~ ) Pergamon Plh S0969-5931 (97)00002-4

International Business Review Vol. 6. No. 3, pp. 233 243, 1997 ~(" 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

Printed in Great Britain 096%5931/97 $17.00 + 0.00

Total Quality Management and Reconceptualising Management in

Africa Chad Perry

University of Southern Queensland, Queensland, Australia

Management in Africa

Abstract - - Could Total Quality Management (TQM) provide the "reconceptualisation" of management required in Africa? TQM is a coherent, established management framework, and the collectivism and high power distance culture of African countries might match the internal customers' teamwork of TQM's quality circles and senior management's overall responsibility in a TQM organisation. Thus this paper addresses the research problem: is TQM a culturally appropriate way to reconceptualise management in African enterprises? A review of TQM leads into a justification for our choice of 1 l themes of TQM as the basis of our analysis. Next, frameworks for understanding African cultures are reviewed and then compared with those frameworks developed for understanding relationships between culture and economic growth in other countries such as Japan, the United States and Australia. With this background, the cultural appropriateness of Africa for each theme of TQM is judged using content analysis. It appears that TQM could be a more culturally appropriate management framework for Africa than for the United States and Australia, but some important parts of it will be difficult to install, especially those relating to aspects of Confucian dynamism. © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd

Key Words - - Africa, Culture, Management, Reconceptualisation, Total Quality Management, TQM

I n t r o d u c t i o n By the 1990s, average annual per capita income in African countries was almost one half that of Pacific countries and one-sixth that of Latin American and Caribbean countries, after declining by 40% in the 1980s. Moreover, Africa 's share of world trade declined by more than 50% in the 1980s (Quelch and Austin, 1993). Reflecting this situation, 35% of aid to developing countries goes to Africa (Quelch and Austin, 1993). However, management of African enterprises may be as critical as aid funds for the future recovery of African countries. An evaluation of 277 development projects in Africa found more than 88% encountered human resource management problems (Rosenthal et al., 1986), and another report identified management problems as the key factor in the failure or unsatisfactory performance of African development projects (Youker, 1989).

However , aid agencies and multinational companies cannot simply transplant Western management techniques and processes into African enterprises because of cultural, organisational and infrastructure differences (Leonard, 1987; Blunt and Jones, 1992; Perry, 1992). Indeed, after an in-depth analysis of these differences in Malawi, Jones (1989a, b, p. 74) suggested a

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International Business Review 6,3

"reconceptualisation" of African management was necessary in which African managers develop their own indigenous ideas and techniques for their own socio-cultural environments. In the same vein, Jones (1989b, p. 74) refers to the "mystery" of management development in Africa, and Kerrigan and Luke (1987) urge management training outside conventional West-derived manage- ment development programs.

The reconceptualisation has yet to be done by Africans. Perhaps Total Quality Management (TQM), developed in Japan and adopted in other countries such as the United States and Australia, could provide one management framework to reconceptualise management in Africa. TQM is a top-down management framework which is

"a broad approach.., including product and service quality, but extending well beyond to virtually everything done by an organisation for external as well as internal customers within the same organisation"(Mohr-Jackson, 1993, p. 427; emphasis added).

This broad emphasis and regard for internal customers of TQM suggests that it may be a model for deep-seated enterprise change in Africa, for "the main focus of cultural change should be the networks of relationships rather than the culture itself', with TQM providing mechanisms for workers and managers to understand their interdependencies (Blunt and Jones, 1992, p. 208). That is, the internal customers' teamwork of TQM's quality circles and senior manage- ment's overall responsibility in a TQM organisation might match the collectivism and high power distance culture sometimes thought to characterise African countries (Perry, 1993).

Nevertheless, although TQM is "nothing less than a revolution in management culture" (Hames, 1991, p. 14). Concern about its cultural effects has been limited to organisational culture (reviewed in Harber et al., 1993), and explorations of its national culture effects have been limited. Despite this limitation, TQM has been adopted in many countries outside of Japan where it began, except for African countries. For example, in 1991 in the United States, there were 235,000 applications from firms for the Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Award administered by the Department of Commerce.

Could TQM also be adopted in African countries? This paper addresses the research problem: Is TQM a culturally appropriate way to reconceptualise management in African enterprises?

The research can be justified. Firstly, TQM is rarely used in African enterprises and no other research about the issue has been done. Secondly, TQM is a fully developed philosophy and practice, and so might be relatively straightforward to transfer to Africa, to address several problems relating to management processes and to management development. For example, transferring technology from the West might be helped by a coherent understanding of how it would be managed within a TQM context, and management development programs could be restructured to incorporate TQM processes. Thirdly, understanding how TQM might match African national cultures might help in TQM's adoption in other countries for, as noted above,

235

the effects of national culture on TQM have been unresearched and TQM's adoption in some other countries has not been straightforward - - one reviewer of recent research into TQM's effectiveness in the United States and Australia concluded,

Management in Africa

"The fact is that no one anywhere has much to show for TQM" (Haigh, 1993, p. 35).

This paper has four sections. A brief review of TQM leads into a justification for our choice of eleven themes of TQM as the basis of our analysis. Next, frameworks for understanding African cultures are reviewed and compared with those frameworks developed for understanding relation- ships between culture and economic growth in other countries such as Japan. Against this background, the cultural appropriateness for Africa for each theme of TQM is judged. Finally, possibilities for applying TQM in Africa are explored.

Delimitations of Scope Despite their different colonial backgrounds, management in the less developed African countries is similar (Jones, 1989b; Safavi and Tweddell, 1990), and this paper is limited to those countries whose African work-place cultures are different from those of more developed African countries such as South Africa (Hofstede, 1984a). Nevertheless, overgeneralisations should be avoided because useful data was available for only a minority of Africa's 50 countries. Indices of four cultural dimensions were only available from the seven countries in two regions in East and West Africa surveyed in Hofstede (1984a) - - Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Ghana, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone. These four indices were compared with the indices of a fifth dimension in Zimbabwe and Nigeria only (Chinese Culture Connection, 1987). Thus one averaged ranking (from Hofstede (1984a) and Hofstede and Bond (1988)) for all these countries is used to indicate likely differences between African countries and other countries in the 1990s, because values of Hofstede's indices were calculated more than a decade ago and because this is an exploratory study. Finally, no claim is made that TQM per se is the best management framework or that it's adoption will automatically provide improved organisational performance.

Themes of TQM TQM originated in Japan after World War II. Although some Americans, such as Deming, assisted in its development, most of the core concepts were indigenous to Japan where, under various names, it refers to a

"distinct organisational culture, a fundamental shared set of beliefs and values that put the customer in the centre of the firm's activities and operations" (Mohr-Jackson, 1993, p. 428; emphasis added).

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In te rna t iona l Bus iness R e v i e w 6,3

This cultural core of TQM suggests that its themes should be identified using an interpretive methodology that

"seeks to deconstruct the phenomenological processes through which shared realities are created, sustained and changed" (Hassard, 1990, p. 277).

In contrast, using external and supposedly objective data such as the criteria of the Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Award to identify TQM's themes would lead to an emphasis on "techniques" at the expense of integrated constructs required for this cultural research. Thus this research adopted the themes identified from Molar-Jackson's (1993) in-depth, flexible, person-to- person interviews with fifty-four corporate quality executives from fifty US organisations about their interpretations of the three general issues of: what is quality? what are the key ingredients to being a quality company? what does it mean to have a culture based on quality? That is, her research explored how a TQM reality was "socially constructed" and given meaning by managers in a developed country (Easterby-Smith et al., 1991, p. 24).

The 11 themes of TQM which emerged in her interviews were: (1) The starting point is meeting the expectations of external and internal

customers. (2) Creating quality is the responsibility of the entire business, so

interfunctional coordination is important. (3) Profitability is a consequence of quality, rather than a part of it. (4) Leadership by senior managers is critical. (5) Continuous improvement of all operations of an organisation is required

for sustainable competitive advantage. (6) TQM involves a long-term commitment to customers, employees,

shareholders and suppliers. (7) Process management and prevention replace traditional after-the-fact

quality control. (8) Market responsiveness and cycle time reduction are allied with concern

for market intelligence. (9) Reliance on reliable information, data and analyses results in "manage-

ment by fact". (10) Partnerships based on long-term objectives and short-term needs create a

basis for mutual investment. (11) Companies are corporate citizens.

African Cultures Before the cultural appropriateness of the 11 themes of TQM to African management is assessed, African cultures themselves must be explored. Hofstede's (1984a) four-dimensional approach to culture will be used as the basis for this exploration for several reasons. Firstly, his research related to work-related values, which is our concern. Secondly, his definition of culture

237

relates to "the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one [nation]... from those of another... [which] becomes crystallised in the institutions" (Hofstede, 1984a, b p. 82) this definition also fits our research problem about national cultures in enterprises. Thirdly, Hofstede's work "has inspired a great improvement in the discipline by specifying a wide-ranging theoretical model which serves to coordinate research efforts" as Redding (1994, p. 337) notes in his own wide-ranging review of culture research; in turn, this research requires a wide-ranging model to compare cultures in several countries.

Hofstede's (1984b, p. 85) four dimensions are discussed next, with comparisons between: Africa where TQM has not been adopted; two similar, developed countries where TQM has been adopted - - the United States and Australia (in this section); and Japan, the "home" of TQM (in the next section). Table 1 is the basis of this discussion.

(1) Collectivism. African countries are more collectivist (that is, less individualist) than developed countries such as the United States and Australia, having strong social frameworks based on an extended family system which involves extensive interdependent responsibilities. The employer/employee relationship in an African organisation tends to involve relatively greater expectations of the organisation's obligations, especially relating to welfare and security for the employee and his or her extended family, than might typically be found in a comparable organisation in the industrialised West.

(2) High power distance. Compared to the United States and Australia, power differences in African hierarchies tend to be greater and more accepted, that is, paternalistic and authoritarian management styles are more common.

(3) Low uncertainty avoidance. African countries have slightly lower uncertainty avoidance values than the United States and Australia. That is, the African countries are less likely to create security and avoid risk through formal rules, common rituals and informal attitudes abhorring social deviance; and they tend to have relatively phlegmatic attitudes to time and planning.

(4) Femininity. Compared to the United States and Australia, African countries are more "feminine", with more care and concern for others in society than for a career or organisational performance.

Kiggundu (1988) and Blunt and Jones (1992) provide impressionistic views of levels of these dimensions in Africa which are the same as Hofstede for collectivism and power distance, almost the same for feminity (medium versus Table l ' s medium-high for Hofstede), but considerably different for uncertainty avoidance (high versus low-medium). This difficulty with the dimension of uncertainty avoidance will be raised in the next section.

Japanese Culture As noted above, Japan is the "home" of TQM and so comparing its culture

Management in Africa

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with Africa's will assist in exploring TQM's appropriateness to Africa. Japanese culture is compared with African culture in Table 1, showing that Africa is more like Japan in the first two dimensions, but more like the United States and Australia in the second two. However, post-Hofstede (1984a) research has provided a richer picture of Japanese culture and its relationship with economic development. Bond and others (Chinese Culture Connection, 1987; Hofstede and Bond, 1988) used a survey instrument developed by Chinese social scientists based on basic values of Chinese people, to test whether Hofstede's results were conditioned by his Western instruments and analytical methods. Administered to 100 students in each of 22 countries, results confirmed the existence of cultural dimensions of collectivism, power distance and femininity, but not of uncertainty avoidance (Chinese Culture Connection, 1987). This finding about uncertainty avoidance could be due to uncertainty avoidance itself being a Western cultural construct. Hofstede and Bond (1988) explain the finding by noting the disinterest in uncertainty avoidance as being associated with disinterest in the pursuit of Truth, but their explanation ignores other aspects of uncertainty avoidance such as preferences for ritualisation and planning. Given this confusion and Japan's high level of uncertainty avoidance and its difference from African countries' low-medium levels (Table 1) or high levels (Blunt and Jones, 1992), this research limited reliance on uncertainty avoidance as an important factor in understanding TQM's cultural appropriateness in Africa. Thus uncertainty avoidance was included in the analysis only where no other dimension appeared to be appropriate.

Another finding of Hofstede and Bond (1988) was a strong correlation between economic growth in all 22 countries over 20 years with afifth cultural dimension called Confucian dynamism (actually, this was the second of their four dimensions, but it will be called the fifth dimension of this analysis). Levels of Confucian dynamism for Japan, Africa and the United States and Australia are given in Table 2, and show Africa and Japan are very different, with the United States and Australia between them.

Confucian dynamism emphasises future-oriented perseverance, status, thrift and shame at ignoring shared obligations, rather than past-oriented stability, face, tradition and reciprocation of gifts and favours. However, the dimension of Confucian dynamism appears to overlap with the four Hofstede dimensions. For example, Confucian dynamism's shame overlaps with the first dimension

Table 1. Hofstede's dimensions

Dimensions Africa Japan Australia and USA

1. Collectivism High Medium Low

2. Power distance High Medium Low

3.Uncertainty avoidance Low-medium High Low-medium

4. Femininity Medium-high Low Low-medium

in Africa and other Source: Hofstede (1984b, p. 85), based on country ranks with cut offs of 0-16, 17-34, and 35-50 for the countries three levels, high, medium and low.

239

of collectivism, status with high power distance, and perseverance with low uncertainty avoidance. Of these three overlaps, African countries are low and high on the first, second, and third; in other words, the African countries' fifth dimension result may conflict with its results for three other dimensions. The only way to resolve this conflict appears to be to emphasise the future orientation of Confucian dynamism in this research, as is done in Table 3 below.

Management in Africa

Findings About TQM and its Relationships with African and Other Countries' Cultures Eleven themes of TQM have been identified and dimensions of cultural differences between Africa, Japan and the United States and Australia have been discussed. Now they will be investigated together to consider the appropriateness of TQM in African countries, using the methodology of content analysis.

Content analysis was used to create Table 3. The first column of Table 3 lists the themes of TQM and the second column lists the one or two dimensions most closely related to each theme; the other columns show levels of each dimension for the three types of country. For example, a "high" in column 3 shows that culture in an African country is high on the dimension where TQM is high, and so the culture and TQM match highly in that dimension, in other words, TQM is culturally appropriate in that dimension. Column 2's entries were derived from independent content analyses by three experienced culture researchers, to ensure reliability. The percentage of agreements among all decisions was 81%, which sa.tisfies Kassarjian (1977, p. 14). Minor differences in individual assessments between the three researchers were removed by unanimous agreement. Uncertainty avoidance appeared to be the only dimension (column 2) appropriate for the ninth theme of management by fact (column 1), and so it had to be included there despite earlier reservations about its validity in this research.

Analysis of column 3 of Table 3 suggests that TQM matches a high level in African cultures on only three out of 11 themes - - interfunctionality, long- term relationships and corporate citizenship. On other themes, African cultures have a weaker match and there are even some "low" matches. Moreover, four of these low matches involve Confucian dynamism (dimension 5) which is the most important dimension for economic growth and so are significant. In brief, TQM only partly matches African culture.

To provide a perspective on this finding about Africa, the Australian and United States' fit in each dimension is shown in column 4 of Table 3. As for

Dimension Africa Japan Australia and USA

5. Confucian dynamism Low H i g h Medium-high

Source: Hofstede and Bond (1988), exhibit 2. Based on country rankings of 0-7, 8-14, and 15-20 for the three levels.

Table 2. Confucian dynamism for various countries

~<

~.ff

Table 3.

TQ

M's high-level

dimensions and countries'

cultures

TQ

M them

es (1) T

QM

-relevant dimension (2)

Africa (3)

Australia and U

SA (4)

Japan (5)

1. Custom

ers' orientation

2. Interfunctionality

3. Profitability is a consequence

4. Leadership by m

anagement

5. Continuous im

provement

6. Long-term

relationships

7. Process m

anagement

8. Market responsiveness

9. Managem

ent by fact

10. Partnership developm

ent

11. Corporate citizenship

1 Collectivism

, 4 feminity

High, M

edium-high

Low

M

edium

1 Collectivism

H

igh L

ow

Medium

4 Fem

inity M

edium-high

Lo

w-m

ediu

m

Low

5 Confucian dynam

ism

Low

M

edium-high

High

5 Confucian dynam

ism

Low

M

edium-high

High

1 Collectivism

H

igh L

ow

Medium

5 Confucian dynam

ism

Low

M

edium-high

High

5 Confucian dynam

ism

Low

M

edium-high

High

3 Uncertainty avoidance

Lo

w-m

ediu

m

Lo

w-m

ediu

m

High

1 Collectivism

, 5 Confucian dynam

ism

High, low

L

ow, m

edium-high

Medium

, high

1 Collectivism

H

igh L

ow

Medium

Notes: T

QM

requires high levels of dimensions in colum

n 1; in column 1, dim

ension 5 is included where the future is im

portant. E

ntries in columns 2 to 4 are from

tables 1 and 2. N

ote that, for example,

a "high" in columns 2 to 4 show

the cultural dimension and the T

QM

theme m

atch very appropriately.

241

Africa, there are some low and medium matches, but unlike Africa there are no high matches, suggesting that TQM is more culturally appropriate in Africa than in the United States and Australia, and that the poor African matches in column 2 do not necessarily imply TQM will be more difficult to install in Africa than elsewhere.

Finally, column 5 of Table 3 shows the Japanese match with TQM themes. The matches are almost all high or medium (as one would expect in the home of TQM), suggesting that TQM is more appropriate in Japan than in Africa and far more appropriate than in the United States and Australia. However, the presence of some medium matches and one low match among the Japanese matches suggests that the success of TQM within a Japanese enterprise may be a "learned" philosophy as well as a "natural" one that coincides with a national culture. Alternatively, it may emphasise that Hofstede's indices are national averages, and individual organisations and subgroups within them are different from the average (Singh, 1990; Bond, 1988), that is, particular TQM organisations in Japan and other countries may have high levels on all the column 2 dimensions even if the countries as a whole do not.

Implications In summary, analysis of Table 3 suggests that TQM cannot be easily transplanted across national boundaries, and must be learned. This learning process may be smoother in Africa than in Australia, but is unlikely to be as smooth as it was in Japan. Some implications arise from these findings.

Firstly, TQM could be a somewhat culturally appropriate management philosophy to take to Africa, but some parts of it will be difficult to install, especially those relating to aspects of Confucian dynamism (that is, where "low" occurs in column 3 next to Confucian dynamism in column 2 of Table 3). The driven pursuit of future excellence in the TQM themes of continuous improvement, process management and market responsiveness (themes 5, 7 and 8) are most alien to Africa, and yet they are the mechanisms by which TQM progresses within an enterprise. Without them, TQM will become merely another passing fad which does not nurture the capabilities of African enterprises.

Table 3 also shows that Africa has high matches with TQM themes where Japan has only medium matches, especially where collectivism is concerned. Might some aspects of TQM be even more natural to Africa than to Japan, or might TQM actually require a medium match on some dimensions? For example, a medium level of collectivism might allow a balanced orientation between internal and external customers, while high collectivism might produce an unbalanced focus on internal customers.

Furthermore, Table 3 does not show high power distance is required for TQM (for it is not listed in column 2), and yet power distance is high in African values and medium in Japan (and low in the United States and Australia) (Table 1). Might the high power distance of Africa be one of the major inhibitors of African development? Although Hofstede (1984a) finds no relationship between power distance and economic growth over a four year

M a n a g e m e n t in Afr ica

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In te rna t iona l Bus iness R e v i e w 6,3

period, Hofstede and Bond (1988) do find that face (often associated with high power distance) is a negative Confucian characteristic and that a relatively egalitarian income distribution meant that support for revolutionary social changes in Asia was weak. Appearing to confirm this relationship, a World Bank study notes the income equity of most East Asian growth countries (World Bank, 1993). Moreover, hierarchical structures associated with high power distance inhibit the innovation required for development (Sah, 1991; Chowdhury and Islam, 1992). In brief, the high power distance of Africa and its related unequal distribution of incomes might inhibit medium to long term economic growth.

Conclusion In conclusion, TQM might be easier or as easy to introduce into African countries as into other countries, but it cannot be a simple "transplant". Modifications may have to be made and unusually heavy emphasis placed on some of the themes of TQM. Moreover, some aspects of African cultures may have to change for economic growth to occur, and those changes may be more different for African organisations than for others. TQM is not the quick reconceptualisation for African management that has been suggested (Perry, 1993). Nevertheless, this investigation of African cultures and TQM may be a useful first step in a future reconceptualisation.

This research has implications for future research. Firstly, questions raised about the dimension of uncertainty avoidance suggest it is an aspect of culture requiring more research in African countries. Secondly, confusion about uncertainty avoidance and the overlap between Hofstede's dimensions and those of the Chinese Culture Connection's suggest further research and clarification about culture measurement is required. Thirdly, the influence of national and organisational cultures on the adoption of TQM principles bears closer examination. For example, at NEC Australia (the Australian subsidiary of the Japanese corporation), the underlying corporate quality culture came from Japan but fully three quarters of the quality systems were developed locally (Samson, 1991). Clearly, the transferability of TQM cultures and systems (and the links between the two) needs to be researched to enhance TQM's effectiveness in the United States, Australia, and some African countries.

Acknowledgement - - Assistance from Merrick Jones is gratefully acknowledged.

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Management in Africa

Received August 1995 Revised May 1996