topic four: emotional intelligence

165t o p i c F o U R : e m o t i o n a l i n t e l l i g e n c e

topic FoUR: Emotional intelligence

overviewThis topic is about emotional intelligence (EI), a predictor of educational and career success and a fast growing subject in the behavioural sciences. Any management development program is predicated on the need for a high level of self-awareness in applying the skills and knowledge imparted. Self-awareness, which is the first subject of this topic, is a key characteristic of managing in. It forms a general principle that underlies all capability and learning. The first dimension of EI is recognising and regulating your emotions, and the second is social competence in recognising and regulating others’ emotions. EI can be developed in the workplace. Carefully controlled research studies have demonstrated numerous benefits in terms of improved ability to deal with intrapersonal and interpersonal relationships on the job.

Learning objectiveson successful completion of this topic, you will be able to:

1. explain emotional intelligence.

2. Diagnose your self-awareness.

3. evaluate the evidence for emotional intelligence.

4. carry out a self-assessment to identify your ei strengths and weaknesses.

5. give practical examples of how it can be developed and applied in the workplace.

6. Develop strategies to address the analysis’ results.

4.1 Looking at Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is very relevant to public sector work, considering the issues and problems the sector deals with:

Emotional labor—work that is relational and involves the manipulation and expression of emotions—is labor intensive and is required of many public service workers if they are to perform their jobs well (Mastracci, Newman & Guy 2006:123).

In this section we will look at the initial emergence of EI, its genesis, its growing popularity and how it differs from cognitive intelligence. EI is defined here following Mayer et al. (1999:267 in Daus & Ashkanasy 2003:70):

166 p S M U n i t 3 : m a n a g i n g i n : e t h i c s a n D c a r e e r m a n a g e m e n t i n t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r

Emotional intelligence refers to an ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and their relationships, and to reason and problem-solve on the basis of them. Emotional intelligence is involved in the capacity to perceive emotions, assimilate emotion-related feelings, understand the information of those emotions, and manage them.

The concept has gained increasing support in recent years and has set records for growth in psychology (Kunnanatt 2004). Professor Daniel Goleman of Harvard University has been largely responsible for popularising EI but a more scientific and rigorous approach has been pursued by Mayer, Salovey and Caruso. The latter have produced the Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT – pronounced mess-keet) (Wiley 2005:12). This test is described as follows:

The MSCEIT is a 141-item test that measures how well people perform tasks and solve emotional problems on eight tasks, which are divided into four classes or branches of abilities, including (a) perceiving emotions, (b) facilitating thought, (c) understanding emotions, and (d) managing emotions. Correct answers are evaluated in terms of agreement with a general (or expert) consensus, which closely converge (Mayer et al., 2002b). Analysis of the data by the test publisher provides five scores, including one for each branch and one for total EI. (Brackett & Mayer 2003:4).

Thus the MSCEIT has very good psychometric properties.

The following simple example shows how EI works:

one example of an automatic response taking over and escalating a conflict out of proportion to the circumstances is a typically masculine situation when one person perceives an unintended slight in the course of a slightly drunken conversation and responds angrily (his normal defensive response to threat). the person who made the remark now also feels threatened and fires up.

the situation gets rapidly out of hand as the angry response of one increases the challenge to the other and the cause of all this drama is no more than a misinterpreted innocuous remark. neither of the participants is focused on the reality of the situation, only on their emotional responses to perceived threat.

by noticing when we feel emotional twinges (for example, i feel anxious, or challenged, or pleased, or vindictive, or frustrated) we have a key tool to understanding what is really happening.

When we feel strong emotional responses, the challenge is not to control the response (after all, that is what is giving me the information). the challenge is to be able to stand back and say, ‘What is going on here?’ in the instance of two blokes butting heads, if the guy who originally felt insulted were to notice his angry feelings his thoughts might be: ‘hey, that wasn’t called for!

‘oh ... that got me going. i wonder what’s going on here?

‘What did he say again? i wonder if he meant to sound that way?’

and then he might reply: ‘are you upset with me?’

this series of thoughts follows a particular process; first, the angry response, then the awareness of the emotional change. only then can he ask, ‘What’s going on here?’

that is, ‘What is going on with me?’ by standing back and revisiting the comment, our friend could realise that there were alternative interpretations.

the question then becomes, ‘What’s going on with you?’


he is now trying to understand what the other person feels. by asking, ‘are you upset with me?’ our friend can clarify whether the slight was intended or not.

more importantly, such an empathy response – a genuine attempt to understand what the other person is feeling goes a long way towards regenerating goodwill.

if his friend is angry, then this empathy recognition will usually calm the situation (rather than inflame it further) and provide an opportunity to deal with the real issue. if not, it will provide a chance to explore the misinterpretation.

as with all these interpersonal skills, recognising and naming the emotional interplays in conversation takes practice. next time you are in a meeting, draw up a piece of paper into two columns. head one column: ‘i’m feeling ...’ head up the other column: ‘they are feeling ...’

each time you feel an emotional charge see if you can fill out these two columns. When you decide you are getting a handle on this process, trying attaching a ‘want’ the real underlying want – behind each feeling.

For example, ‘i feel annoyed’ because ‘you let me down and you don’t seem to care,’ and ‘i want to feel more respected by you,’

You might be surprised at the range of alternative responses that become available simply by recognising the underlying emotions (Dagley 2004:23).

As you can see from this example, demonstrating high EI requires being able to step back from the situation and look at underlying emotions and to exhibit self-control.

The concept of self-regulation is woven boldly through models of emotional intelligence. Bar-On (2000) includes impulse control in the Stress Management branch of his model of emotional quotient. Managing Emotions, the highest branch of Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso’s (2000) ability-based EI model, could perhaps be synonymous with self-regulation of emotions. And the Self-Management cluster, including Emotional Self-Control, is one of Goleman’s main emotional competence categories (Boyatzis et al., 2000; Chang 2007:1).

Regulation and control are strong themes though all versions of EI.

Required Reading 4.1Kunnanatt, Jt 2004, ‘emotional intelligence: the new science of interpersonal effectiveness’, Human

Resource Development Quarterly, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 489–95.

this excellent short reading explains at length the processes used in developing ei and tells us a lot about what goes on inside individuals. it also outlines the history of the concept, gives a different definition or perspective than the ones used so far, including a useful diagram, provides a biological perspective on ei which is also novel, and articulates the elements of ei.

4.1.1 Emergence and Genesis

EI was first alluded to decades ago by Howard Gardner, who referred to interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. The term emotional intelligence


was formally used by Salovey and Mayer seven years later (Rozell et al. 2002). The concept of EI has been further developed and popularised by Goleman (1995 in Rozell et al. 2002) whose name is most often associated with the concept in the ‘lay’ literature (McBain 2004). However, Mayer, Salovey and Caruso are the recognised scientific or academic proponents.

4.1.2 Popularity

Encouragingly, our culture (by way of magazine articles and TV shows) has begun to recognise the importance of this type of intelligence, perhaps even more than traditional cognitive intelligence, in successfully interacting with others and coping with a complex world. EI has also made its way into the top tier scholarly journals giving it academic credibility. EI is now seen as virtually essential to effective leadership and the link between high EI and performance is well established. An organisation with a culture that values EI is more likely to have senior leaders with high EI (Morehouse 2007).

4.1.3 Distinction from Cognitive Intelligence

EI is sometimes referred to as a person’s EQ, meaning emotional quotient, to distinguish it from IQ, or intelligence quotient. EI advances the theory that there is a separate type of social intelligence unrelated to traditional abstract intelligence that is concerned with numeracy, literacy, reasoning and so on. Further:

our emotions have a ‘wisdom’ of their own and need to be considered as separate – but equally important – types of brain activity. EI … is not only distinct from thinking intelligence but also sometimes conflicts with it, when our rational mind refuses to accept what our emotions tell us (Witzel 2003:11).

Standard forms of measuring intelligence do not address either interpersonal skills (relating to other people) or intrapersonal skills (such as the ability to manage emotions). EI thus marks a departure from traditional attitudes about mental skills. Some now group intelligence into three clusters:

• abstractintelligence

• concreteintelligence

• socialintelligence.

EI thus forms one of a range of human intelligences.

4.2 conceptual Elements of Ei: three Views

To recap, EI refers to understanding your own and other people’s emotions. Put simply, the social skills associated with high EI make people easy to be with and nice to be around – an important quality if you want to lead and influence people and be a good role model (Jones 2004). Here we look at how three different authors conceive of EI processes and elements.


4.2.1 Salovey and Mayer

In the first view according to Salovey and Mayer, EI consists of three mental processes:

• appraisingandexpressingyouremotionsandthoseofotherpeople,including verbal and non-verbal components

• regulatingyourownandothers’emotions

• usingemotionstofacilitatethought,suchasflexibleplanning,creativethinking and motivation (1990 in Rozell et al. 2002). Note that the point is about using emotions. Flexible planning, creative thinking, motivation etc are not part of EI. EI facilitates these.

4.2.2 Goleman

In the second view, Goleman puts forward five mental processes or competencies:

• self-awareness–abilitytomonitoryourownfeelingsonanongoingbasis

• self-regulation–abilitytoexertself-control,trustworthiness,conscientiousness, adaptability and innovation. Again emotional self-control facilitates adaptability and innovation, rather than these characteristics being part of EI.

• self-motivation–controllingemotionsthatfacilitategoalachievement

• socialawareness(empathy)–beingawareofhowotherpeoplearefeeling,what they need and what they are concerned about

• socialskills(relationshipmanagement)–usingsocialawareness(Rozelletal.2002).

4.2.3 Cooper and Sawaf

To look at the third and slightly different view, Cooper and Sawaf (1997 in Rozell et al. 2002) used the following terminology:

• emotionalliteracy–understandingyouremotionsandhowtheyfunction

• emotionalfitness–trustworthiness,emotionalhardiness(resilience)andflexibility

• emotionaldepth–growthandintensity

• emotionalalchemy–usingfeelingsoremotionstodiscovercreativeopportunities.

Required Reading 4.2 bienn, b & caruso, D 2004, Emotional Intelligence Today: What You Need to Know for Testing,

Training and Development, viewed 24 July 2008 <http://www.emotionaliq.com/shrm-ei-models.pdf>.

this reading is a bit of a ‘sell’ for the mayer, salovey and caruso version of ei but it does pose some useful practical questions about how to choose an ei approach for your workplace. it also reviews different approaches to ei that can be added to the above lists.


Activity 4.1 – comparing the three views

the discussion of ei above presented three different views or lists of ei from different authors (salovey & mayer, goleman, and cooper & sawaf). the reading also presents different authors (goleman, bar-on and mayer, salovey and caruso). Your task here is to do a comparative analysis of at least two of these. the technique is useful for analysing material and manipulating it in a way that is desirable in academic pursuits. it can be a useful strategy for your assignments.

Draw up a table with at least three columns and about six rows (see below). put the list from each model or theory in the columns of the table, under the relevant author headings. as you enter the details, sort them out so that similar concepts in the different columns are parallel across rows. that is, where two sources have the same idea or approach, put them down next to each other. concepts in one model that do not seem to have a parallel in another should be shown in a new row of the table.

this way you can take seemingly different views of a concept such as ei and consolidate or synthesise them into one by making a combined list and eliminating duplicate elements. by making comments in the last column, you contribute your own intellectual capital to the analysis.

By contrast, Table 4.1 is a different way of integrating the elements of EI into one framework, using two dimensions, with recognition versus regulation in the vertical and self versus others on the horizontal.

Salovey & Mayor 1990

cooper & Sawaf 1997

Goleman 1995

Bar-on (in Bienn & caruso 2004)

comment/analysis


table 4.1 Summary of Ei elements

Source: Goleman n.d, in CREIO 2001.

EI captures the dynamic nature of our inner processes of intelligent self-awareness in combination with our awareness of others.

4.3 Diagnosing Self-Awareness

Clearly self-awareness is fundamental to EI. In this section we review self-awareness and look at an assessment activity. There is little question that the knowledge we possess about ourselves (which makes up our self-concept) is central to improving our management and leadership skills. We cannot improve ourselves or develop new capabilities until we know what level of capability we currently possess. Individuals may resist acquiring additional information in order to protect their existing self-concept.

Activity 4.2 – assess your self-awareness

this activity is designed to assess your general level of self-awareness. the concept may seem challenging if your current level is low, but it is impossible to be a good leader if you are not attuned to yourself first. note that with all of the assessment instruments in this unit the intent is to promote self-discovery and learning not to test you in the traditional school situation where you are graded and can fail.

Step 1: complete the following questionnaire and score your results using the instructions provided below the table. tick the square from 1 to 6 in the space provided next to the item to indicate whether you strongly disagree, disagree etc.

Recognition

Regulation

other

Social competence

Social awareness:

• Empathy • Service orientation • Organisational awareness

Relationship management:

• Developing others • Influence • Communication • Conflict management • Leadership • Change catalyst • Building bonds • Teamwork and collaboration

Self

personal competence

Self-awareness:

• Emotional self-awareness• Accurate self-assessment • Self-confidence

Self-management:

• Self-control • Trustworthiness • Conscientiousness • Adaptability • Achievement drive • Initiative


item1

Strongly disagree

2Disagree

3Slightly disagree

4Slightly agree

5Agree

6StronglyAgree

1

i seek information about my strengths and weaknesses from others as a basis for self-improvement

2When i receive negative feedback about myself from others, i do not get angry or defensive

3

in order to improve, i am willing to be self-disclosing to others (that is, to share my beliefs and feelings)

4i am very much aware of my personal style of gathering information and making decisions

5

i am very much aware of my own interpersonal needs when it comes to forming relationships with other people

6i have a good sense of how i cope with situations that are ambiguous and uncertain

7i have a well-developed set of personal standards and principles that guide my behaviour

8 i feel very much in charge of what happens to me, good and bad

9i seldom, if ever, feel angry, depressed, or anxious without knowing why

10

i am conscious of the areas in which conflict and friction most frequently arise in my interactions with others

11

i have a close personal relationship with at least one other person with whom i can share personal information and personal feelings


Step 2: items on the self-awareness test are divided into two sub-scales:

1. self-disclosure and openness to feedback from others – items 1, 2, 3, 9, 11.

2. awareness of own values, cognitive style, change orientation and interpersonal orientation – items 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10.

transfer your score on each item to the spaces below and then add up your total for each of the two sub-scales.

typE

Self-disclosure and openness to feedback from others

item 1 _____

item 2 _____

item 3 _____

item 9 _____

item 11 _____

Sub-total _____ (maximum 30)

Awareness of own values, cognitive style, change orientation and interpersonal orientation

item 4 _____

item 5 _____

item 6 _____

item 7 _____

item 8 _____

item 10 _____

Sub-total _____ (maximum 36)

totAL ScoRE _________

Step 3: compare your total score to two standards:

1. the maximum possible (66).

2. a norm group consisting of 500 business school students. in comparison to this norm group, if you scored:

• 55 or above, you are in the top quartile of individual self-awareness

• 52–54, you are in the top half

• 48–51, you are in the bottom half

• 47 or below, you are in the bottom quartile.


Step 4: Discuss your results with others and/or consider the following:

1. What is your current level of self-awareness?

2. What could you do to enhance self-awareness of various personal and style attributes? answer this question by reviewing individual items with low scores.

3. What advantages/disadvantages does self-awareness provide you as a manager?

4. have a look at your responses to Questions 2, 3, 5, 9, 10 and 11 as these are more specific to ei, and form a conclusion about this aspect of your self-awareness.

Keep in mind that, similar to all self-assessment instruments, the results of this questionnaire can only be indicative and should not be taken as definitive or diagnostic.

Source: Carlopio et al. 1998 in Leadership in the knowledge era: Unit 2 – Managing oneself, PSM 1999.

4.4 Ei in practice

The following example shows how even so-called technical experts need to exercise EI at work:

IT professionals have what some would call a well-deserved reputation for lacking people skills. Descriptive terms such as ‘computer nerd’ or ‘techno-geek’ suggest that prowess in technical matters comes at the expense of interpersonal capabilities. Based on this principle, when hiring an IT professional, the candidate that performs most poorly in the interview would be likely to have the greatest level of technical knowledge. Thus a team consisting of badly dressed individuals who never look one another in the eye would likely be highly successful at installing and implementing computer systems

When we consider the many problems, both technical and human, that IT professionals must overcome to successfully complete a technology project, it becomes obvious that interpersonal skills must be an important factor. IT project leaders must understand the values, needs and pressures of their customer in order to develop or select a technical product that will be satisfactory. They must understand the fears and priorities of the end user in order to obtain acceptance and regular use of the system being implemented. Most importantly, IT professionals must establish and maintain a relationship with managers, supervisors and other key players in the customer’s organization in order to ensure their commitment, in spite of technical issues that are bound to arise.

These skills are particularly important in a local government, where the additional factors introduced by the political environment and the public’s perception of a project can affect the customer’s level of commitment. There is no shortage of examples wherein a perfectly sound business system failed miserably in a public sector environment. The factors that distinguish a shining success from a miserable failure are most often those that arise from interpersonal considerations (Carnegie 2004:16)

The same could be said for professionals in other fields. Consider this from an accountant:


Goleman did something special when he introduced the concept of EI. He took the soft and fluffy topic of emotions and repackaged it in a way that appealed to the rational and intellectual style of modern business. He also provided the comforting illusion that emotion is under intellectual control. Emotion is the key to understanding hidden communications. Understanding hidden meanings is about listening well. The starting point for understanding hidden meanings is the ability to notice one’s own emotional responses, rather than simply reacting to the situation on autopilot. As with all interpersonal skills, recognising and naming the emotional interplays in conversation takes practice. The training I received during my accounting studies and my psychology studies stand in sharp contrast. As accountants, we are trained to use precision and logic.

Our work is based primarily on the application of rules and structure and on the exercise of judgment. Despite the fact that considerable grey areas exist in the way in which we complete our tasks, each decision can be defended by a series of logical arguments. Given the environment in which we work and the tasks we are required to complete, this intellectual approach is the only satisfactory method of producing quality outcomes.

Unfortunately, when we apply similar approaches to the management of relationships and people we frequently fall well short (Dagley 2004:43).

EI may thus be an important concept in many varied professions and positions.

4.5 Evaluating the Evidence

The traditional form of intelligence testing – generalised mental ability – can account for about twenty-five per cent of work performance. It has been argued that EI is the missing link in predicting a substantial proportion of the rest (CREIO 2001). If this is so, it is important to look at how EI operates, what difference it can make to work performance and for what sort of work it is most essential. When these study materials were first developed just a few years ago there was very little research in scholarly academic journals about EI. Now, a brief search in just one of the library’s management databases turned up over 100 recent (2006-2008) journal articles, highlighting a significant increase in the credibility and applicability of EI at work.

4.5.1 Two hundred global companies

Goleman (2004:82) in his research at nearly 200 large global companies found that truly effective leaders are distinguished by a high degree of EI. Without it, a person can have first-class training, an incisive mind and an endless supply of good ideas, but they still won’t be a great leader. He also found direct ties between EI and measurable business results.

4.5.2 Private sector firms’ senior executives

Other support for the value of EI at work comes from private firms (Cherniss (2001). For 515 senior executives analysed by the search firm Egon Zehnder


International, those who were strongest in EI were more likely to succeed than those who had either more relevant previous experience or higher IQ. The study included executives in Latin America, Germany and Japan and the results were almost identical in all three cultures.

4.5.3 Business students

In their research on nearly 300 business students, Rozell et al. (2002) identified five main components of EI, which they claim were a close parallel to those originally postulated by Goleman. The Rozell et al. study is limited by the fact that it looks at business students in the United States, which means that the results do not automatically apply to managers in Australia (though they may be indicative).

4.5.4 Student groups and varying EI between accounting and other business disciplines

Different groups of students show different EI levels. Accounting students have lower EI scores than other business students. Students involved in extra-curricular activities such as sports, clubs, societies and the like have higher EI. This suggests that one way to develop EI, in young people at least, is to give them opportunities to interact with a range of other people in a variety of different roles with different challenges. This may seem self-evident, but it wasn’t clear previously that EI was the significant underlying factor. There is also a demonstrated relationship between high EI scores and better academic performance (Rozell et al. 2002).

4.5.5 Israel chief financial officers (CFOs)

In another overseas study, research among CFOs in Israeli local government supported the argument that ‘emotionally intelligent senior managers perform better on the job’ and that EI is important for achieving ‘sustainable results’ (Carmeli 2003:810). Again it is useful to have more scientific research given the possibility that Israeli finance officers are different from Australian public sector managers. How applicable might the results of this study be here?

4.5.6 United States Air Force

The United States Air Force used an EI test to select recruiters (the Air Force’s front-line HR personnel) and found that the most successful recruiters scored significantly higher in the EI competencies of assertiveness, empathy, happiness and emotional self-awareness. The Air Force found that using EI to select recruiters increased their ability to predict successful recruiters by nearly 300 per cent. The immediate gain was a saving of $3 million per annum. This gain resulted in the Government Accounting Office requesting that the Secretary of Defense order all branches of the armed forces to adopt EI as a criterion in recruitment and selection.


4.5.7 Both Genders

Although there has been some speculation that EI is a ‘soft’ skill that might be more associated with women, this isn’t necessarily the case. For example, Hopkins and Bilimoria (2008) measured social and emotional competence of both male and female senior managers and also looked at their performance ratings and business results. They found no gender differences in EI for successful leaders. They did find differences in EI between successful and less successful leaders. Note that male leaders were perceived as more effective even when they rated the same as female leaders.

4.5.8 Range of circumstances

More recent research has continued to support the importance of EI in a range of contexts. ‘Emotional intelligence is a critical factor for effective school boards. A set of six core competencies are universal across the six board practice domains’ (Hopkins et al. 2007:685).

Team leaders with higher EI were shown to have more emotionally competent norms in their groups (Koman & Stubbs 2008:56). Focussing on EI helped one manager to achieve organic growth and improve client satisfaction (Crow 2008). High EI individuals are expected to contribute more to problem solving (Carmeli & Josman 2006:414).

Managers in non-profit organisations were found to have higher EI than those in for-profit organisations (Morehouse 2007). The author of this research speculated that one reason for this finding is that individuals who are drawn to non-profit type work care more about people and values such as education, health, defence etc.

4.5.9 Derailment of leaders’ careers

Research by the Center for Creative Leadership found that the primary causes of ‘derailment’ of leaders’ careers involved deficits in EI. The three primary causes were:

• difficultyinhandlingchange

• notworkingwellinteams

• poorinterpersonalrelations.

If you are left in any doubt that EI is a legitimate subject then read the 134 page review by Jensen, Kohn, Rilea, Hannon & Howells (2007) which explores the evidence base at length including for the well-regarded MSCEIT.

4.6 critique

EI is a powerful and influential concept so it is not surprising that it has attracted its fair share of critics. As McBain (2004:21) says:

EI has captured the imagination of many researchers and practitioners. This probably reflects increased interest in the role of emotions within organizations and the


widespread view that personality and IQ alone are not sufficient to explain variations in employees’ performance. Yet, simultaneously, the construct of EI also generates an equal measure of disdain from some researchers.

One of the problems with EI is that people often make inflated claims about how valuable it is, and also lack clarity about exactly what it is. There have also been criticisms of the ‘fadification’ of EI (Dasborough 2007:236).

4.6.1 Intangible concepts

One of the difficulties in psychology is obtaining dependable measures of abstract, intangible concepts such as EI. Therefore one of the main grounds for criticising work in this area is the reliability and validity of various tests and measurements of EI and thus the difficulty of testing the theory itself (Jordan et al. 2003). Another criticism is that test measures rely largely on self-reports that can be manipulated, as Smewing (2004:66) indicates:

there remains a distinct lack of clarity as to what EI is and, more importantly, how it is assessed. Two common themes among the various definitions of EI are emotional self-awareness and an awareness of others, leading to self-management and the ability to influence others, particularly at work. Many EI assessment instruments are based on a process of self-report. But people’s levels of self-awareness can vary. An alternative assessment method that seeks to avoid the self-report conundrum is to use 360-degree feedback.

In other words, when people report their own levels of EI, their self-reports may not be very credible if they are trying to give the ‘right’ answer or impress others. On the other hand, if they are doing the tests as an exercise in self-awareness they are likely to gain good insights. A more valid measure of EI may be obtained from multi-source feedback, when several other people rate or report on the EI of a particular individual. Self-reports of EI may be more about ‘emotional self-efficacy’ than about EI itself (Dasborough 2007:236). Therefore it might be better to get other people to give feedback on how well you recognise and manage your own and others’ emotions.

4.6.2 Post Modern Thinking

Very generally speaking, post modern critiques of management are founded on the argument that organisations assume control of various human functions and subvert them to the purposes of the organisation, reformulating them, packaging them and manipulating various aspects of the human condition, conferring power on certain groups and not others (see for example Townley 2008). Emotional intelligence has been criticised on these grounds:

Given that this work has been going on for over a decade, it is hardly surprising that the emotions are now being foregrounded as ripe for recuperation within the rationalizing logic of education and management training. One manifestation of this recuperative move is the burgeoning number of programs (formal courses, corporate training, self help and personal development seminars) in Australia, the UK and USA and Asia that take up


the imperative to overturn head/heart distinctions by focusing on ‘emotional literacy’ or ‘emotional intelligence’ (McWilliam & Hatcher 2004:180).

McWilliam and Hatcher argue that EI is another way of discriminating in organisations between those with high EI and those with lower EI and those who have been trained and those who haven’t. Notwithstanding such critiques, many people continue to find value in study and application of EI measures. Perhaps the best way to test their validity is to assess your own EI and discover what value or otherwise it adds to your life and work.

4.7 Assessing your Ei

You may have gathered from the material in this unit that there is some debate about what EI is and whose definition is more acceptable. This is all relevant but in the end what really counts is your EI and that of others around you. How then do we measure or assess EI? This is also a contested point. There are numerous free tests available on the internet. The problem with these is that they may not be particularly valid or reliable. They can be manipulated and have not necessarily been checked for their psychometric properties. On the other hand, tests that do have good psychometrics are generally not freely available – you have to pay for them or they can only be administered by qualified professionals. In this section we present a range of free and limited tests. You can manipulate the results on the free tests if you want, but in doing so you will lose any benefit in conducting an honest assessment of your EI.

Activity 4.3 – test your own ei

check out all of the following sites and see what you can glean about your ei. Don’t expect any of these (or other) tests to dictate the definitive answer about you on whatever aspect of yourself is under scrutiny. in the end you are the main arbiter of where you stand. use them as tools to gain insight into what your current ei might be and how you might improve it rather than look for tests with absolute answers.

1. www.maetrix.com.au

this site says that, although short ei quizzes such as the meit are meant to be fun, they may give you a guide to the ei areas in which you are doing well and those that perhaps you need to focus on for development. this quiz is a cut down version of the paid test. as the site says, ‘we cannot guarantee the accuracy of the results of the meit — only that it can help you begin your journey of self-development’. this test gives you some ideas about what makes up ei. not all questions might be relevant. the questions are a bit basic and the forced choice response between two options won’t capture the complexity or range of ei responses. You get a ‘score’ at the end but there are no comparisons given to indicate whether your score is high or low. You can gain some insight by looking at the relative scores in each of the four sections. the site has an easy to read explanation of the basics of ei.


2. Another site is www.psychtests.com/cgi-bin/tests/emotional_iq_r2.cgi. it is partly free in that you do get some feedback about your score and where you fit on an overall scale. You can pay about $us7 to get more details. this writer found the test to be much more thorough and ‘intelligent’ than the maetrix site. Doing the test and looking at the range of answers for the questions showed that different people (of higher and lower ei) would respond in different ways and that the writer’s responses weren’t necessarily the best in every situation.

another participant gave the following feedback on the same site:

I utilised the test at www.psychtests.com/cgi-bin/tests/emotional_iq_r2.cgi and found the test more or less matched my view of my own emotional intelligence. My score was in the average range and indicated that I handle my emotions and the emotions of those around me in a reasonable way but there is room for improvement. I found it very challenging to answer the

questions honestly as in what I am supposed to be as opposed to what I would like to be.

3. the institute for Health and Human potential has an Ei quiz at the following address. www.ihhp.com/quiz.php

once again the ‘answers’ are fairly obvious which distinguishes this sort of personal inventory from an academic test. the point is to find out where you are in terms of ei and look at what distinguishes low ei from high ei. also be aware that you need to refer back to the scoring key at the top of the page to see if 1 = a high or low response. You will get some feedback at the end of the test but it is also a ‘plug’ to advertise other services. like anything that is free on the internet it is of some value but be prepared to pay to get better value.

4. the msceit has to be conducted by a certified administrator and paid for but provides feedback from a very well validated test with a good evidence base. one site is http://www.emotionaliq.org/msceit.htm and there are several others on the web.

4.8 Developing Emotional intelligence

EI has a role in managerial success. Rozell et al. (2002) argued that EI should be included in the core skills taught in training and development programs. Management techniques for dealing with interpersonal interactions and intrapersonal emotions have a foundational function in the success of individuals at work.

There is a good website provided by the Consortium for Research on EI in Organisations (CREIO), supplying comprehensive information on EI at work, with sound scrutiny of what it takes to develop EI. The site also documents the benefits. To rate a mention on the site, programs are reviewed by the Consortium and meet the following strict criteria:

• participants–programwasdesignedforanddeliveredtoadultworkers

• intendedimpactofprogram–theprogramintendedtochangeoneormoreof the competencies associated with EI

• replication–theprogramwasdeliveredmorethanonce

• samplesize–theprogramwasprovidedtoandevaluatedforseveralormanyindividuals


• controlgroup–evaluationincludedacontrolgrouporequivalentexperimental controls to provide more rigorous measurement of outcomes

• outcomemeasures–thereweredataoncompetencydevelopment,performance or financial outcomes

• multipledatapoints–pre-andpost-measureswereavailabletocompareoutcomes before and after the EI program (CREIO 2001).

CREIO identified several programs that successfully raised the level of emotional and social competence of adults in the workplace. Programs covered:

• executiveandmanagementdevelopment

• supervision

• individualcoaching

• achievementmotivation

• self-management

• interpersonalskills

• stressmanagement

• emotionalcompetence.

The following four examples from CREIO indicate some of what is required to develop EI at work.

• Acare-giversupportprogramforhumanserviceworkersemployedinthefield of mental illness and disability support taught participants to refine interpersonal skills, clarify misunderstandings, give constructive feedback and ask others for help. The program involved six training sessions of four to five hours. The training relied heavily on modelling and rehearsal, with participants practising their skills until mastery was achieved. Program evaluation showed that participants were better able to handle disagreements as a result, as well as obtaining increased supportive feedback, better work team climate and enhanced ability to handle overload.

• Thesecondexamplewasanattendancemanagementprogramtoreduceabsenteeism amongst maintenance workers in a state government agency. This program consisted of eight weekly group sessions of one hour, followed by eight half-hour sessions with each individual. This program was successful in increasing attendance at work for the trained group by approximately five hours per week and this behaviour change persisted up to twelve months after the EI program finished.

• Thethirdexamplewasindividualcoachingforeffectivenessformiddlemanagers and executives. This involved a one- or two-day diagnostic and assessment session for each participant, followed by six months of individual coaching for one day per month. Further follow-up occurred after the six-month period. Evaluation showed a marked improvement in the areas that individuals had identified for improvement and had been coached in. These results persisted through a six-month follow-up.

• Thefourthandfinalexamplerelatestopolicework.Policereceivedintensive training and coaching in conflict resolution and other


interpersonal skills for half a day a week over three months. This was augmented with a further individual consultation session once a week for fourteen weeks. The program resulted in substantial improvements on ten key performance indicators established for policing. These results were demonstrated by contrasting the group who received EI coaching and training with a control (or comparison) group of police who received the same number of hours of training. However, in the control group training consisted of lecture-style sessions in the theory of conflict resolution, human relations and so on, not actual practice, coaching and feedback.

Boyatzis and Saatcioglu (2008) studied how well their MBA students developed EI over the years and followed them up several years down the track. They report that the emotional and social skills or competence needed to be an effective leader can be developed through university education programs (such as the PSM Program) and that these competences can be sustained over the years. However constant turbulence and lack of commitment to continuous learning and improvement may see this competence eroded over time. In other words, EI can be developed but it needs to be maintained.

Continuing with the question of what it takes to develop soft skills and change individual behaviour (such as EI), other research has found that extended training which included more role-playing and discussion was more likely to change behaviour in the required skills arena (Cole 2008). It is also well known that gaining support from the individual’s supervisor will facilitate transfer of training from the course to the workplace (Burke & Hutchins 2008).

Required Reading 4.3grant, am 2007, ‘enhancing coaching skills and emotional intelligence through training’, Industrial

and Commercial Training, vol. 39, no. 5, pp. 257 - 66.

grant crow (2008) describes a case study about developing ei within a small team in his organisation which was subsequently rolled out to other parts of the organisation. several years ago the concept of ei was not widely discussed in courses such as this and did not receive much attention in organisations. the situation has changed quite a lot with ei now firmly recognised as a legitimate concept to be taught and developed in organisations.

Activity 4.4 – Developing ei in the workplace

What would you conclude about developing ei in the workplace, or for yourself personally from the above examples and readings?

it seems that it requires substantial resources of time and expertise to provide personal coaching, sustained over a long period of time, compared to most current workplace training programs. What strategies can you put in place to improve your ei or that of your team?


We can link EI to other learning concepts such as social capital, learning, and human resource development. These ideas are linked directly and indirectly to productivity as the following shows.

Figure 4.1 Linking Ei to learning

EI = emotional intelligence, HRD = human resource development (training in, learning) SC=social capital

Source: Brooks & Nafukho 2006:120

4.9 new directions

To conclude this topic, let us introduce another new concept that may follow the same trajectory as EI from new idea to popularity to legitimacy in scholarly literature. This one is known as AQ or adversity quotient. AQ measures the resilience to endure in the face of great tests and challenges. It is held to consist of four dimensions:

• control–thisisrelatedtotheconceptoflocusofcontrolortheextenttowhich people believe they can influence and benefit from events compared to being at the mercy of external forces

Internal Environment

External Environment

Productivity

EI

HRD

SC


• ownership–steppinguptotaketheinitiativetoimproveasituation

• reach–howmucheffectadversityinoneaspectofyourlifespillsovertonegatively effect other aspects of life

• endurance–howlongyou‘wallow’inadversitycomparedto‘gettingonwithit’ or ‘getting over it’ (Hanley 2008).

As with most new psychological concepts a questionnaire has been developed to measure individual AQ. The test has excellent psychometric properties and Paul Stoltz, its originator, is working with the Harvard Business School to profile AQ for its students and with a Fortune 50 company to develop resilience in its organisational culture (Hanley 2008). Don’t be surprised if this concept starts gaining currency in your workplace in the next few years.

In summary, there is a considerable body of research that suggests that capability to perceive, identify and manage or regulate emotion provides the basis for social and emotional competences important for success in almost any position.

Reviewhaving completed this topic, you should now be able to:

1. explain emotional intelligence.

2. Diagnose your self-awareness.

3. evaluate the evidence for emotional intelligence.

4. carry out a self-assessment to identify your ei strengths and weaknesses.

5. give practical examples of how it can be developed and applied in the workplace.

6. Develop strategies to address the results of the analysis.

Required ReadingReading 4.1 Kunnanatt, JT 2004, ‘Emotional intelligence: the new science of

interpersonal effectiveness’, Human Resource Development Quarterly, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 489–95.

Reading 4.2 Bienn, B & Caruso, D 2004, Emotional Intelligence Today: What You Need to Know for Testing, Training and Development, viewed 24 July 2008 <http://www.emotionaliq.com/SHRM-EI-Models.pdf>.

Reading 4.3 Grant, AM 2007, ‘Enhancing coaching skills and emotional intelligence through training’, Industrial and Commercial Training, vol. 39, no. 5, pp. 257 - 66.


Further ReadingAshkanasy, NM & Daus, CS 2005, ‘Rumors of the death of emotional intelligence

in organizational behavior are vastly exaggerated’, Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 441-52.

Boyatzis, R 2008 ‘Competencies in the 21st century’, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 5-12.

Brackett, MA & Mayer, JD 2003, ‘Convergent, Discriminant, and Incremental Validity of Competing Measures of Emotional Intelligence’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, vol. 29, pp. 1-12. viewed 25 July 2008 <http://www.unh.edu/emotional_intelligence/EI%20Assets/Reprints...EI%20Proper/EI2003Brackett%20&%20Mayer.pdf>.

Carmichael, DB, Sytch, M 2003 ‘Emotional intelligence, organizational legitimacy and charismatic leadership’, in Journal of the Academy of Business Education, Volume 4, proceedings 2003. Academy of Business Education, Saint Joseph’s University, Philadelphia, viewed 25 July 2008 <http://www.abe.sju.edu/proc2003/carmichael.pdf>.

Daus, CS & Ashkanasy, NM 2005, ‘The case for the ability-based model of emotional intelligence in organizational behavior’, Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 453-66.

Goleman, D 2004, ‘What makes a leader?’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 82, no. 1, pp. 82–91.

Green, AL & Hill, AY 2006 ‘The use of multiple intelligences to enhance team productivity’, Management Decision, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 349-359.

Harmer, R &Lutton, C 2006, Case study: Enhancing team performance through emotional intelligence coaching, viewed 25/07/08 <http://www.developfullcircle.com/articles/EI%20coaching%20and%20team%20effectiveness.pdf>.

http://www.eiconsortium.org/

This is a website of the State University of New Jersey Rutgers CREIO and the following readings can be accessed there by following the links under Model Programs:

‘Care giver support program. Developing EI in community sector workplaces’

‘Self-management training for increasing job attendance (in a state agency)’

‘Individual coaching for effectiveness (for middle managers and executives)’

‘Interpersonal conflict management for police’

http://www.peaklearning.com/grp_resources_general.html

Find out more about the Adversity Quotient and resilience at this site.


Jensen, S, Kohn, C, Rilea, S, Hannon, R, Howells, G, 2007 Emotional intelligence: a literature review, Department of Psychology, University of the Pacific, California, July 15. viewed 25 July 2008 <http://web.pacific.edu/Documents/library/acrobat/EI%20Lit%20Review%202007%20Final.pdf>.

Kramer, R, n.d., ‘Beyond Max Weber: emotional intelligence in public leadership’, School of Public Leadership, American University, Washington DC, viewed 25 July 2008 <http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/NISPAcee/UNPAN004357.pdf>.

Mayer, J D, Goleman, D, Barrett, C, Gutstein, S et al. 2004, ‘Leading by feel’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 82, no. 1, pp. 27–37.


topic 4: Required Reading

Kunnanatt, JT 2004, ‘Emotional intelligence: the new science of interpersonal effectiveness’, Human Resource Development Quarterly, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 489–95


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topic 4: Required Reading

Grant, AM 2007, ‘Enhancing coaching skills and emotional intelligence through training’, Industrial and Commercial Training, vol. 39, no. 5, pp. 257 - 66.