much like the architecture of any industry, which function rather than form. Each raw like wall was carefully constructed based on the practical applications for the industry.
Jacques Herzog, when commenting about the aesthetics said that it would be easy to make these structures in
T
The Tanks
Herzog & de MeuronLondon England
photos courtesy of http://www.tate.org.uk
© Tate Archive 2003
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sung hwan kimthe tanks commission, 2012 installation view© sung hwan kimphoto credit: tate photography
"romantic Piranesian ruins but it would be a trap - it becomes kitsch." 2 Instead each tank remained brutalist, in that the structure remained simple with a single door, in hopes that the scale would overwhelm the occupant. These walls then become almost mute, as they fall to the background while the art and performance spaces demand the attention.
Much of this internal structure remained intact and unscathed which only emphasizes its charm. However, though many admire the new addition, I wonder if that competes with nostalgic structure that leeches itself to the more modern structure, or possibly vice versa. Then again, is the remaining of this building a look back; almost nostalgic, to correct the failures of industry that once stood?
2. http://www.guardian.co.uk/artand-design/2012/jul/01/tanks-tate-modern-review
photos courtesy of http://www.tate.org.uk
The Tanks
© Tate Archive 2003
© Tate Archive 2003
diagram by Erin Hicks
24 | Thesisphotos courtesy of http://www.tate.org.uk
The Tanks
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26 | Thesis
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etween 1961 and 1974 Archigram and its theories were spreading throughout the architecture world like wildfire. Nine issues
of Archigram magazine, three television programs, many conferences, lectures, sketches made their theories grow with excitement. In their work they were constantly unveiling the a window into the world of to tomorrow , in hypothetical situations that embraced a futuristic image through collage. Through their collages they were able to give life and vitality to the surrounding building that otherwise remained unnoticed by the general public. Their ambitions were to adapt new scenes of what the silent buildings could become through radical changes. Archigrams did not only look at these structures as permenant entities but instead an object that could be customized and manipulated. Architecture was not about monumentality or to be preserved as musuems but instead adapted to the users needs at that given time.
Archigram's approached can be summed in theire quote " when you are looking for a solution to what you have been told is an architectural problem - remember, the solution may not be a conventional building." A building that is a snapshot to what the world was investigate at that given time which may not be acceptable for the changing period. Thus a building would need to adapt to constantly change in order to stay relevant with the changing world. "Archigrams output was excitement over what this new world was going to look like." 1 Archigram has similarities to the voices of early modernism as both were trying to create a new spirit for architecture. As modernism sought to reject history to find a new social agenda due to current global situation, ie wars, depression, etc. Archigram strived to find a new voice in an age following such
1. Cook, Peter. "Boys at Heart." In Archigram. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999. 2-3
destructions where nothing was being built. Both were searching a for a new vitality to community and ultimately a better life. "Cities should generate, reflect and activate life, their structure organized to precipitate life and movement." 2 In an age were technology is constantly evolving making the last minutes gadget nearly obsolete, Archigram was at the forefront of technological progression in 1966. Their ideas towards technology were before their time, as the were seeking for technology to readily available to their clients, as well as being able to alter their environment often. Therefore life would be a real virtuality as opposed to a virtual reality.
2. Cook, Peter. "Editorial from Archigram 3." Archigram. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1999. 16.
By Archigram
B
Instant City
pEter cook warren chalk ron herron dennis crompton michael webb david greene
Photos courtesy of Archigram Archival ProjectResearch Centre for Experimental Practice at the University of Westminster
28 | Thesis
nstant City can be said to have a relation to Le Corbusiers theory of housing as a machine for living. Essentially the Instant City is a responsive machine in which the environment is conditioned through an assmbly configured
by a robot. It would then suggest that if being implemented to a factory which once used its machine to make a product could in turn be responsive to assemebling the environment in its surrounding context. Though the images can be quiet alarming at Archigram's intervention, essentially it is a system of intervening with a site that has lost a sense of vitality or identity. After which the Instant City moves in and creates technological hubs, satellite televisions, outdoor theaters filling the sky. After the infiltration the caravans will leave behind a new city embarking on a new system. The Instant City is very much like Archigram's Plug In City project. That the end result is constantly open ended as the consumer has direct control the the enrvironment they are seeking.
IInstant City
diagrams by Erin Hicks
Photos courtesy of Archigram Archival Project
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Peter Cook David Greene MIke Webb Ron Herron Warren chalk Dennis crompton
Photos courtesy of Archigram Archival ProjectResearch Centre for Experimental Practice at the University of Westminster
A Walking CityBy Archigram
As mentioned before Archigram was known more for their evocative and provocative ideas of how to revitalize a community through their optimistic spirit. As most of their work was being produced during a time social uphevel, such as the Vietnam War, their work was an attempt to remove themselves from the past. Therefore they could implement a new social change to not only architecture but the surrounding context. As technology was becoming more advanced - these new machines of living could foster new possiblities to how contemporary communities networked themselves to sustain.
Photos courtesy of Archigram Archival Project
A Walking City was envisioned in 1968. With NASA on the cusp of a moon landing near in sight it is not difficult to see how technology was in fact a driving force behind their work.
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So much of Archigrams work suggests the temporary nature of their structures. Due to technology rapidly advancing Archigrams projects do not possess a permenant site but instead focuses on the objects that are intending to be temporary. For example in Walk City, the strcture serves as a hub on legs that allows one to be much like a nomad. As Peter Blake says, "the structures are conceived to plug into utilities and information networks at different locations to support the needs and desires of people who work and play, travel and stay put, simultaneously." 1
1University of Westminter. "Archigram Archival Project." Archigram Archival Project. http://archigram.westminster.ac.uk (accessed December 9, 2012)
Photos courtesy of Archigram Archival ProjectResearch Centre for Experimental Practice at the University of Westminster