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Topics for AP Environmental Science: A Review I. Earth Systems & Resources (10-15%)

IA. Earth Science Concepts The lithosphere is the earth’s crust Geological cycles

o Tectonic � Can create ecological islands � Divergent plates boundaries occur at an ocean ridge � Convergent plate boundaries occur when plates collide with each other

These collisions produce mountains Subduction is the heavy ocean rock diving beneath the light continental

rock and may produce coastal mountain ranges o Hydrologic

� The continuous recycling of water from oceans, through the atmosphere to the continents and back to the oceans

o Rock � Three main rock types

Sedimentary Igneous Metamorphic

o Biogeochemical Earthquakes

o Occurs when tectonic plates rupture under pressure releasing large amounts of energy o Usually occur along the earth’s fault lines

Volcanic Eruptions o Occurs when magma rises to the earth’s surface o Energy released varies and usually occur along tectonic plate boundaries or along

central parts of plates where hot spots heat and melt rock Tsunamis

o A series of huge waves produced after a vertical disturbance of ocean o They are slow at first but get taller and faster as they approach the surface

Solar Intensity o The spectrum of the radiation emitted by the sun o Effected by the latitude of the location, closer to the equator has higher solar intensity

than farther away locations Seasons

o The Earth’s four seasons are parts of a year that cause changes in the temperature, weather, and the length of daylight

o Every season lasts to about three months each o The changing of the seasons are caused by the tilt of the earth's axis o Whichever hemisphere is tilted towards the sun experiences more hours of sunlight

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IB. The Atmosphere Composition Troposphere Sea level to 11 miles high at the equator Holds the majority of the greenhouse gases Stratosphere 11 miles to 31 miles above sea level at the equator Structure Troposphere Holds 75-80% of mass in the earth 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen Stratosphere Contains the ozone layer Protects us from harmful UV rays from the sun Weather/Climate What affects climate and weather?

1. Uneven heating of earth’s surface 2. Rotation of earth on axis 3. Properties of air, water, and land

Atmospheric circulation and the Coriolis affect Air is heated at the equator and is pushed up and towards the poles, creating a circulation of air in the atmosphere The earth’s rotation deflects these winds and creates air patterns of trade winds in the atmosphere Atmosphere and ocean interactions Prevailing winds in the atmosphere move surface water on the ocean, creating ocean currents, these currents move globally around the oceans IC. Global Waters and Resources Use Freshwater Groundwater – water that seeps into the ground and percolates downward in spaces in soil, gravel and rock until an impenetrable layer of rock stops it Zone of Saturation – the depth at which the spaces in soil and rock are filled with water Water Table – the top of the groundwater zone Watershed – the land which surface water drains to a particular river, lake or wetland

-- On a global basis, we have plenty of freshwater, but it is not distributed evenly. -- Water shortages are a problem in the United States. The eastern states typically have an ample supply of water, whereas western states deal with water shortages and droughts almost annually. -- 1 out of every 6 people in the world lacks the access to clean drinking water. -- Solutions to freshwater deficits: Reduce freshwater waste, withdrawing groundwater building dams and reservoirs, and converting salt water to freshwater.

-- Aquifers are being depleted faster than they can replenish themselves. (ex. Ogallala)

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Saltwater Desalinization – removing dissolved salts from ocean water or from brackish (slightly salty) water in aquifers or lakes -- Distillation is the process of heating the water to evaporate the water and leave the salts behind and the water vapor to be condensed. -- Reverse osmosis uses high pressure to force salt water through a filter small enough to remove the salts -- Desalination plants have problems: high costs, effects on ocean environments, and the question of where to put the left over salt waste. Ocean Circulation Climate – an area’s general pattern of atmospheric conditions over at least three decades Weather – an area’s atmospheric conditions over a period of hours or days -- Climate varies in different parts of the world because patterns of global air circulation and ocean currents distribute heat and precipitation unevenly between the tropics and other parts of the world. ID. Soil and Soil Dynamics Rock Cycle Mineral- an element or inorganic compound that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust as crystalline solid. Rock- a solid combination of one or more minerals found in the earth’s crust 1. Sedimentary rock- made of dead plant and animal remains and tiny particles of weathered and eroded rocks. 2. Igneous rock- magma wells up from the earth’s upper mantle or deep crust and then cools and hardens. 3. Metamorphic rock- forms when preexisting rock is subjected to high temp, pressures, chemically active fluids, or a combo of all three. Formation Internal geological processes- build up earth surface through pushing up continental and oceanic crusts. External geological processes- wear down earth’s surface through energy from the sun. Weathering-the physical, chemical, and biological process that break down rocks into smaller particles that help build soil. Glaciers-slowly flowing bodies of ice that cause slow-motion erosion by scraping land Erosion- material is dissolved, loosened, worn away and deposited somewhere else Composition Soil is a complex mixture of eroded rock, mineral nutrients, decaying organic matter, water, air, and living organisms. It supplies most of the nutrients needed for plant growth and purifies and stores water. Organisms in the soil help in controlling the earth climate by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it as organic carbon compounds. Physical and Chemical Properties Most mature sols contain horizontal layers with distinct texture and composition that vary with different types of soils. They have at least three of the four possible horizons. O horizon- leaf litter A horizon- topsoil

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There are different soil types. . . humus, clay, silt, and sand. Topsoil is a renewable resource, but is very slow in replenishing itself Erosion and other soil problems Hydroponics-growing plants by exposing their roots to a nutrient rich water solution instead of soil. Green revolution- develop and plant monocultures of selectively bred varieties of key crops, produce high yields by using a lot of water and manufactured inorganic fertilizers and pesticides, and increase the number of crops grown per year on a plot of land. Second green revolution- dwarfing varieties of rice and wheat Soil erosion- movement of soil components, especially surface litter and topsoil from one place to another by the actions of wind and water. Soil conservation- roots of plants help to anchor the topsoil and prevent some erosion. Undisturbed topsoil can also store the water and nutrients needed by plants. II. The Living World (10-15%) IIA. The Ecosystem Structure Ecosystem- community of different species interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment of matter and energy. -ecosystems are built up from communities, then populations, then organisms, then cells, molecules, and lastly atoms. -ecosystems are made up of living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components -living organisms can transfer energy and nutrients from one trophic level to another -they are further divided into producers and consumers -producers make the nutrients they need from compounds and energy obtained in their environment -plants can use photosynthesis to capture 1% of solar energy and form organic molecules -Chemosynthesis is a process that allows certain producers to convert inorganic compounds without using sunlight -consumers must obtain energy from feeding on other consumers or producers -primary consumer-animals the eat mostly green plants (herbivores) (caterpillars) -secondary consumers- feed on the flesh of herbivores (small spiders, small fish) -tertiary consumers- feed on the flesh of other carnivores (tigers, killer whales) -omnivores- feed on plants and other animals (pigs, humans, rats) -decomposers are a type of consumer that release nutrients from the wastes or remains of plants and animals in the soil, water, and air for reuse by producers. (bacteria, fungi) -detritus feeders- feed on the wastes or dead bodies of other organisms (detritivores) (earthworms, insects, vultures) -wastes and dead bodies of organisms serve as resources for other organisms, and the nutrients that make life possible are continuously recycled IIB. Energy Flow Remember the 10% rule!

What else?? Someone let you down!

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IIC. Ecosystem Diversity Ecosystem- a set of organisms within a defined area or volume that interact with one another and with and their environment of nonliving matter and energy

- For example, a forest ecosystem consists of plants, animals, and tiny microorganisms that decompose organic materials and recycle their chemicals, all interacting with one another and with solar energy and the chemicals in the ecosystem’s air, water, and soil

Ecosystem diversity- the earth’s variety of deserts, grasslands, forests, mountains, oceans, lakes, rivers, and wetlands

- Each of these ecosystems is a storehouse of genetic and species diversity Genetic diversity- the great variety of genes in earth’s species, this enables life on earth to adapt to and survive dramatic environmental change Species diversity- the number and abundance of species present in different communities

- The different types of land that make up the biosphere and the earth’s ecosystems are called biomes

- Another type of diversity that adds the diversity in ecosystems is functional diversity

Biomes- large regions such as forests, deserts, and grasslands with distinct climates and certain species adapted to them Functional diversity- the variety of processes such as energy flow and matter cycling that occur within ecosystems as species interact with one another in food chains and webs

- Species, genetic, and functional diversity all help to make up the diversity in the ecosystems Examples of biomes/ecosystem diversity around the world

IID. Natural Ecosystem Change

Throughout Earth’s long history its climate has drastically changed. 1. It has cooled and covered the Earth with glacial ice. 2. It has warmed and melted the ice. This drastically raises sea levels leading to an

increase in the amount of area of earth covered by ocean.

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These long term climate changes have a major effect on the biological evolution by determining where different types of plants and animals can survive.

New species have also evolved in different areas because of the ecosystem change. Some species have also become extinct because of climate change.

How can we tell if climate change is occurring We need at least 30 years of data concerning average temperature and average precipitation in

an area to tell whether climate is changing. What Causes climate change?

Changes in the sun’s output of energy Large meteorites that throw immense amounts of dust into the atmosphere Slight changes in the Earth’s orbit around the sun. Global air circulation patterns

Glacial and interglacial periods-the alternating cycles of freezing and thawing the Earth undergoes. For roughly 10,000 years we have had the good fortune to live in an interglacial period of stable

climate based mostly on steady global average surface temperature. This allowed human population to grow as agriculture developed and cities developed.

Greenhouse Effect o A natural process which warms the Earth’s lower atmosphere and surface and thus

affects the Earth’s climate. o Occurs when some of the solar energy absorbed by the Earth radiates into the

atmosphere as infrared radiation with various wavelengths. o About 1% of Earth’s lower atmosphere is composed of greenhouse gases.

� Water Vapor (H20) � Carbon Dioxide (C02) � Methane (CH4) � Nitrous Oxide (N20)

o Heat radiated into the atmosphere by the Earth causes molecules of these gases to vibrate and release infrared radiation with an even longer wavelength into the lower atmosphere. The kinetic energy warms the Earth’s lower atmosphere and the surface eventually warming the Earth’s climate.

Species Movement � Since 1980 populations of amphibian species have been vanishing or declining in almost every

part of the world because they are having difficulty adapting to environmental changes that have taken place in the air and water and on land due to human activities.

� What Ecosystem change lead to the frogs decline? o Habitat loss and fragmentation, Prolonged drought, Increase in UV radiation, Parasites,

viral and fungal diseases, pollution, climate change Ecological Selection

� Huge flows of molten rock within Earth’s interior break its surface into a series of gigantic solid plates called tectonic plates.

� The movement of continents has occurred resulting in species to move, forcing them to adapt to new environments.

� Biological Extinction-when a species can no longer be found anywhere on the Earth. – leads to other species disappearing –Secondary extinctions

� Mass Extinction-The extinction of many species in a relatively short period of geologic time.

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IIE. Natural Biogeochemical Cycles o The Water Cycle (Hydrologic cycle)

o Powered by energy from the sun o Incoming solar energy causes evaporation of water into water vapor, gravity draws the

water back to the Earth’s surface as precipitation o Through transpiration water evaporates through the surface of plants o Precipitation causes surface runoff where water flow into larger bodies o Some precipitation seeps through soil and is stored as groundwater in aquifers o Water is the primary sculptor of Earth’s landscape, and transports nutrients between

ecosystems o The water cycle naturally purifies water through chemical and biological processes

o The Carbon Cycle o Carbon is the basic building block of organic compounds necessary for life o Compounds of carbon cycle through the biosphere, atmosphere, and the hydrosphere o The carbon cycle dictates the temperature of the atmosphere with how much CO2 is

present in it o Producers remove CO2 from the atmosphere, or water o Producers use photosynthesis to convert CO2 in to carbohydrates o Then aerobic respiration breaks down these carbohydrates to produce CO2 in the

atmosphere o CO2 can also be released by the decomposition of dead organisms o Buried deposits of organic matter over thousands of years can create fossil fuels o By burning fossil fuels too large amounts of carbon are being added to the atmosphere

o The Nitrogen Cycle o The major reservoir for the nitrogen cycle is in the atmosphere o In nitrogen fixation bacteria use nitrogen to create ammonia, they excrete the ammonia

into the soil or water as a nutrient o Plants and animals return nitrogen rich organic compounds to the environment as

wastes and cast-off particles o The Phosphorus Cycle

o Compounds of phosphorus circulate through the Earth’s crust, water, and living organisms

o This cycle does not include the atmosphere o The main reservoir for this cycle is in phosphate salts o Water erodes compounds that contain phosphate ions and carries them to soil where

they can be absorbed by producers o These phosphate ions then travel through the food web to all organisms o A lack of phosphorus limits plant growth, and the growth of producers in water

environments o The Sulfur Cycle

o Sulfur circles through the biosphere o Most of the Earth’s sulfur is stored underground or in deep ocean sediments o It enters the atmosphere through natural processes like volcanic eruptions, forest fires,

and dust storms o Producers absorb sulfate ions and use it as an essential component of many proteins o Changes in dimethyl sulfide or DMS can affect cloud cover and climate o DMS is converted to sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere and reacts to create droplets and

particles that come to the Earth as components of acid deposition

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III. Population (10-15%) IIIA. Population Biology Concepts

Population Ecology: o Ecology- the science that focuses on how organisms interact with one another and with

their nonliving environment of matter and energy � Every type of organism has a feeding level, or a trophic level

o living organisms that transfer energy from one trophic level to another can be classified as producers and consumers

� producers- make the nutrients through photosynthesis � consumers-must obtain energy by feeding on other organisms � decomposers-return nutrients back to producers by decomposing waste

Carrying Capacity:

o There are always limits to population growth in nature � Environmental resistance- combination of all factors that act to limit the growth

of a population � Carrying Capacity-the maximum population of a given species that a particular

habitat can sustain � Population Crash-when a population suffers from a sharp decline

o Population Density is the number of individuals in a population found in a particular

area or volume � Four population sizes: stable, irruptive, cyclic, and irregular

Reproductive Strategies:

o Species use different reproductive patterns to ensure long term survival � Some have many offspring and give them little to no care, by producing so many

there is a chance that some will survive � Some produce offspring later in life, but the species has a long life span

Survivorship:

o Species use different reproductive patterns which can alter their chance at surviving o Living systems contain networks of positive and negative feedback loops that interact to

provide stability or sustainability � Inertia-the ability of a living system to survive moderate disturbances � Resilience-the ability of a living system to be restored through secondary

succession after more severe disturbances IIIB1. Human Population Dynamics

Core case Study: China is the world’s most populated country- it is expected to increase to 1.5 billion by 2025 and then decline to 1.4 billion by 2050. This is because the government has implemented a strict family planning and birth control program since 1960.

Three major factors leading up to the major and current population increase of the world: (1) Humans can now live in all climate zones and habitats. (2) Early and modern agriculture let us produce more food per each unit of land. (3) Death rates dropped severely due to

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medical advances, sanitation, and health care. There is little chance for stabilizing the size of human population in the near future.

Cultural carrying capacity- the max amount of people who could live in reasonable freedom and comfort, indefinitely, without decreasing the ability of the earth to sustain future generations.

Crude birth rate- the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year. Crude death rate- the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year. Fertility rate- the number of children born to a

woman during her life time- Replacement-level fertility rate- the average number of children that couples in a population must bear to replace themselves.

Total Fertility Rate- the average number of children born to women in a pop. during their reproductive years.

Baby Boom- in 1957 TFR rate was 3.7 children per woman, and later in 1972 and on it has been 2.1 or lower in the U.S.

Life expectancy- the avg. number of years a newborn infant can be expected to live. Infant mortality rate- the number of babies out of every 1,000 born who will die before

their first birthday. Migration- affects an area’s population size. Demographic transition- as countries become

industrialized and economically developed, first their death rates decline and then their birth rates decline.

IIIB2. Population Size Key vocabulary: -cultural carrying capacity: maximum number of people who could live in reasonable freedom and comfort indefinitely -crude birth rate: the number of live births per given year -crude death rate: the number of deaths in the population per given year -population change: found by subtracting the number of people leaving a population from the number entering it -total fertility rate: the average number of children born to a woman in a population during their reproductive years -life expectancy: the average number of years a newborn infant can be expected to live -infant mortality rate: the number of babies out of every 1000 born who died before entering the first birthday -demographic transition: as countries become more industrialized in economically developed, first the death rates decline than their birthrates decline -family planning: provides educational and clinical services that help couples choose how many children to have and when to have them Key concepts: -countries that are rapidly expanding have high concentrations of pre-reproductive aged citizens.

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-Countries that are expanding slowly have a slightly larger number of pre-reproductive citizens then reproductive citizens and more reproductive citizens and post-reproductive citizens. -Stable countries are ones whose populations of the pre-reproductive reproductive from post-reproductive ages are very similar. -Declining countries are ones with higher concentrations of post-reproductive aged citizens. -Populations can take sudden changes based on either baby-boom or some sort of disaster. Epidemics such as influenza and AIDS can rapidly decrease the population of a country, while baby-boom can increase it very quickly. -The human population is increasing rapidly and may soon bump up against environmental limits. -Even if population growth were not a serious problem, the increased use of resources per person is expanding the overall human ecological footprint and putting a strain on the Earth's resources. -We can slow human population by reducing poverty through economic development, evaluating this status of women, and encouraging family-planning.

IIIB3. Impacts of Population Growth Cultural Carrying Capacity: The maximum number of people who could live in reasonable freedom and comfort indefinitely, without decreasing the ability of the Earth to sustain future generations.

The major impact of population growth is also the direct increase of natural capital degradation. More people leads to more resource consumption, and depending on where the population growth is occurring leads to excessive pollution.

Major Impacts: (These impacts come from altering nature to meet human growth needs) Reducing Biodiversity Increasing use of net primary productivity Increasing genetic resistance in pest species and disease-causing bacteria Eliminating natural predators Introducing harmful species into natural communities Using some renewable resources faster than they can be replenished Disrupting natural chemical cycling and energy flow Relying mostly on polluting and climate-changing fossil fuels

Situation: To compensate for a growing population producers attempt to grow more corn, however producers realize their methods can’t keep up with demand. Producers begin to pollute more and create

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genetically modified crops that grow faster. Not only are we using more pesticides to grow which increases pollution, but the genetically modified crops can increase genetic resistance of pests and bacteria. Major Impact: More people more pollution which impacts global warming.

This world population growth chart shows that most of the population growth is coming from developing countries. Another problem that is associated with developing countries is their harmful pollution techniques and lifestyle. If the population growth was generated from developed countries pollution wouldn’t be as serious a problem, but because countries like China and India are causing this growth, pollution and global warming are serious problems.

Economic Impacts: Countries that experience a rapid increase in child births will eventually have to pay for it when

the generations after them that may not be as large in growth are forced to pay for social security and other government programs.

IV. Land & Water Use (10-15%) IVA1. Feeding a Growing Population Food Security- all or most of the people in a country have daily access to enough nutritious food to live healthy lives. Food insecurity- living with chronic hunger and poor nutrition. Chronic Undernutrition (Hunger) - People who cannot grow or buy enough food to meet basic energy needs. Chronic malnutrition- deficiencies of protein and other key nutrients. Famine- places with a severe shortage of food that can result in mass starvation, death, economic chaos, and social disruption. Overnutrition- food energy intake exceeds energy use and cause excess body fat. Irrigation- supply of water to crops by artificial means. Industrialized agriculture (High-input agriculture)- uses heavy equipment and large amounts of financial capital, fossil fuels, water, commercial inorganic fertilizers, and pesticides to produce single crops, or monocultures. Plantation agriculture- industrialized agriculture used in tropical less-developed countries. It involves growing cash crops on large monoculture plantations, mostly for export. Hydroponics- growing plants by exposing roots to nutrient-rich water instead of soil.

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Traditional subsistence agriculture- supplements energy from the sun w/ the labor of humans and draft animals to produce enough crops for farm family’s survival. Traditional intensive agriculture- increase inputs of human and animal labor, animal manure for fertilizer, and water to obtain higher crop yields. Polyculture- growing several crops on the same plot simultaneously. It implements biodiversity and reduces the chance of losing most or all of years food supply to pests, bad weather, and other misfortunes. Slash-and-burn agriculture- Type of polyculture. Involves burning and clearing small plots in tropical forests, growing a variety of crops until the soil is depleted, and then shifting to other plots to begin again. Green Revolution- 1st- develop and plant monocultures of selectively bred or genetically engineered high-yield varieties of key crops.2nd – produce high yields by using large inputs of water and manufactured inorganic fertilizers and pesticides. 3rd increase number of crops grown per year on a plot of land. Desertification- occurs when productive potential of topsoil falls by 10% or more because of drought, overgrazing and deforestation. Waterlogging- water accumulates underground and gradually raises the water table. Salinization- Repeated applications of irrigation water in dry climates leads to the gradual accumulation of salts in the upper soil layer. Genetically modified crops- Advantages- need less fertilizer, need less water, more resistant to insects and disease, grow faster, may tolerate higher levels of herbicides, and may reduce energy needs. Disadvantages- unpredictable genetic and ecological effects, harmful toxins, no increase in yields, more pesticide resistant insects, could disrupt seed market, lower genetic diversity. Soil Salinization – Prevention-reduce irrigation and switch to salt-tolerant crops. Cleanup- flush soil (expensive and wastes water), stop growing crops for 2- 5 years, or install underground drainage systems (expensive). Sustainable agriculture – More high-yield polyculture, organic fertilizers, biological pest control, integrated pest management, efficient irrigation, perennial crops, crop rotation, water-efficient crops, soil conservation, and subsidies for sustainable farming. Less- soil erosion, soil salinization, water pollution, aquifer depletion, overgrazing, overfishing, loss of biodiversity, fossil fuel use, greenhouse gas emissions, and subsidies for unsustainable farming. IVA2. Controlling Pests 1. Types of Pesticides - A pesticide is a chemical used to kill or control populations of organisms that we consider undesirable. - Insecticides – kill insects - Herbicides – kill weeds - Fungicides – kill fungus - Rodenticides – kill rats and mice - Biopesticides – repellants, poisons and other chemicals produced by plants - Broad Spectrum Agents – toxic to pests and beneficial species 2. Costs and Benefits of Pesticide Use Benefits

- Saves lives - Increase food supplies

- Profitable - Work fast - Safe if used properly

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Costs - Promote genetic resistance - Kill natural pest enemies - Pollute the environment - Can harm wildlife and people - Expensive for farmers 3. Integrated Pest Management

- Sustainable approach where each crop and its pests are evaluated as part of an ecological system. - Farmers develop a carefully designed control program that uses a combination of cultivation, biological and chemical tools and techniques.

- Overall aim is to reduce crop damage to a tolerable level. 4. Relevant Laws - Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act – Regulates sale and use of pesticides - Food Quality Protection Act – Requires EPA to reduce allowed levels of pesticide residue in food. - According to the National Academy of Science, agencies enforce these rules poorly. - Pesticides regulated in various countries can be brought abroad by wind and by imported foods. This is called the circle of poison or the boomerang effect. IVB. Forestry -Two Main Types of forests: 1. Old Growth of Primary Forests-Uncut or regenerated forest that has gone undisturbed for 100+ years. About 36% of forests are old growth, and 75% are found in Russia, Canada, Brazil, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. 2. Second Growth Forests- Secondary succession forest that grows after the land is cleared, either by human activities, natural disasters, etc… About 60% of forests are secondary growth forests. -Tree Plantations are forests managed for commercial purposes (lumber) and contain only one or two types of trees. Tree plantations violate the biodiversity principle of sustainability, and continued cutting and replanting diminishes nutrient content of the soil. (make up about 4% of forests) -Ecological Services of Forests: Support Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling, reduce erosion, absorb/release water, purify water and air, influence climate, store atmospheric carbon, and provide wildlife habitats -Economic services of forests- fuel wood, lumber, paper, mining, livestock grazing, recreation, and jobs -Unsustainable logging is currently the biggest threat to forests; 3 Types of harvesting methods-1.selective cutting 2.clear-cutting and 3. Strip cutting -Fires, insects, and disease can also impact the health of forest ecosystems -If current deforestation rates continue, much of the world’s rainforests will be gone in the next 20-40years. The major cause of tropical deforestation is clear cutting for agriculture, fuel, lumber, etc… -The key to managing forests is managing them sustainably. Methods include; identifying and protecting biodiversity hot-spots, rely more on more sustainable methods of logging(selective and strip cutting), stop logging in old growth forests, reduce the demand for harvested trees through smarter use, reduce road building in forest areas, leave standing and fallen trees for nutrient cycling and habitats, and include ecological services of forests in their economic value. -Methods for saving tropical forests include; protect the most endangered and diverse areas, educate settlers about sustainable agriculture, subsidize only sustainable use of forests, encourage the re-growth of secondary forests, rehabilitate degraded areas, and concentrate agriculture in already cleared areas.

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IVC. Rangelands Rangelands- unfenced grasslands in temperate and tropical climates that supply forage (vegetation) for grazing and browsing animals. Overgrazing

Occurs when too many animals graze for too long, damaging the grasses and their roots, and exceeding their carrying capacity of a rangeland area. (Reduces grass cover, exposes the soil to erosion by water and wind, and compacts the soil.)

Example- Overgrazing in the Malpai Borderlands- overgrazing replaces grasses with trees and shrubs, and eroded the soil.

Most widely used method for more sustainable management of rangelands is to control the number of grazing animals and the duration of their grazing in a given area so the carrying capacity of the area is not exceeded.

Deforestation The temporary or permanent removal of large expanses of forest for agriculture, settlements, or

other uses. (Continues at a rapid rate in many parts of the world) Losses concentrated in less-developed countries however scientists are concerned about the

increased clearing of the northern boreal forests of Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, and Russia Every year, more wood is grown in the U.S than is cut and the total area planted with trees

increases. Protected forests make up about 40% of the country’s total forest area, mostly in the National Forest System, which consists of 155 national forests managed by the U.S. Forest Service (USFS)

Desertification Conversion of rangeland, rain-fed cropland, or irrigated cropland to desert-like land, with a drop

in agricultural productivity of 10% or more. Usually caused by a combination of overgrazing, soil erosion, prolonged drought, and climate

change (human use of the land have accelerated desertification) Can be moderate, severe, or very severe

Rangeland Management Most widely used method for more sustainable management of rangelands is to control the

number of grazing animals and the duration of their grazing in a given area so the carrying capacity of the area is not exceeded.

o Rational grazing- cattle are confined by portable fencing to one area for a short time and then moved to new location

Suppress the growth of unwanted invader plants by the use of herbicides, mechanical removal, or controlled burning.

Replanting severely degraded areas with native grass seeds and applying fertilizer can increase the growth of desirable vegetation and reduce soil erosion.

Federal Rangelands Managed chiefly by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), an agency of the U.S. Department

of the Interior (DOI), and the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA).

Federal and nonfederal rangelands include deserts, grasslands, canyons, tundra, mountains, and riparian areas (the grassy or woody areas located on the banks of a natural

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IVD1. Urban Land Development Terms Urbanization - creation of urban/suburban areas Urban Growth - rate of increase in urban population Megalopolises - cities w/ 10+ million people Slums - made of dilapidated tenements Shantytowns - built shacks and shelters on outskirts of cities Compact Cities - small land area, high population density; built up not out Dispersed Cities - “car-centered,” and built out, not up. Land-Use Planning - determining best way to use land Zoning - designating land for certain uses Smart Growth - encouraged sustainable development Urban Growth Boundary - extent of where growth is allowable Greenbelt - open recreation area surrounding city Main Ideas Planned Development: -Cities are promoting alternatives to cars -buses -Light-railways (streetcars, trolleys, trams) -Heavy-railways (subways, elevated railways, metro trains) -50% of US households have no reasonable access to trains or buses -Land-Use planning can reduce urban sprawl, and slow the rapid decline in air, water, l and, and biodiversity quality Suburban Sprawl -encouraged by land-use planning

- substantial environmental and social consequences - Led to uncontrolled and very poorly managed growth, also known as sprawl

Urbanization -Urbanization is steadily increasing, and the amount of urban areas is rising -50% of the world population and 79% of Americans live in urban areas -Four Major Trends in Urban Population

- proportion of global population living in urban areas is growing -number and sizes of urban areas are mushrooming

- urban growth is much slower in developed countries - Poverty is becoming urbanized in less-developed countries

IVD2. Transportation Infrastructure Dispersed cities- created by a combination on plentiful land, relatively cheap gasoline and networks of highways. The residents of these cities depend on motor vehicles for most travel Cities like this that are considered “car-centered” are found in the US, Canada, Australia and other countries with a lot of land which allows these cities to expand outward. This leads to urban sprawl which has a lot of harmful effects such as:

Loss of crop land Increase pollution of surface water and ground water Increased energy use and waste Increased CO2 emissions More unemployment in central cities

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Motor vehicles are the world’s largest source of outdoor air pollution and the fastest growing source of CO2 emissions. A solution to to reducing the effects of automobiles in to make drivers pay for the environmental and health costs caused by their cars. This is called user-pay approach Most of the world’s cities have huge ecological footprints are not self-sustaining systems. IVD3. Public and Federal Lands

Management o Ecological restoration: process of repairing damage caused by humans to the

biodiversity and dynamics of natural ecosystems o Nonprofit, land trust groups have protected large areas of land, such as farmlands,

woodlands, and urban green spaces o Biologists use a buffer zone concept to design and manage nature reserves o Establishment of protected habitat corridors between isolated reserves helps to support

more species and allows migration Wilderness Areas

o Land where natural communities have not been seriously disturbed by humans and where human activities are limited by law

o Wilderness Act: protects undeveloped public land from development o Polluting vehicles destroy/damage fragile vegetation and wildlife o Suffer damage from migration or deliberate introduction of nonnative species

National Parks o Parks in less-developed countries have the greatest biodiversity of all parks globally, but

only 1% of them are protected o Miners and poachers work illegally in these national parks o In the U.S. popularity is one of the biggest problems for many parks o National Park System is managed by the National Park Service and includes 58 major

parks and 331 national sites Wild Refuges

o The US Fish and Wildlife Service manages 549 national refuges o Refuges protect habitats and breeding areas for waterfowl and big game to provide a

harvestable supply of these species for hunters o Permitted activities include hunting, trapping, fishing, oil and gas development, mining,

logging, grazing, and farming Forests

o Deforestation � Decreased soil fertility from erosion � Runoff of eroded soil into aquatic systems � Release of CO2 into atmosphere � Acceleration of flooding

o Forests cover about 30% of the U.S. land area, providing habitats for more than 80% of the country’s wildlife species

o They contain 2/3 of the nation’s surface water o National Forest System consists of 155 national forests managed by US Forest Service

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Wetlands o They are important reservoirs of aquatic biodiversity that provide ecological/economic

services o US has lost more than half of coastal wetlands and are restoring them

IVD4. Land Conservation Options Vocabulary

¾ Conservation concessions- When governments or private conservation organizations pay nations for agreeing to reserve their natural resources.

¾ Rangelands- Unfenced grasslands in temperate or tropical climates that supply vegetation for grazing.

¾ Pastures- Managed grasslands or fenced meadows usually planted with domestic grasses. ¾ Overgrazing- Too many animals grazing for too long damaging the grass and their roots. ¾ Biodiversity hotspots- Areas especially rich in plant species that are found nowhere else and are

in great danger of extinction. ¾ Reconciliation ecology- A science that focuses on establishing and maintaining new habitats to

conserve species diversity in places where people live. ¾ Zoning- various parcels of land are designated for certain uses to control growth and protection.

Key reasons why to conserve land- ¾ To preserve biodiversity as a vital part of the earth’s natural capital and to mostly unpredictable

changes in the environmental conditions. Best ways to protect endangered habitats and ecosystems-

¾ Locate and protect the most endangered ecosystems and species, while protecting plant biodiversity and ecosystem services.

¾ Seek to restore as many degraded ecosystems as possible ¾ Provide financial investments to landowners who agree to help protect endangered ecosystems

by giving tax breaks and write-offs. Laws

¾ Mitigation Banking- allows destruction of wetlands as long as an equal area of the same wetland is created or restored.

Prevention

¾ Protect the most diverse and endangered areas

¾ Educate settlers about sustainable agriculture and forestry

¾ Subsidize only sustainable forest use ¾ Reduce Poverty ¾ Slow population growth

Restoration

¾ Encourage regrowth through secondary succession

¾ Rehabilitate degraded areas ¾ Concentrate farming and ranching in

already-cleared areas.

IVE. Mining

Mineral Formation o Mineral- an element or inorganic compound that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust as

a crystalline solid, or one that has a regularly repeating internal arrangement of its atoms

o Rock- solid combination of one or more minerals found in the earth’s crust

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o Sedimentary rock- made of sediments or dead plant and animal remains and tiny particles of weathered and eroded rocks ex/ limestone, sandstone, shale, lignite and bituminous coal

o Igneous Rock- below or on earth’s surface when magma wells up from the earth’s upper mantle or deep crust and cools and hardens ex/ granite and lava rock

o Metamorphic rock- when a preexisting rock is subject to high temps, high pressures chemically active fluids ex/ slate and marble

o Mineral resource- concentration of naturally occurring material from the earth’s crust that we can extract and process into raw materials and useful products at an affordable cost (metallic and nonmetallic)

o Ore- a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a particular mineral to make it profitable for mining and processing (high grade and low grade ore)

Extraction o Surface mining- materials lying over a deposit are removed to expose the resource for

processing Æ remove vegetation then overburden and put into spoils o Open pit mining- machines dig very large holes and remove metal ores and sand, gravel,

and stone o Strip mining- useful for extracting mineral deposits that lie in large horizontal beds close

to earth’s surfaceÆ power shovel o Contour mining- mine coal on hilly terrain o Mountaintop removal- in Appalachian mountains with large power shovels and remove

top and expose seams of coal o Subsurface mining- underground mineral resources are removed through tunnels and

shafts Global reserves- identified resources from which we can extract the mineral profitably at

current prices o Improved technology has helped this and lowered cost to extract

Relevant Laws and Treaties o The US General Mining Law of 1872- designed to encourage mineral exploration and the

mining of hard rock minerals

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IVF. Fishing

Method Catches How Disadvantages Trawling Fish/shellfish that

live on ocean bottom Drags a funnel-shaped net

Like clear-cutting the ocean floor

Purse-seine Surface dwellers(often schools near surface)

Spotter plane locates a school, vessel encloses fish with net

The nets kill other animals like dolphins

Long-Lining

Lines up to 60 miles long with thousands of baited hooks

Depth adjusted to target different species of open-ocean fish

Hook many endangered species

Drift-net Large nets drift as deep as 15 meters and up to 40 miles long

Overfishing and bycatch, compliance of UN ban on nets 1.6+ miles is voluntary

Aquaculture Variety Raise species in ponds or underwater cages.

Large inputs of land/water, waste, loss of habitat, diseases, what they are fed

Facts

Modern industrial fishing has caused 80% depletion of some wild fish species in 10-15years.

It is estimated that Sea Turtle tourism brings in 3x more money than the sale of turtle products.

By international law, a country’s offshore fishing zone extends to 370 kilometers from the shore.

Aquatic species have been crowded out of at least half of the world’s freshwater habitat areas (think HIPPCO).

Vocab

Fishery: a concentration of a particular wild aquatic species suitable for commercial harvesting in a given area

Fishprint: an area of ocean needed to sustain the fish consumption of an average person, nation, or world

Tradegy of the commons: the degradation of common-property and open-access renewable resources due to each user thinks “the little bit I use is not enough to matter.”

Protecting Marine Biodiversity is Difficult

4. The human ecological footprint and fishprint are expanding so rapidly that it is hard to measure their impact

5. Much of the damage to the ocean/water is not visible to most people

6. Many people incorrectly view the seas as an inexhaustible resource that can absorb waste and pollution

7. Most of the world’s ocean area lies outside the legal jurisdiction of any country which leads to tragedy of the commons

H-Habitat loss

I-Invasive species

P-Population growth along coasts

P-Pollution

C-Climate change

O-Overfishing Observations of marine biodiversity

1. Greatest marine biodiversity occurs in coral reefs, estuaries, and deep-ocean floor.

2. Biodiversity is higher near the coasts than in the open ocean because of a higher concentration of producers and habitats.

3. Biodiversity is generally higher in the bottom region of the ocean than in the surface region because of more habitats and food options.

Related Protection Measures 1975 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (Cites) 197 Global Treaty on Migratory Species U.S Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 U.S Endangered Species Act of 1973 U.S Whale Conservation and Protection Act of 1976 1995 International Convention on Biological Diversity

Law of the Sea-coastal nations have jurisdiction over 36% of ocean surface and 90% of world’s fish stock. However many nations have promoted overfishing by using subsidies.

Marine Protected Areas-areas of ocean partially protected from human activities(4,000+ worldwide). Many MPA’s allow dredging, trawling, etc.

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IVG. Global Economics Culture – The whole of a society’s knowledge, beliefs, technology, and practices. Three culture revolutions: Agriculture revolution Industrial-medical revolution Information-globalization revolution Governments use two main approaches to influence food production: Control prices – put a legally mandated upper limit on prices. Provide subsidies – giving farmers price supports, tax breaks, and financial support. U.S geological survey estimates that identified U.S coal reserves should last about 250 years at the current consumption rate, but a 2007 survey put that estimate at about 100 years. A key factor to consider in evaluating the usefulness of any energy resource is its net energy yield. Conventional oil, natural gas, and coal are plentiful and have moderate to high net energy yields, but using any fossil fuel, especially coal, has a high environmental impact. The largest groups, staffed by expert economists, lobbyists, and lawyers such as World Wildlife Fund, and the Sierra Club have become powerful and important forces within the U.S political system.

A number of international environmental organizations help shape and set global environmental policy. Perhaps the most influential is the United Nations which houses a large family of organizations including UN Environmental Program, the World Health organization. Environmental Regulation – a form of government intervention in the marketplace that is widely used to help control or prevent pollution and reduce resource waste and environmental degradation. Incentive-based environmental regulations – Uses the economic forces of the marketplace to encourage business to be innovative in reducing pollution and resource waste. Innovation friendly Regulation – Sets goals, frees industries to meet them in any way that works, and allows enough time for innovation. V. Energy Resources & Consumption (10-15%) VA. Energy Concepts Energy: capacity to do work or to transfer heat Energy Forms: -Kinetic Energy: moving energy; matter in motion; energy associated with motion ex.: flowing water, electricity, wind forms: heat-total kinetic energy of all molecules in a substance electromagnetic radiation- energy travels in a wave as a result of changes in electrical and magnetic fields

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-Potential Energy: stored energy; potentially available for use ex: water behind a dam, chemical energy stored in coal, rock in hand -Three principles of sustainability: solar energy, chemical cycling, and biodiversity lead to a more sustainable society -Fossil fuels: products of partial or complete decomposition of plants and animals -Energy Quality: measure of the capacity of a type of energy to do useful work -High-quality energy: has a great capacity to do useful work because its concentrated ex: high-temperature heat, high-speed wind, concentrated sunlight -Low-quality energy: so dispersed it has little capacity to do useful work ex: low-temperature heat -First Law of Thermodynamics: when energy is converted from one form to another in a physical or chemical change, no energy is created or destroyed. Also known as the law of conservation of energy. -Second Law of Thermodynamics: When energy is changed from one form to another it always goes from a more useful to a less useful form. Energy and Power Units and Conversions: -measured in calories and joules, or kilocalories and kilojoules 1 calorie = 4.184 joules VB. Energy Consumption

1. History a. Fossil fuels are non-renewable because they took millions of years to form b. Consumption of fossil fuels has grown dramatically throughout history, especially since

the industrial revolution when people invented machines for large-scale production of goods in factories

i. Increased fossil fuel use, food production, and population 2. Exponential Growth – growth in which some quantity increases at a constant rate per unit of

time, starting off slowly but grows to enormous numbers a. Result of exponential population growth: we need vast amounts of food, water, raw

materials, and energy, producing large amounts of pollution and waste 3. Energy Crisis

a. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, Europeans burned wood to provide most of the energy needed, but this depleted forests and caused an energy crisis

b. To overcome the crisis, they began mining and burning coal and later pumping petroleum, burning natural gas, and using nuclear power

4. Present global energy use: a. We are in the “fossil fuel era” because 85% of the world’s energy use is from

nonrenewable forms of energy (oil, natural gas, coal and nuclear) 5. Future energy needs

a. Need for oil and other fossil fuels will rise because of… i. growing population

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ii. increased per capita consumption iii. wasteful use

b. Will lead to depletion of oil reserves c. Increased drilling is not the solution, dependence on oil must be decreased

VC. Fossil Fuel Resources and Use y Petroleum, or Crude oil- comes out of the ground. It’s a conventional oil, a.k.a. a light or sweet

crude oil. Conventional oil makes up 30% of the world supply and unconventional oil makes up 70%. y Formation of oil: drill a well, vertically or horizontally, into the deposit underground or the sea

bottom. Then gravity makes the oil flow out of the rock pores and into the bottom of the well and to the surface. After extraction it’s transported to a refinery. There it is refined, heating into separate components with different boiling points.

y Peak Production- when the pressure in the well drops and the rate of conventional crude oil production declines. Global peak production-same thing but on global scale.

y Petrochemicals-products of crude oil distillation used as raw materials. y Proven Oil reserves and Unproven Reserves- Proven reserves is where oil can be extracted.

Unproven reserves has a 50% or lower chance of recovery. y Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)-13 countries make it up and it has about

60% of the world’s oil supply. Saudi Arabia has the most oil reserve (20%) y Tar sand, or oil sand-mixture of clay, sand, water, and bitumen. This is usually extracted by strip

mining. y Shale oil-distillate of oil shales. It comes after the shale is extracted and heated. y Fig. 15-6 on page 377 and fig. 15-10 on page 379 for advantages and disadvantages. y Natural Gas-mixture of gases. It can be burned to heat space and water, produce electricity, and

propel vehicles. y Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)- this is removed when propane and butane gases are liquefied at

high pressure. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)-natural gas is converted to liquid form by cooling it to a very low temperature.

y Russia has the most natural gas reserve (25%). y Fig. 15-12 on page 381 for advantages and disadvantages. y Coal-solid fossil fuel, formed from remains of plants buried millions of years ago and exposed to

intense heat and pressure over those millions of years. y Coal is the world‘s most abundant fossil fuel. The US has the most coal reserve (28%) y Fig. 15-15 on page 382 for how coal is burned in a power plant. y Coal ash is a waste that comes out of the burning and removing of pollutants in the coal. EPA and

the Environmental Integrity Project (EIP) determined that coal ash is a hazardous waste and should be handled appropriately. Clean Coal and Anti-Coal campaigns have been started and been going on for decades now.

y Fig. 15-18 on page 384 for advantages and disadvantages. y Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG)-Gaseous fuel containing mostly methane produced from solid coal.

Converted in process called coal gasification. Coal liquefaction converts coal into liquid fuels and they are called synfuels.

y Fig. 15-19 on page 385 for advantages and disadvantages. VD. Nuclear Energy Nuclear Power- source of energy that we learned how to use recently Nuclear Power plant- highly complex and costly system. Boils water and provides steam that spins a turbine and generates electricity.

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Controlled nuclear fission reactions are very costly. Light Water Reactors (LWR) provide 85% of the world’s nuclear generated energy They are highly inefficient and lose about 75% of the high quality energy available. Control rods- move in and out of the reactor core to absorb neutrons. Coolant- usually water circulates through the reactors core to remove heat. Containment shell- thick steel reinforced concrete walls surrounding the reactor core. Fuel rods- are group together in fuel assemblies

The Nuclear Cycle The nuclear cycle includes mining of uranium, processing and enriching the uranium to make fuel, and using it in a reactor. This cycle also refers to the end of the radio reactors lives and safely stores the radioactive component. Each step of the cycle is very costly.

Trade Offs Advantages: low environmental impact without accidents, emits 1/16 as much CO2 as coal, and low risk of accidents in modern plants Disadvantages: very low net energy yield and high overall, provides harmful radioactive waste, and promotes spread of nuclear weapons. Chernobyl: World’s worst Power Plant Accident- April 26, 1986 there were two simultaneous explosions. Researchers say it occurred from a poor reactor design. 350,000 people had to leave their home High Radioactive Waste in the USA is in an underground storage in the Yucca Mountains. There are high amount of radioactive waste here located on Federal land. In Summary: Nuclear Power Plants have a low environmental impact and a very low accident risk, but high cost, a low net energy yield, long lived radioactive waste and the potential for spreading nuclear weapons technology had limited its use. VE. Hydroelectric Power

1. HYDROPOWER – uses KE of flowing/falling water to produce electricity a. Indirect form of solar energy – based on evaporation of water (deposited at higher

elevations which falls to lower elevations) b. Top five producers – Canada, China, Brazil, US, & Russia c. Only 15% of worlds potential has been developed d. Potential to replace many of the coal burning plants around the world

2. DAMS – most common form of harnessing hydro power

a. Built across large ricers to create a reservoir b. Water stored flows through pipes at controlled rates to spin turbines & create electricity c. Have been built in some estuaries and bays – capture power of waves and tides d. Only two tidal energy dams in existence (France and Nova Scotia); costly and limited e. Underwater turbines = alternative (similar to wind turbines); BUT = $$ & technology

3. FLOOD CONTROL

a. Prevention – preserve forests on watersheds, restore wetlands, tax development on floodplains, use floodplains to recharge aquifers, sustainable agriculture & forestry

b. Control – straighten& deepen streams (channelization), build levees, floodwalls, & dams c. Controlled water then can be used as hydropower

4. SALMON (specific result of hydropower use)

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a. Built structures such as dams can disrupt ecological services (delivering nutrients, purifying water, renewing wetlands, etc)

b. Ex. Hydroelectric power disrupted/contributed to biodiversity loss in Columbia River c. Ædam on river blocked salmon migration causing population to drop d. Display of how cheap electricity can still hurt wildlife

5. ALTERNATIVE METHOD

a. Analysts expect large scale hydropower to decrease – reservoirs fill with silt, become useless, requiring new systems to be built

b. Microhydropower generators – floating turbines; use power of flowing water to turn rotor bladesÆspin to produce electric current; placed in any river w/o effecting course, being costly, & causing environmental impact.

6. ADVANTAGES VS. DISADVANTAGES Large Scale Hydropower

Advantages Disadvantages Moderate to high net energy Large land disturbance

Large untapped potential High CH4 emissions from rapid biomass decay in shallow tropical reservoirs

Low cost electricity Disrupts downstream ecosystems Low CO2 and other pollutant emissions Displacement of people

VF. Energy Conservation

Energy Efficiency – The measure of how much work we can get from each unit of energy we use.

Ways we waste energy- buying gas guzzling vehicles, building large houses that require more energy to heat and cool, coal power plants, and using incandescent light bulbs. Solutions to reducing energy wastes- prolong fossil fuel supplies, reduce oil imports and improve energy security, low cost, very high net energy yield, reduces pollution, buys time to phase in renewable energy, and creates local jobs. Common devices that waste lots of energy- incandescent light bulb, internal combustion engine, nuclear power plant, and coal-fired power plant.

CAFÉ Standards- corporate average fuel economy standards. - Average fuel efficiency for vehicles decreased to 9 kilometers per liter. - Fuel economy standards are much higher in Europe, China, and Canada are much

higher than those in the US. - In 2008, a law raised standards to 15 kpl, to be attained in 2016.

Hybrid Electric Vehicles- people have proposed a fee-bate program which means that buyers of

inefficient vehicles will pay a high fee, and those who buy a fuel efficient vehicle will receive a rebate. -People living now are being encouraged to buy fuel efficient cars to save gas and money. -One solution is a hybrid car, these have both a gasoline and battery powered engine which uses less gas than an average car. -Another version is called the plug-in hybrid, which runs primarily on electricity, and gets the equivalent of 100 mpg.

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-People believe that plug-in hybrids will dominate the vehicle market by 2020. -With plug-in hybrids around for 2 decades, US oil consumption is projected to decrease 70-90%. -Other options could be energy-efficient diesel cars or building cars with ultralight and ultrastrong materials. Mass Transit- mass transit in US includes buses, taxies, trains, and ferries. -Mass transit is most common in urban areas where people there do not have the money to buy a car, so they rely on mass transit. -A lot of energy is saved from people traveling with mass transit than using their own cars. -Mass transit is more environmentally friendly, cheaper, and saves more time than other forms of public transportation. VG. Renewable Energy

Large-Scale Hydropower Advantages Disadvantages -moderate to high net energy -large land disturbance -large untapped potential -high CH4 emissions -low CO2 emissions -disrupts downstream aquatic ecosystems Wind Power Advantages Disadvantages -moderate to high net energy yield -needs back up system if winds die down -widely available -visual pollution for some -low electricity cost and little/no CO2 emissions -low-level noise bothers some -easy to build and expand -can kill birds

Solid Biomass Advantages Disadvantages -widely available -moderate to high environmental impact -moderate costs -increases CO2 emissions if burned

unsustainably -no net CO2 increase if burned sustainably -clear cutÆ soil erosion, water poll, loss of

habitat

Solar Cells Advantages Disadvantages -moderate Net Energy yield -need access to sun -little/no CO2 emissions -high costs (decreasing) -easy installation -need electricity storage system or backup -competitive cost -solar-cell powered plants disrupt desert

ecosystem

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-plantations can restore degraded lands -often burned in inefficient and polluting fires

Geothermal Energy Advantages Disadvantages - Moderate net energy and high efficiency at accessible sites

-High cost and low efficiency except at accessible sites

-Lower CO2 emissions than fossil fuels -Scarcity of suitable sites -Low cost at favorable sites -Noise and some CO2 emissions Hydrogen

Advantages Disadvantages

-can be produced from plentiful water -negative net energy yield

-no direct CO2 emissions (if produced from H2O)

-CO2 emissions if made from compounds w/carbon

-good substitute for oil -high costs need subsides

-high efficiency (45-60%) in fuel cells -needs H2 storage and distribution system

VI. Pollution (25-30%) VIA1. Air Pollution Vocabulary Atmospheric pressure- force or mass per unit area of air, caused by the bombardment of a surface

by the molecules in air. Troposphere- innermost layer of the atmosphere. It contains about 75% of the mass of earth’s air

and extends about 17 kilometers (11 miles) above sea level. Stratosphere- second layer of the atmosphere, extending about 17-48 kilometers above the earth’s

surface. It contains small amounts of gaseous ozone, which filters out about 95% of the incoming harmful ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun.

Ozone layer- layer of gaseous ozone in the stratosphere that protects life on earth by filtering out most harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Air pollution- one or more chemicals in high enough concentrations in the air to harm humans, other animals, vegetation, or materials.

Primary pollutants-chemical that has been added directly to the air by natural events or human activities and occurs in a harmful concentration.

Secondary pollutants-harmful chemical formed in the atmosphere when a primary air pollutant reacts with normal air components or other air pollutants.

Particulates- variety of solid particles and liquid droplets small and light enough to remain suspended in the air for long periods.

Ozone- colorless and highly reactive gas and a major component of photochemical smog. Also found in the ozone layer in the stratosphere.

Volatile organic compounds (VOC)- organic compounds that exist as gases in the atmosphere and act as pollutants, some of which are hazardous.

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Industrial smog- type of air pollution consisting mostly of a mixture of sulfur dioxide, suspended droplets of sulfuric acid formed from some of the sulfur dioxide, and suspended solid particles.

Temperature inversion-layer of dense, cool air trapped under a layer of less dense, warm air. It prevents upward-flowing air currents from developing. In a prolonged inversion, air pollution in the trapped layer may build up to harmful levels.

Acid deposition-the falling of acids and acid-forming compounds from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface. Acid deposition is commonly known as acid rain, a term that refers to the wet deposition of droplets of acids and acid-forming compounds.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)- man-made chemicals that deplete atmospheric ozone levels. Clean Air Acts (1970, 1977, 1990)- the federal government established air pollution regulations for

key pollutants that are enforced by states and major cities.

VIA2. Noise Pollution What is noise pollution? -Any unwanted, disturbing, or harmful sound that damages, impairs, or interferes with hearing, causes stress, hampers concentration and work efficiency, or causes accidents. -Noise levels are measured in decibel-A, which are sound pressure units that vary with different human activities. Sources of noise pollution -Loud music -Vehicles and traffic -Machinery and motors -Locomotive engines Effects of noise pollution -Ringing in the ears -Hearing loss -Stress on environment and people Control measures -Regular servicing and tuning of automobiles -Selection of certain machinery which generates less noise -Proper lubrication and maintenance of machines will reduce noise levels

Temperature inversion

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VIA3. Water Pollution Water Pollution (Ch. 20): any physical or chemical change in surface water or groundwater that can harm living organisms or make water unfit for certain uses Point sources: discharge pollutants into bodies of surface water at specific locations through drain pipes, ditches, or sewer lines ex. factories, sewage treatment plants, oil tankers Nonpoint sources: are broad and diffuse areas from which pollutants enter bodies of water or air ex. runoff from cropland, livestock feedlots, logged forests, urban streets, lawns Eutrophication: physical, chemical, and biological changes that take place after a lake, estuary, or slow-flowing stream receives inputs of plant nutrients, mostly nitrates and phosphates, from natural erosion and runoff from the surrounding land basin. Cultural Eutrophication: over nourishment if aquatic ecosystems with plant nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) because of human activities such as agriculture, urbanization, and discharges from industrial plants and sewage treatment plants. Septic tank: underground tank for treating wastewater from a home in rural and suburban areas. Bacteria in the tank decompose organic wastes, and the sludge settles to the bottom. The effluent flows out of the tank into the ground through a field of drainpipes. Clean Water Act: regulates and enforces all discharge into water sources and wetland destruction/construction 1. What are the major sources of water pollution?

a. Agricultural activities: sediment eroded from agricultural lands, fertilizers, pesticides, bacteria from livestock and food-processing wastes, and excess salts from soils

b. Industrial facilities: emit a variety of harmful inorganic and organic chemicals Æ coal ash c. Mining: surface mining disturbs lands, creating major erosion or sediments and runoff of toxic

chemicals d. PLASTICS

2. Describe the overall effects of water pollution on human health a. exposure to infectious disease organisms through drinking water contaminated with human and

animal wastes Æ diarrhea, vomiting, fever, anemia, and even death 3. How do scientists test water for pollutants?

a. presence of coliform bacteria, level of dissolved oxygen, chemical analysis, indicator species, turbitity

4. How do streams naturally clean themselves, and how can we alter their ability to do so? a. through a combination of dilution and bacterial breakdown of oxygen-demanding wastes b. it can not eliminate nondegradable wastes

5. What is an oxygen sag curve? (Fig 20-7) a. the breakdown of biodegradable wastes by bacteria depletes dissolved oxygen creates an

oxygen sag curve, this reduces populations of organisms with high oxygen requirements until the stream in cleansed of oxygen-demanding wastes

6. What can cause fish kills and drinking water contamination in the streams in developed countries? a. accidental or deliberate release of toxic inorganic or organic chemicals by industries & mining

operations b. malfunctioning sewage treatment plants c. nonpoint runoff of pesticides and excess plant nutrients from cropland and animal feedlots

7. What are the major causes of stream pollution in less-developed countries? a. discharges of untreated sewage and industrial wastes, and dumped garbage

8. Why is groundwater ineffective at cleaning itself?

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a. It cannot cleanse itself of degradable wastes as quickly as flowing surface water can. Groundwater flows so slowly (usually less than .3 meter per day) that contaminants are not diluted and dispersed effectively

9. Describe the effects of nitrate ions and arsenic on human health a. CANCER

10. Where does most ocean pollution occur? a. untreated municipal sewage, leaking septic tanks, runoff

11. Describe what happens during each stage at a sewage (or wastewater) treatment plant: a. Primary sewage treatment: mechanical sewage treatment in which large solids are filtered out

by screens and suspended solids settle out as sludge in a sedimentation tank b. Secondary sewage treatment: aerobic bacteria decompose as much as 90% of degradable,

oxygen-demanding organic wastes in wastewater. It usually involves bringing sewage and bacteria together in trickling filters or in the activated sludge process

c. Tertiary sewage treatment: uses a series of specialized chemical and physical processes to remove specific pollutants left in the water. Uses special filters to remove phosphates and nitrates.

d. Bleaching and disinfection: to remove water coloration and to kill disease-carrying bacteria and some viruses

12. Water Pollution Solutions: a. prevent groundwater contamination, reduce nonpoint runoff, reuse treated wastewater for

drinking and irrigation, find substitutes for toxic pollutants, work with nature to treat sewage, practice reduce reuse recycle, reduce air pollution, reduce poverty, slow population growth

VIA4. Solid Waste Solid Waste – Any unwanted or discarded material we produce that is not a liquid

or gas. 1. Industrial Solid Waste – produced by mines, farms, and industries that supply

people with goods and services 2. Municipal Solid Waste – Garbage/trash from homes and workplaces other than

factories 3. Hazardous/Toxic Waste – threatens human health or the environment b/c it is

poisonous, chemically reactive, corrosive, or flammable (disinfectants, paints, dry-cell batteries, glues, pesticides, ant/rodent killers, gas, antifreeze, etc)

i. Organic Compounds ii. Non-degradable toxic heavy metals

iii. Radioactive waste US produces about 1/3 of the world’s solid waste

o How should we deal with it? � Waste management – control wastes in ways that reduce their environmental

harm without seriously trying to reduce the amount of waste produced � Waste reduction – we produce much less waste and pollution and the wastes

we do produce are considered to be potential resources that we can reuse, recycle, or compost.

� Integrated Waste Management – a variety of coordinated strategies for both waste disposal and waste reduction.

� Reduce – consume less, live a simpler lifestyle � Reuse – rely more on items we can use repeatedly instead of throwaway items � Recycling – reprocessing discarded solid materials into new, useful products

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Primary/Closed-Loop – materials such as aluminum cans are recycled into new products of the same type

Secondary – waste materials are converted into different products � Send mixed household/business wastes to materials-recovery facilities � Composting

Burning/Burying Solid Waste o Disadvantage – air pollution o Landfills – open dumps/sanitary landfills

� May leak Hazardous waste – recycle e-waste, detoxify them, store them (deep well disposal/surface

impoundments) o Superfund/EPA/International treaties help to reduce

VIB1. Hazards to Human Health

1. Environmental risk analysis (457) Risk analysis involves identifying hazards and evaluating their associated risks, ranking

risks, determining options and making decisions about reducing or eliminating risks, and informing decision makers and the public about the risk.

2. Acute and Chronic Effects (451, 454)

Acute: is an immediate or rapid harmful reaction ranging from dizziness and nausea to death.

Chronic: is a permanent or long lasting consequence of exposure to a single dose or to repeated lower doses of a harmful substance.

3. Dose-response relationships (453-54)

Nonthreshold dose response model: any dosage of a toxic chemical causes harm that increases with the dosage.

Threshold dose response: a certain level of the chemical must be reached before any detectable harmful effects occur, presumably because the body can repair the damage caused by low dosages of some substances.

4. Air Pollutants (458-62)

Shortens the US human life span by 5 months. Is the cause of 2.4 million deaths.

5. Smoking and other risks (459)

Smoking shortens the US person’s life span by 6-7 years, Smoking is the cause of 5.4 million deaths annually. Poverty is the highest with 7-10 years and 11 million annual deaths.

VIB2. Hazardous Chemicals in the Environment Types of Hazardous Waste

We can reduce our excessive amount of waste of potential resources and the resulting environmental harm it causes by 90%.

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One category of waste is solid waste, which is any unwanted or discarded material we produce that is not a liquid or a gas. Solid waste can be split into 2 types. One is industrial solid waste, which is produced by mines, farms, and industries that supply people with goods and services. The other is municipal solid waste (MSW), which is often called trash, consisting of the combined solid waste produced by homes and workplaces other than factories. Some examples would be paper, cans, or plastic. In developed countries these MSWs are buried in landfills or burned in incinerators. In less-developed countries much of it is in open dumps.

Another major category of waste is hazardous, or toxic, waste, which threatens human health or the environment because of its poisonous, dangerously chemically reactive, corrosive, or flammable. An example would be car batteries. The 2 largest classes of hazardous wastes are organic compounds (such as pesticides, and dioxins) and nondegradable toxic heavy metals (such as lead and mercury). There is also radioactive waste produced by nuclear power. The US is the world’s largest producer of hazardous waste.

We need to produce less hazardous waste drastically because of 2 reasons. One is that it violates the chemical cycling. We could reuse and recycle up 90% of the MSWs we produce. The second reason is that it creates huge amounts of air pollution, water pollution, etc. Treatment/disposal of Hazardous Waste

One method of treatment is waste management, in which we attempt to control wastes in ways that reduce their environmental harm without seriously trying to reduce the amount of waste produced. The second is waste reduction, in which we produce much less waste and pollution, and the waste we do produce are considered to be potential resources that we can reuse, recycle, or compost. There is no single solution to the solid waste problem, but most call for using integrated waste management. This is a variety of coordinated strategies for both waste disposal and waste reduction. We can also detoxify hazardous wastes by using filters and chemically treating them. The last thing we could do is store them. An example of this would be deep-well disposal, in which liquid hazardous wastes are pumped under pressure through a pipe into dry, porous rock formation beneath aquifers below the ground. Relevant Laws Resource Conservation and Recovery Act- passed by the U.S. Congress in 1976 and amended in 1984. Under this act, the EPA set standards for the management of several types of hazardous waste and issues permits to companies that allow them to produce and dispose of a certain amount of those wastes by approved methods. Only about 5% of the hazardous wastes are regulated. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act- also called the Superfund Act program. Its goals are to identify sites, commonly known as Superfund sites, where hazardous wastes have contaminated the environment and to clean them up on a priority basis. The worst sites are put on the National Priorities List. In 1984 Congress amended the Superfund Act to give citizens the right to know what toxic chemicals are being stored in their communities. You can find this list on the EPA’s Toxic Release Inventory website. The U.S. Congress and several state legislatures have also passed laws that encourage the cleanup of brownfields, which are abandoned industrial and commercial sites, such as factories, that can be turned into parks, athletic fields, etc. VIC. Economic Impacts Relations between economic systems and the biosphere Economic systems are supported by three types of resources

o Natural capital, human capital or human resources, and manufactured capital or manufactured resources

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Market economic systems depend on interactions between buyers and sellers o In a market-based system, buyers and sellers interact competitively to make economic

decisions about how goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed. Economic growth and economic development

o Economic growth involves making an economy bigger, population wise and commercially; as population increases, production and consumption per person increases as well.

o Economic development focuses on making an economy better by improving human well-being – meeting fundamental needs for items such as food, shelter, physical and economic security, and good health

Governments intervene to help correct market failures Economists disagree over the importance of natural capital and whether economic growth is

sustainable Putting values on natural capital and controlling pollution & resources Protecting natural capital

o Integrate economic and ecological knowledge in order to estimate the economic and ecological values of ecosystem services

o To evaluate the costs and benefits of actions that could be taken to prevent the decline of these services

o To develop toolkits to help local, regional, and international policy makers to promote more sustainable development that conserves ecosystems and biodiversity

Estimating the future value of a resource o Discount rates are used to estimate a resources future economic value compared to its

current value Estimating optimum levels of pollution control and resource use

Using economic tools to deal with environmental problems Environmental economic indicators can help us reduce our environmental impact

o Lowering consumer demands for products that use or contain non-renewable resources o Gross domestic product, or GDP, is a helpful method we can use to monitor and compare

the economic outputs of nations Label environmentally beneficial goods and services

o Product–eco labeling an certification can encourage companies to develop green products and services and can help consumers select more environmentally beneficial products and services

Reward environmentally sustainable businesses Taxes on pollution and wastes Environmental laws and regulations can encourage or discourage innovation

o Environmental regulation is used to help control or prevent pollution and to reduce resource waste and environmental degradation

Use the marketplace to reduce pollution and resource waste By reducing poverty and shortening the gap between the rich and the poor

VII. Global Change (10-15%) VIIA. Stratospheric Ozone Basics of our “global sunscreen”

17-50 km/11-31 mi above Earth’s surface w/ temp. from -40 – 10 degrees C 2nd layer of the atmosphere (after the troposphere)

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o protects us from sunburn, skin/eye cancers, cataracts, and damage to our immune systems

o allows life on land and in the surface layers of the bodies of water O3 is at the bottom of the stratosphere (11-16 mi above sea level) O3 is produced when O2 molecules in the layer interact with UV radiation from the sun

3O2 + UV Æ 2O3 or 3O2 + UV Å 2O3 Depletion

Ozone Hole (predicted worst from 2010-2019) o There is a depletion of ozone in Antarctica and the Arctic and even evidence of

depletion everywhere except over the tropics o Lingers over Australia, New Zealand, S. America, and S. Africa

� Raises UV-B levels by 3-10%, some as much as 20% Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s): the coolants in AC’s and refrigerators, aerosols, etc, HFCs, and N2O Other depletors include: halons, hydrobromoflurocarbons (HBFC’s) in fire extinguishers,

hydrogen chloride (emitted by US space shuttles), and cleaning solvents: carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, n-propyl bromide, and hexachlorobutadiene.

Effects of Ozone Depletion Human Health

Worse sunburns, more eye cataracts/skin cancers, immune system suppression Food and Forests

Reduced yields for some crops, reduced seafood supplies from reduced phytoplankton, decreased forest productivity for UV-sensitive tree species

Climate Change While in troposphere, CFCs act as greenhouse gases

Wildlife Increased eye cataracts, decreased populations of aquatic species sensitive to UV radiation,

reduced populations of surface phytoplankton, disrupted aquatic food webs from reduced phytoplankton

Air pollution and Materials Increased acid deposition, increased photochemical smog, degradation of outdoor paints and

plastics Montreal Protocol (1987)

36 nations met in Montreal, Canada and created the treaty in which the goal was to cut emissions of CFCs (but not other O3 depleting chemicals) by about 35% by between 1989-2000.

Copenhagen Protocol (1992)

accelerated the phase-out of key ozone-depleting chemicals VIIB. Global Warming

Greenhouse effect warms the earth’s lower atmosphere and surface, affecting the earth’s climate

o occurs when some of solar energy absorbed by the earth radiates into the atmosphere as infrared radiation (heat)

1% of earth’s lower atmosphere is composed of greenhouse gases o Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide

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o Heat radiated into the atmosphere by earth causes molecules of these gases to release infrared radiation into the lower atmosphere

o radiation interacts with molecules in the air and warms the lower atmosphere, which over time affects the earth’s climate

o Without the natural greenhouse effect, the world would be frigid and uninhabitable Burning of fossil fuels, burning coal, deforestation, and agriculture have led to a significant

increase in carbon dioxide and methane in the lower atmosphere since Industrial Rev If greenhouse gas concentrations continue to increase, the earth is likely to experience rapid

atmospheric warming and climate disruption during this century o Cause ecological, economic, and social disruption by degrading food and water supplies

and terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, flooding low-lying coastal communities and cities, and eliminating many of the earth’s species

Oceans help absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and help moderate the earth’s surface temp and climate

o Ocean’s ability to absorb CO2 decreases when water temp increases, and releases some dissolved CO2 when it warms up (Ocean temp has increased)

Aerosols reflect sunlight and cool the lower atmosphere, but are being reduced due to harmful impacts on humans and plants; therefor outdoor air pollution could slow climate disruption, but it is too harmful to humans

Effects of climate change: o Severe drought likely to increase o glaciers, permafrost, ice, and snow melt, causing a rise in sea levels o acidification of the ocean: CO2 absorbed reacts with water to produce carbonic acid

(H2CO3); threatens coral reefs and certain organisms o extreme weather is likely to increase in some areas o Climate disruption is a threat to biodiversity o agriculture could face an overall decline o a warmer world is likely to threaten the health of many people

Prevention of climate disruption: cut fossil fuel use, use natural gas instead of coal, improve energy efficiency, use renewable energy sources, reduce deforestation, sustainable agriculture, put a price on greenhouse emissions, reduce poverty, slow population growth

To reduce threat of climate disruption, governments can use carbon and energy taxes and cap and trade

VIIC.Loss of Biodiversity

Biological extinction: a species suffers this when it can no longer be found anywhere on earth. o Lead to weakening or breaking connections in the ecosystem.

Background extinction rate: natural, low rate of species extinction. Extinction rate: percentage of species that go extinct within a certain time period such as a year. Mass Extinction: extinction of many species in a relatively short period of geological time. Causes of extinction- major climate change and large-scale catastrophes. Human activities- taking over or disturbing at least half of the earth’s land surface, pollute and

disturb half of the surface waters that cover 71% of the earth’s surface, and filling it wetlands or converting grasslands.

Extinction rate is at 1% per year. This is considered low because: o Both the rate of species loss and extent of biodiversity losses are likely to increase sharply in

the future.

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o Current extinction rates are much higher than the global average in parts of the world. o We are eliminating, degrading, fragmenting, and simplifying many biologically diverse

environments that serve as potential colonization sites for emergence of new species. Threatened species: still have enough remaining individuals to survive in the short term. Species should be protected because they: o Provide natural resources and natural services that keep us alive. o Play a role in the key ecosystem functions of energy flow and chemical cycling. o Provide economic values as food crops, fuel wood, and lumbar, paper, and medicine. o Generate money from tourism.

HIPPCO: o Habitat destruction: degradation and fragmentation. o Invasive species: deliberately inventing species to help control pests and provide food for

people. o Population growth: expands ecological footprint, eliminates, degrades, and fragments areas

of wildlife. o Pollution: effects of pesticides; bioaccumulation- DDT accumulates in tissue of animals and is

magnified at higher trophic levels. o Climate change: polar bears already threatened by higher temperatures and melting sea ice. o Overexploitation: illegal trade.

CITES: convention on international trade of endangered species. Endangered species act: identify and protect endangered species in US and abroad. CBD: prevent spread of ecological harmful species. National wildlife Refuge System: help protect birds such as Brown Pelican; serve as wetland

sanctuaries that are vital for protecting migrating waterfowl. Gene banks: preserve genetic info and plant species by storing seeds in refrigerators. Botanical gardens: contain living plants. Wildlife farms: commercial sale. Zoos, aquariums, and animal research centers: preserve ethnically endangered animal species. Captive breeding: collecting for breeding to reintroduce species. Precautionary principle: used when activities can hurt species; preventing exposure to harmful

chemicals in the water, food, and air.