• Taxonomy: Branch of biology that groups all life according to their characteristics and history

• All life on earth is placed into 1 of 6 kingdoms:– Eubacteria– Archaea– Protista– Fungi– Plants– Animals

• Developed classification system based on physical features

• Binomial Nomenclature: System of giving every organism 2 names– 1st word: Genus (broad)– 2nd word: Species (specific)

• Example: House cat– Genus: Felis (cougars, lions,

tigers, cheetahs, etc…)– Species: catus

• When Writing:–Genus capitalized–species lowercase–Underlined entirely

Ex: Homo sapiens

• When Typing:–Same, except use italics

Ex: Homo sapiens

• 7 individual levels (taxa) used to classify organisms Kingdom (broadest) Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species (specific)

• Allows relationships to be clearly seen

The more levels in common...the more related the species.

• Taxonomy: grouping life according to shared traits (not just physical)

• 1) Morphology: studying the form and structure of organisms– Comparing the

morphology (traits) of different species shows similarities and/or differences

Morphology Shows Non-Relationships Also!

• Comparing DNA, amino acids, & proteins

• DNA mutations occur at known rates–Splits in evolution can be

estimated based on how different DNA between 2 organisms is

–More different the DNA…longer ago common ancestor

• Patters of development studied to identify relatedness• Blastopore (1st opening of embryo) shows humans &

starfish are more related than humans & squid

Mouth Anus Anus

• Defined: Evolutionary history of an organism• Shown by cladograms

– Group life according to similaritiesHow many traits does a primate & amphibian share?Which organisms do not have amniotic eggs?

all have amniotic eggs

• Virus: A biological particle composed of nucleic acid and protein

• Intracellular Parasites: organism that must “live” inside a host

Topic 2: Viruses

• Reproduce• Have nucleic acid• Adapt to

surroundings• Have organization

• Not made of cells or organelles

• Can’t reproduce on own• Don’t metabolize energy• Don’t perform cellular

processes

Are viruses alive?

• All Have:–1) Capsid: coat of

protein that surrounds nucleic acid

–2) Nucleic Acid: RNA or DNA

• Some Have:–Tail Fibers: Used for

attachment (not legs)• Shapes vary

1st Step: Attachment– Virus attaches to a cell receptor– No attachment = No infection

2nd Step: Entry– Virus enzyme weakens cell membrane– Genetic material (DNA or RNA) enters host cell

3rd Step: Replication– Virus DNA/RNA makes virus proteins by transcription/

translation

4th Step: Assembly– New virus proteins are assembled into new viruses

5th Step: Release– Virus enzyme causes host to burst– Viruses are released to find new host…Cycle repeats

Host cell

DNA

Pro-phage

1) Attachment: Virus attaches to host cell

2) Entry: Virus nucleic acid enter the cell, but combines with host cell DNA.

Pro-phage

Pro-phage

Pro-phage

The host cell divides by mitosis, making a copy of the prophage each time.

Two infected cells.

Pro-phage

Pro-phage

Two cells divide my mitosis to make 4 infected cells.

Four infected cells divide by mitosis to make 8…and so on….

Virus DNA eventually becomes active and starts to create viruses following the stages of the lytic cycle.

All infected cells burst, releasing many more viruses to restart the cycle.

• Prokaryote– Cells w/o nucleus & membrane

bound organelles– Chromosome & plasmids float

freely in cytoplasm• Ribosomes

– create proteins• Flagella

– used in movement• Pili

– act as anchors– Connect to other cell during

conjugation • Endospore

– “cocoon” to protect DNA in harsh times

• Many bacteria grow in colonies

• 3 Basic Shapes:

• 1) Rod• 2) Spherical• 3) Spiral

Bacteria Asexual Reproduction

• Binary Fission: asexual reproduction where one cell splits into two cells– Both cells have identical sets of DNA– Less genetic diversity

Click pic

Bacteria Sexual Reproduction

• Conjugation: process where DNA is exchanged between bacteria cells

• Cells connect by pili• DNA duplicated and then exchanged• Creates genetic diversity

Gene to resist ampicillin Gene to resist ampicillin

• Anaerobic– Obligate anaerobic = cannot live in oxygen

• Aerobic– Facultative aerobic = can live with or without oxygen– Obligate aerobic = must live in oxygen

The bacteria that causes TB lives in your lungs…which type is it?

Identifying Bacteria with Gram Staining

• Gram negative:• stains pink• extra outer layer• harder to treat

• Gram positive:• stains purple• lack extra covering• easier to treat

HEALTHY GINGIVITIS

MODERATE PERIODONTITIS ADVANCED PERIODONTITIS

Topic 4: Protista

Protista in General• Usually unicellular• Reproduction:

– Asexual, Sexual, Both• Kingdom for life that

doesn’t fit in animals, plant or fungi kingdom

• Mostly aquatic life• 3 main categories based on

feeding– Animal-like– Plant-like– Protista-like

Animal-Like Protista (Protozoans)• Aquatic, unicellular• Heterotrophic

– Feed & ingest prey– pathogens, parasites,

predators– 3 subcategories based on how

they move

• 1) Pseudopods : have pseudopodia (false- feet)– Engulf by phagocytosis

• 2) Flagellates: have flagella• 3) Ciliates: have cilia

Pseudopod (Amoeba) feeding

Pseudopod Video Clips

File title: Amoeba2 File title: Amoeba4

Ciliates Video Clip

File title: Paramecia2 File title: Rotifer2

Flagelletes Video Clip

File title: Euglena2 File title: Euglena

Animal-Like Protista & Disease

• Malaria: Infected mosquito bites– Fever, vomiting,

coma, death• Sleeping sickness:

bite of tsetse flies– Coma & death

Plantlike Protista• AKA: Algae• Perform photosynthesis with

chloroplasts– Provide ~ ½ the O2 on earth– Most unicellular– Phytoplankton: basis of aquatic

food chains (producers)• Few multicellular

– Seaweed, kelp• Why not plants?

– No true leaves, stems, or roots– most unicellular

Fungus-like Protista• Heterotrophs

– Decomposers: recycle nutrients– Absorb nutrients

• Moist environments• Slime Molds: large (~1 meter)

single celled mass of cytoplasm

• Water molds: can be parasitic– Potato blight: disease & the Irish

potato famine

Fungi Structure & Basics

• Hyphae: thin strands of cells that make up the fungus body– Hyphae spread into a larger mass (mycelium)

• Fruiting body: Above-ground reproductive structure• Cell wall of chiton (common to animals)• Heterotrophs: hyphae release enzymes to absorb nutrients• Classification determined by sexual reproduction methods

Zygote Fungi• Bread Molds• Some help “fix” nitrogen in

atmosphere• Asexual Reproduction

– Sporangia produce spores– Spores can grow into new

hyphae when released

...

Hyphae grow into a mat of mycelium

Sporangia release spores

.. .

ground

Haploid spores land

Sporangia grow from the mycelium

.. .

ground

The process repeats

Zygote Fungi

• Sexual reproduction– Hyphae from 2 organisms

fuse and form a diploid zygospore

– Zygospore grows new hyphae when released

ground

Spores land

Hyphae grow into a mat of mycelium

Hyphae of fungus #1 Hyphae of fungus #2

Hyphae of fungi grow together

Diploid zygospore is created

New diploid hyphae grow from the zygospore

Hyphae grow into a mat of mycelium….

Sporangia release spores

.. .

ground

Sporangia grow from the mycelium

ground

The cycle repeats

Hyphae of fungus #1 Hyphae of fungus #2

.. .

ground

Club Fungi

• Basidia: club-like structure that produces sexual spores (located in gills underneath)

• Hyphae of two individuals grow into mycelium• Fruiting body created to make spores

Club Fungi

ground

Fungus #1 mycelium grows underground….Fungus #2 mycelium grows underground

Diploid fruiting body grows from the mass

Haploid spores created & released from the underside of the fruiting body

. . . . .Two fungi grow together and fuse

Spores will land

ground

Spores will land

New hyphae will grow into a new mycelium

Cycle repeats

Sac Fungi

• Ascus: sac that contain spores during sexual reproduction

• Two hyphae grow together to create fruiting body• Spores released• Ex: Yeast, morals, truffles

ground

Fungus #1 mycelium grows underground….Fungus #2 mycelium grows underground

Diploid fruiting body grows from the mass

Haploid spores created & released from the ascus

Two fungi grow together and fuse

Spores will land

ground

Spores will land

New hyphae will grow into a new mycelium

Cycle repeats

Lichens

• Fungus + blue-green bacteria or green algae• Mycelium of fungi surrounds the green organism• Grow on rocks (pioneer species), soil, trees• Mutualistic relationship

– Algae/bacteria: obtains warmth, substrate to grow in– Fungus: obtains food

• Food source & help create soil during succession

Topic 6: Plants

Plant Evolution• Evolved from green algae

(450 mya)• Green algae ancestor

– Multicellular body– Cells w/ channels to

communicate– Reproduce w/ sperm &

egg• Early plants

– Low growth (nonvascular)

Land Adaptations

• Retain Moisture– Early plants grew near waters edge– Cuticle: waxy coating

Land Adaptations

• Transporting Resources– Vascular system: tissue to transport nutrients

• Up from the roots (ex: water)• Down from the leaves (ex: sugars)

– Allows taller growth

Land Adaptations

• Growing upright– Large plants need to support own weight– Lignin: hardens cell wall; gives wood strength

Land Adaptations

• Reproduction on land– Pollen: carried by wind/animals– Seeds: hard coat protects embryo inside

Alternation of generations (In general)• Diploid zygote created• Diploid zygote grows into

a diploid sporophyte• Haploid spores created by

meiosis• Haploid spores grow into

haploid gametophytes– Male gametophyte creates

haploid sperm– Female gametophyte

creates haploid egg• Sperm and egg fuse to

make a diploid zygote• Cycle restarts

Group 1: Seedless, Nonvascular Plants

• Live in moist environments to reproduce

• Liverworts• Hornworts• Mosses

Group 1: Seedless, Nonvascular Plants• Mosses

– Grow low to ground to retain moisture (nonvascular)

– Lack true leaves– Common pioneer

species during succession

– Gametophyte most common (dominant)

Moss Life Cycle

gametophyte

1)Moss gametophytes grow near the ground (haploid stage)

2) Through water, sperm from the male gametophyte will swim to the female gametophyte to create a diploid zygote

3) Diploid sporophyte will grow from zygote

4) Sporophyte will create and release haploid spores

.....sporophyte

eggegg

egg egg

malemale male malefemalefemalefemalefemale

zygotezygo

te

zygote

zygote

5) Haploid spores land and grow into new gametophytes

groundgametophyte

6) The process repeats

gametophyte

.....sporophyte

eggegg

egg egg

malemale male malefemalefemalefemalefemale

zygotezygo

te

zygote

zygote

Group 2: Seedless, Vascular Plants• Vascular system allows

nutrient transport to greater heights

• Live in moist environments to reproduce

• Club mosses• Horsetails• Ferns

Group 2: Seedless, Vascular Plants

• Ferns– Vascular: allows taller growth– Haploid spores (meiosis) on underside of fronds– Spores grow into gametophyte– Sperm & egg create a zygote

Fern Life Cycle

AdultSporophyte (diploid)

...

.

1) Sporophyte creates and releases haploid spores

ground

ground

2) Haploid spores land in the soil

ground

3) From the haploid spores, gametophyte grows in the soil

Let’s zoom in

4) Sperm swim through water from the male parts (antheridium) to the female parts (archegonia)Let’s zoom back out

eggegg

egg

zygote

zygote

zygote

ground

5) Diploid sporophyte grows from the zygote

sporophyte

6) Fronds uncurls into leaves.

ground

7) Cycle repeats -- Haploid spores created and released

..

..

ground

Haploid spores land in the soil

ground

From the haploid spores, gametophyte grows in the soil

Let’s zoom in

Sperm swim through water from the male parts (antheridium) to the female parts (archegonia)Let’s zoom back out

eggegg

egg

zygote

zygote

zygote

ground

Diploid sporophyte grows from the zygote

sporophyte

Fronds uncurls into leaves.

ground

Cycle repeats

..

..

Seeds and their advantages• 1) Seed plants don’t depend

on water to reproduce– Pollen (contains sperm)

combines with egg– Egg hardens into a seed

• 2) Nourishment and protection– Nourish: Nutrients inside

seed for the embryo– Protection: Hard shell

• 3) Allow dispersal– Carried by wind, water,

animals

Group 3: Seed producing, Vascular Plants

• Type 1: Gymnosperms• Seeds not enclosed in a

fruit– produced inside cones

• Cone = reproductive structure

• Male cones: produce pollen

• Female cones: produce eggs and seeds

Group 3: Seed producing, Vascular Plants• Gymosperm example:

Conifers– Cone plants– Needle-like leaves– Common to lumber

industry– Evergreen, Pine,

Redwood, Cedar

Conifer Life Cycle

1) Male and female seed cones grow in adult sporophytes

2) Pollen grains released from the male seed cones-- Pollen is the male gametophyte

eggzygote

egg egg

egg

zygote

zygote

zygote

Male cones make pollen Female cones make eggs

3) Seeds begin to harden inside the female cones

seed

seed

seed

seed

4) Seeds released

5) Seed will land

ground

6) Seedling grows into (sporophyte)…the cycle repeats

ground

1) Male and female seed cones grow in adult sporophytes

eggzygote

egg egg

egg

zygote

zygote

zygote

Male cones make pollen Female cones make eggs

3) Seeds begin to harden inside the female cones

seed

seed

seed

seed

4) Seeds released

5) Seed will land

ground

6) Seedling grows into (sporophyte)…the cycle repeats

ground

Group 3: Seed producing, Vascular Plants

• Type 2: Angiosperms (flowering plants)

• Flower = reproductive structure– Protects gamete and

fertilized eggs• Seeds enclosed in a fruit

– Fruit: Plant ovary– Often attract animals

to disperse the seeds inside

Fruit Production

• In the seed– Embryo– Food supply

• Surrounding ovary grows into a fruit

• Fruit attracts animals to eat and spread the seeds Fruit seeds in fox droppings

Angiosperm types(flowering plants)

• 2 groups: Monocots and Dicots (based on seed type)• Cotyledon: embryonic leaf• Monocots: embryo with 1 seed leaf• Dicots: embryo with 2 seed leaves

Angiosperm Life Spans• Three Life Span Types:• Annuals

– 1 year: Mature…produce seeds…die

• Biennials– 1st year: produces short stem,

low growth leaves, food reserves

– 2nd year: taller stem, leaves, flowers, seeds

• Perennials– Live for more than 2 years

Flowers• Reproductive structure

of flowering plants• Sepals

– outer ring of leaves– protection

• Petals– Inner ring of leaves – Brightly colored to

attract pollinators• Open petals & sepals

reveal male and female structures

Flowers • Female Carpel– Inner most part– Ovary: within the

base (female gametophyte)

– Stigma: sticky tip, collects pollen

• Male Stamen– Surrounds carpel– Anther: produces

pollen (male gametophyte)

Angiosperm Life Cycle

Pollen stick to animal or released into wind

Animal finds a new flower to feed on

Pollen transferred to the stigma….seeds develop

eggzygote

Flower petals start to fall off and dies

zygote

Fruit falls to ground

Animals eat fruit….seeds come out the other end…cycle repeats

seed

Pollen stick to animal or released into wind

Animal finds a new flower to feed on

Pollen transferred to the stigma….seeds develop

eggzygote

Flower dies

zygote

Fruit falls to ground

Animals eat fruit….seeds come out the other end…cycle repeats

seed

End of the Semester!