TouchandExpressioninPianoPlaying

CLARENCEG.HAMILTON

DoverPublications,Inc.Mineola,NewYork

BibliographicalNote

ThisDoveredition,firstpublishedin2012,isanunabridgedrepublicationoftheworkoriginallypublishedbyOliverDitsonCompany,Boston,in1927.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Hamilton,ClarenceG.(ClarenceGrant),1865–1935.Touchandexpressioninpianoplaying/ClarenceG.Hamilton.

p.cm.Reprint;originallypublished:Boston:OliverDitson,1927.eISBN-13:978-0-486-32097-71.Piano—Instructionandstudy.I.Title.

MT225.H232012786.2’193—dc23

2012018251

ManufacturedintheUnitedStatesbyCourierCorporation48828401

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CONTENTS

PARTI—TOUCH

THEFINGERTOUCH

THEHANDTOUCH

THEARM-WEIGHTTOUCH

THEFULL-ARMTOUCH

SUMMARY

PEDALS

PARTII—EXPRESSION

VALUES

PULSATIONINMUSIC

PHRASESANDTHEIRCOMBINATION

IRREGULARACCENTS

DYNAMICCONTRASTS

DYNAMICSHADINGS

TEMPO

COLOR

STYLE

FOREWORD

Ifhe is tobuildahouse,acarpentermustbesuppliedwithadequateandproperly sharpened tools; he must be expert in applying these tools to anydemandthatmayarise;andhemusthaveacquiredtheabilitytofollowouttheplansofthearchitect,andtorealizethelatter’svisioninthecompletededifice.Just so, thepianistmustpossess fingersandmuscles that are fitted toperformtheirintricatetasks;hemustknowhowtomanipulatethekeyssoastoproduceeverypossiblekindandgradationoftone;andhemustbeabletofollowoutthedesign of a given piece so as to realize in detail and as awhole the structurewhichwasidealizedinthecomposer’smind.

InthefollowingpagesIproposetotreatofthemeansbywhichthisfinalresultistobeobtained.Givenapersonofnormalconditionsastofingers,handandarm,weshallproceedtoinquire(1)inwhatwaysthesefactorsmaybemosteffectivelyutilized tobring thefingers intocontactwith thekeys,and(2)howsuchcontactmaybedirected to theartistic interpretationofacomposition.Ofthesetwoprocesses,thefirsthastodowithkindsoftouch,andthesecondwiththeapplicationoftouchtoexpression.

TouchandExpressioninPianoPlaying

BPARTI.TOUCH

EFOREconsidering thematterof touch, letus thoroughly freeourmindsfrombiasinfavorofanyoneoftheso-called“methods”ofpianotechnic,however excellent such method may be. Let us remember that piano

playinghasbeenthroughaprocessofevolutionduringmorethantwohundredyears, while players and teachers have stumbled along, experimenting in thiswayandthat,manytimespropagatingideasthathaveafterwardbeensupplantedby much better ones. Pupils of famous teachers, too, have often slavishlyfollowed out their dicta, long after more enlightened methods have beeninventedbyprogressiveplayers.SuchmastersasLisztandChopin,forinstance,employedanewfreedomoftechnicwhichamazedtheadherentsofthecut-and-dried systems of Hummel, Czerny and their followers, and which wascorrespondinglyslowofgeneraladoption.

In recent years, however, the searchlight of modern science has beendirecteduponpianoplaying, as uponmost other subjects;with the result that,setting aside the empirical precepts that were formerly accepted as law andgospel, players and teachershave scientifically investigated the relativevaluesforplayingpurposesofthemusclesofthearmandhand,andhavedeterminedhow these muscles may best be directed and coördinated to produce desiredeffects.Havingsuchknowledgeathiscommand,theindividualplayercanjudgefor himself what kinds of touch to apply to a given passage, and can testintelligentlythestatementsandsuggestionsofinstructorsandtheir“methods.”

UselessMotionsLet us, at the outset, distinguish carefully between essential and non-

essentialmuscularmovements.Tothelatterclassbelongthosegyrations,suchasthrowingthearmsupintheair,orjerkingthehandviolentlybackfromthewrist,which are employed either to “catch the crowd” or through ignorance of thekeyboardmechanism,andwhichareasmusicallyuselessaswere theanticsoftheold-timedrum-major.Withsuchmovementsmaybe listed theunnecessarypressureonakeyafter it hasbeen sounded,whichhasnoother result than to

stiffen the performer’s wrist, since it takes place after the hammer has fallenbackfromthestring.

RelaxationBeforeheproceedstothestudyofpianotouch,thestudentshouldacquire

theabilitytorelaxthoroughlyallthemuscleswhichhavetodowithplaying;forwithout such ability he is as badly off as the sculptorwho tries to fashion animageoutofunyieldingclay.

Next,heshouldgainsuchcontrolover theplayingfactors thatanygivenmuscle or combination of muscles will respond instantly to his call, withoutinterferencefromothers.

APPLICATION.—To secure complete relaxation, sit before the keyboard and let the right arm hangdown from the shoulder. Press the fingers downward, so that their tips approach the floor as nearly aspossible,andthen“letgo.”

Apowerfulmusclewhichisalmostconstantlyinuseisthebicepsintheupperarm.Employingthismuscle,raise theforearm,with thehandstill relaxed,until thehandhangsover thekeyswith thefingerspointing downward as in illustrationA, and nearly touching them. Now allow the forearm to descendgently,sothatthefingersrestlightlyonthekeysandthewristisbelowthem(illustrationB).

ILLUSTRATIONA

ILLUSTRATIONB

Returntotheformerpositionabovethekeys,andlastlytothefirstposition,withthearmattheside.Thesemotionsshouldberepeatedanumberoftimeswitheachhand.

ClassesofTouchHaving thus established the basic condition of hand and arm, we are

prepared to study tone-production.Since thedirectmedium for this lies in thedepression of the keys by the fingers,we have then to discover just how thisdepression is best effected; or, in other words, what are the most useful andlegitimatekindsoftouch.

While many varieties of touch have been employed during the entirehistory of piano playing, those chiefly used by themodern pianist are four innumber, distinguished by the different ways in which the energy that istransmuted through the finger-tips is generated in the muscular activities ofhand,armandshoulder.

ForearmRotation

Avaluable aid to all fourof these touches isknownas forearm rotation.Wehaveallheardtheexpression“aseasyasturningthehandover.”Butithasbeen discovered that this extremely simple movement, which necessarilyinvolves also the forearm, may, if properly applied, generate a considerabledegreeofforcetoaddtothepianist’sstock-in-trade.Foreachhand,thismotionmaybe towardeither the rightor the left; andaccording to the rapidityof themovementisforceaddedtothedepressionofthekey.

ILLUSTRATIONC

ILLUSTRATIOND

APPLICATION.—Holdtherighthandabovethekeyboard,asinillustrationA,page3.Now,lowerthearmuntilthefinger-tipsrestonthetreblekeysc,d,e,f,g:withthewristheldratherhigh,andtheelbow

hanginglooselyattheside.

(1) Roll the forearm to the left, so that the thumb strikes and holdsC.The hand should nowbenearly perpendicular from the thumb up, with the fifth finger above the thumb, in the air. The strikingmotionshouldbeginslowlyandgraduallyaccelerateuntilthekeyissharplysounded—likethemotionincrackingawhip(illustrationC).

(2) Witha similarmotion, roll the forearm to the right so that the fifth finger strikesG,with thethumbnearlyperpendicularlyaboveit,(illustrationD).

(3) Continuebyrollingtheforearmalternatelytoleftandright,asbefore,usingdifferentdegreesofforce,fromptof,thus:

(4)Beginagainonc,thistimeplayingsuccessivelyc,d,e,f,g,f,e,d,c.Ateachstrokerotateslightlytotherightuntilgissounded,whenrotationtotheleftbegins,andcontinuestillcisagainreached.

Alloftheaboveexercisesshouldberepeatedwiththelefthand.

Forearm rotation, then, means to concentrate the force of each strokedirectlyoverthekeywhichissounded,sothatthekeythusbecomesthecentreofgravityofthehand-weight.Theresultillustratestheprincipleofmechanicsthatadirectforceismoreeffectivethananindirectone—aprinciplereadilyprovedby trying to drive in a nail first by striking itwith a sidewise blow, and thendirectlyonthehead.

I.THEFINGERTOUCH

Inthis,whichrequirestheleastamountofmuscularactivityofanyofthetouches,thekeyisdepressedbypullingthefingerdownthroughthemediumofatendonattachedtoamuscleintheforearm.Whenthistendonisagainrelaxed,thefingerandkeyrisetotheirformerposition.

APPLICATION.—Lettherighthandassumeanormalplayingposition,inwhichtheupperlineofhandandwrist isabout level,and thefingers reston topof thekeysc—g,(illustrationE).Make sure that thewristisloosebyraisingandloweringitseveraltimes,whilethefingersretaintheircontactwiththekeys.

Holdthefingersfirm,1andsomewhatcurved.

ILLUSTRATIONE

Inthefollowingexercisestheuseofstaccatoandlegatoarerespectivelyillustrated:

(1)Staccato:

Playeachnotebypressingthefingerdownquicklyandrelaxingittheinstantthatthetoneisheard,sothat thefingerridesupon thekey.Thewristshouldbekeptperfectlyquiet,and thereshouldbe in itnoconsciousnessofstiffness.

(2)Legato:

Soundeachkeyasbefore,retainingjustenoughpressure,however,topreventitfromrising.Proceedto the next key by a slight forearm rotation to the right, so that one key is released just as the next issounded.

HistoryofThisTouchIntheearlypianosandtheirpredecessorstheclavichordsandharpsichords,

the action was so light that the finger touch was adequate for all demands.Teachersconsequentlyemphasizedtherulethatthebackofthehandshouldbekept continually level, and as motionless as possible. Afterward, when thestructure of the instrument demanded a heavier touch, the same rule wasobserved,butadditionalforcewasgainedbyraisingthefingershighandhittingthekeysmorevigorously.Withtheadventofpianistsandteacherswhohadthecourage to break this tradition—such as Chopin and Liszt—the weight andmuscular force of hand and arm were utilized, and the “finger touch” wasrelegatedmostlytotheproductionofthelightergradesoftone.

Atpresent, therefore, thefinger touchisemployedchieflyforperformingdelicatepassageworkor tenuouseffectsofaccompaniment.Sosoonas loudertonesaredemanded,itmergesintothemorerobustspeciesoftouch.

II.THEHANDTOUCH

Mostfrequentlyusedofallthetouchesisthehandtouch,so-calledbecauseitsessentialfeatureisthedownwardmovementofthehand.

Holdyourhandandforearmhorizontallybeforeyou.Nowthrowthehandquickly downward as far as it will go. If unimpeded, it will exhaust itsmomentuminthefreeair.

Butagain,holdthehandjustoveratable,sothatintheirdownwardmotionthe fingersare stoppedby thewooden surface.Themomentum, thus suddenlyinterrupted,reactsuponthewrist,which,ifallowedtodoso,willjumpupward.Itisthisupwardtendencyofthewristwhichisaninvariablemarkofthehandtouch.

APPLICATION.—Assumewiththerighthandtheplayingpositiononthekeysc-gdescribedonpage8,keeping thewrist loose and the fingers firm.Now, raising the thumb a quarter-inch or so from the key,

throwthehandoverandintothekeyc,sothatwhenthethumbstrikesthekey,thewristisjerkedupwardaboutaninch(seeillustrationF).Relaxinstantly,returningtothenormalplayingposition.Theresultisastaccato.Exercise 3, page 9,may be practiced in thisway by each hand, emphasizing the upwardwristmovementateachstroke.

ILLUSTRATIONF

Forlegato,practiceExercise4,page9, in a similarmanner, but rotating slightly in thedirectionofeachkeyasitissounded.Aftereachupwardjerk,thewristfallstoitsoriginallevelposition.

Boththeaboveexercisesshouldberepeatedmanytimes,usingdifferentdegreesofforce,frompptoff.

Fourconditionsshouldbecarefullyobserved:(1)theupperarmshouldbekeptcontinuallyloose,withtheelbowattheside;(2)theforearmshouldbeheldup, so as to permit the freemotion of thewrist; (3) thewrist should be keptperfectly relaxed; and (4) the fingers when playing should be held firm,—otherwise theywill simply flopabouton thekeys.Thisconditionofa relaxed

wrist and firm fingers is the most difficult factor of the touch to obtain. Itsneglect,however,istheprimecauseofstiffnessandlackoffluencyinplaying.

Thehandtouchhasawiderangeofusefulness,sinceitisemployedinallsorts of rapid work—scales, arpeggios, intricate figures and the like—wheremoretoneisrequiredthancanreadilybeproducedbythefingertouchalone.Itis also well adapted to the performance of chords or octaves, from the light,accompanimentvarietytothoseofmoreponderoustone,suchasthefirstchordinBeethoven’sOp.13.

Octaves are played slowlywith the hand touch in themanner describedabove.Inplayingrapidoctaves,however,thehandshouldbetossedupfromthewristateachstroke—notraisedbythewristmuscles.Foranillustrationofrapidoctaves,seeKullak’soctavestudy,FromFlowertoFlower.

III.THEARM-WEIGHTTOUCH

This touch is produced by suddenly dropping the forearm or full-arm(according to thedegreeof force required) so that thedesiredkeyorkeysarepulled down in the descent. In its extreme form, the resultant positionwill bethat shown in illustrationB(page4)with the hand and armhanging from thekey.Asbefore,themovementstartsfromthenormalplayingposition(seepage8) ;but the slightupward tendencyof thewristwhichoccurswhen thekey issoundedismuchmorethancounterbalancedbythearm-weight,sothatthewristfallsinsteadofrising.

Itispossibletoplaystaccatowiththistouchbyrelaxingthefingerasthetone is produced; but, owing to its essentially clinging character, the touch isbetteradaptedtosustainedorlegatoeffects.

APPLICATION.—Toplayeachnoteof the followingexercise,hold thewrist at firsthigh, so that thefinger-tips barely touch the top of the keys. Suddenly relax the arm, sounding the given key as the armdescends;andfinallyhangonthekeywiththewristbelowthekeys.Returntothehighwristposition,inordertoplaythenextnote.Observethatthewristiskeptrelaxedthroughouttheexercise:

Repeatwiththelefthand,playinganoctavelower.

TheCombinationofHandandArm-WeightTouches

For phrasing effects, the alternation of these two touches is invaluable.Consider,forinstance,thecaseoftwoslurrednotes.Thefirstoftheseisgivenasolid basis by the arm-weight touch, after which the second is played by thehandtouchwithanydesireddegreeoflightnessorstaccato.

APPLICATION.—Practice thefollowingexercisesbyplaying thefirstnoteofeachpairwith thearm-weighttouch(D=downwrist)andthesecondwiththehandtouch(U=upwrist):

Independentslurringmaybepracticedbyemployingthetwotouchesindependently,inthisexercise:

Toplaylight,slurredruns,usethearm-weightonthefirstnote,andletthewristgraduallyrise(handtouch),untilitfloatsintotheairwiththelastnote,thus:

Practicewiththelefthandanoctavelowerthanaswritten.

Howthetwotouchesareaidedbyforearmrotationisshowninthefollowinganalysisofscale-technic.ThelettersRandLindicaterotationtorightandleft,respectively,whilethelettersDandU,writtenbelow,indicatearm-weightandhandtouch,respectively.Dashescontinuetheprecedingletter.

While the above iswrittenout for the right hand, themovements of the left hand follow the sameprinciple. It shouldbeobserved that after adownwardmovement thewrist risesgraduallyuntil thenextdownstroke,afterwhichitagainbeginstorise.

These movements should now be applied to various scales, practicing with each hand by itself.Observethatthethumbisalwaysusedwiththearm-weighttouch,andthatthehandtouchisusedwithalltheothernotes,exceptwherethefingerstartsthescalefromitshighestorlowestnote.

Alternationof the two touches iswellemployed inplaying legatooctaves,where thehand touch isalwaysusedwiththeblackkeysandthearm-weighttouchwithawhitekey,whenthelatterdirectlyfollowsablackkey.Chromaticoctavesespeciallyillustratethisprinciple:

IV.THEFULL-ARMTOUCH

Upperarm,forearm,wrist,handandfingersarelinkedfirmlytogetherforthis touch, while the force is applied to the keys primarily by the shouldermuscle.Note,however,thatthiscombinationexistsonlyduringtheactofkey-depression, and that relaxation — especially of the wrist muscles — occursimmediatelyafterwards.

APPLICATION.—(1)Placetherighthandinplayingposition,holdingwristandfingersfirm.Nowshruguptheshoulderashighasitwillgo.Theentirearmandhandshouldrisewithit,sothatthefingersaretwoorthreeinchesabovethekeys.

Suddenlyforce theshoulderdownward,so that the thumbdrivesdowncwitha sharpblow. Instantrelaxationproducesaloudstaccato,afterwhichthehandreturnstoitsquietplayingposition.Repeatthesemotions,drivingeachfingerdowninturn.

Havingthusstudiedthemechanismofthetouchinanexaggeratedform,proceedtoitsmorenormal

use:

(2) Withhandinplayingposition,holdthemusclesfirm,asbefore,and,withoutleavingthekey,pressdowncwiththethumbrepeatedly,playingstaccato,andemployingdifferentdegreesofforce,fromptof.Theamountofarmmotionshouldbeminimized.Takecarethattheconsciousnessofmuscularactivityresidesprimarilyintheshoulder,andthatthemusclesarerelaxedasthesoundisheard.Repeatwitheachoftheotherfingers.

(3) Toplaylegato,thesameactionisusedindepressingthekey;butinthesubsequentrelaxation,just enoughweight remains on the key to keep it firmly down. Beginning thus by sounding cwith thethumb,proceed inorder tod,e,f,andg, rotating slightly towards eachkey in turn, and,with eachkey-depression,feelingthefirmcombinationofarm,wristandhand,andalsotheactionoftheshouldermuscle.

Assuggested inApplication(1), this touchmaybeemployedforplayingchordsoroctaveswheregreat dynamicpower is required, as in an sff.But itsmain usefulness lies rather in the direction ofApplications (2) and (3), since,whilecontrolling thefingerby thepowerfulshouldermuscle, theplayereasilycommandseverypossiblegradationofforceintheimpactofthehammeronthestring. Hence in melody playing, where such gradations are of especialimportance,thefull-armtouchisinvaluable.

Herealsoattentionmaybedrawntotheeffectoffingerposition.Withanytouch,when the fingers are considerably curved, the stroke is very direct andeasily made detached, so that the tones become clear and precise. Curvedfingers,forinstance,areadvisableinplayingtheclassics—Haydn,Mozart,etc.Withtheflatterfinger,however,thestrokeisslower,anditsclingingpropensitytendstowardtheproductionofextremelegato:henceextendedfingersarebetteradaptedforthe“singing”melodytouch,whichisfurtherbestcontrolledbythefull-arm touch. Chopin’s sensuous melodies, consequently, are best renderedwiththiscombinationofextendedfingersandfull-armtouch.

V.SUMMARY

Summarizing the four touches as to their mechanism and fields ofusefulness,wehavethefollowing:

1. FingerTouch.Loosewrist,fingeractiononly.Reservedforthelightestgradeoftone.

2. Hand Touch. Hand and fingers thrown into the keys from thewrist,whichtendstoriseatthestroke.

3. Arm-WeightTouch.Forearmandwristfall,pulling,ratherthandrivingthekeysdown.

Numbers2and3areprimarilyusedforpassagework.4. Full-Arm Touch. Arm and hand linked together at moment of key-

depression.Employedforheavyworkandforsingingmelodies.Allthesetouchesarefrequentlyaidedbyforearmrotation.

MinimizingMovementsFrom the above description of the muscular activities involved in the

varioustouches,thereadermayhavegatheredtheimpressionthatmodernpianoplayingconsistsinaseriesofextravagantgyrationsofhandandarm.Observe,however, thatwhat has been described should, in its finished state, take placelargely in the player’s mind, and that its outward manifestation should becomparatively slight. For just as an infant, when learning to walk, balanceshimself painfully first on one foot and then on the other, so the player mustanalyze eachmotion consciously, andwith exaggerated gesture, before he canproceedwithease.Havingselectedtherighttouchandacquiredtherighthabits,however,hemayminimizethemuscularmotions,sothateachmuscleperformsitstaskalmostimperceptibly,—justastheolderchildhaslearnedtowalkorrunwithbuttheslightestsuggestionofthecomplicatedmuscularmovementswhichhehaslearnedtoperform.Sotheexpertplayerretains,asarule,aquiet, levelpositionofthehand,allowingthewristtoriseorfallonlyslightlyasthetouchdemands,androtatingjustasslightlyfromonesidetotheother.

Moreover,havingacquiredacommandoverthedifferentspeciesoftouch,the player arrives at the point where he instinctively chooses just the rightspecies for thepassage inhand—the finger touch forvery light runs, thearm-weighttouchformelodies,etc.Thusallthetouchesshouldcoöperateasthoughtheywerepartsofawell-adjustedandwell-oiledmachine.

OtherTouchesSpecialkindsoftouchesareoftenmentionedwhicharereallybutphasesof

the fundamental touches described above. Such are the so-called legato andstaccato touches, also the pressure or melody touches, both of which arepracticallyidenticalwithourfull-armtouch.

RaisingtheFingersAgain,thequestionmayariseastowhetherthefingersshouldberaisedin

playing,andifso,towhatextent.Tothiswemayreplythatthemodernpianistseldom, if ever, raises the fingersmerely to secure greater force—since it has

beendiscoveredthatsuchforcemaybebetterobtainedthroughothermeans.Ontheotherhand,thereisnoreasonwhythefingersshouldbeeternally“glued”tothekeys.Sometimes,indeed,greaterclearnessandprecisionmaybegainedbyslightlyraisingthefingers.2Ifso,whynotraisethem!Ihavehadpupilswhosetendencytooverlapthenotescouldberemediedinnootherway.Letusrathertakeasourmaxim that, in the interestofease inperformance,allunnecessaryand futile elevation of the fingers—or, for that matter, of the hand or arm—shouldbeavoided.

VI.PEDALS

Ourtreatmentof touchwouldbefarfromcompletewithoutamentionofpedal technic. Here again the same principle of relaxation should be applied.Keepthefeetinreadinessonornearthepedals,andwhenthelatterarebroughtintouse,eliminatealluselessorawkwardmotions.Whentherightfootisonthedamperpedal,besurethatnopressurewhateverisexerted,sincesuchpressuremaybejustenoughtoraisethedampersslightlyfromthestrings,andsoproduceabluroftone.3

In applying the pedal, depress it always to its full extent, by a quickdownward movement made from the ankle joint; and finally release it byrelaxingthepressureassuddenlyasitwasapplied,notbypullingupthefoot.

It isasaferule todepress thepedal justafter sounding thenoteorchordthat is to be sustained, except when the latter is very short or stands alone.Observanceof this rulewill prevent a disagreeableoverlappingof themelodytones.

APPLICATION.—Forpedaltechnic,Iknowofnobetterexercisethanthefollowing,suggestedtomebythatsterlingteacher,Mr.ArthurFoote,anexerciseofglorioussimplicity:

Allthenotesareplayedbytheonefinger.Soundeachnotesharply,andcounttwotoit.Thepedalisdepressedoneachsecondbeat,andrisesexactlyasthenextnoteissounded.Thefingermayreleaseitskeyassoonasthepedalisfirmlydown.Asaresult,aperfectlegatobetweenthetonesissecured.

1The word firm will be used throughout the book to indicate a condition of the muscles which, whilesomewhatelastic,isnotrigid,asinthecaseofareedwhichmaybeslightlybent,butwhich,whenreleased,immediatelyreturnstoitsformerposition.2Thisisespeciallythecasewithconsecutivedoublenotes.

3Ihaveheardotherwisegoodpianistsunconsciously(?)spoiltheirmusicinthisway,especiallyifthepedalhasanunusuallylightspring.

W

PARTII.EXPRESSION

I.ValuesHILEtheorchestral instruments, suchas theviolins,horns,oboes,etc.,areordinarilyrequiredtoplayonlyonevoice-partatatime,thepiano,incommonwiththeorgan,must,asarule,playseveralvoice-partsatonce,

and must even at times simulate a full orchestra. If piano music be properlyinterpreted, therefore,eachof thesepartsmustbegiven itsproperplace in theentirescheme.Justasapainter,whendepictingarollinglandscape,distinguishesbetweenitsdifferentdistances—thelightblueofthesky,thepurpleofthefar-offhills, themoredistincthuesof themiddledistance,finally thebrightgreensofthefore-ground—sothepianistmustgivetoeachofthecomponentpartsofacomposition its due value, vividly bringing out the central features, andsubordinatingthosewhicharemerelyincidental.

For this purpose, he should make a discriminating use of the varioustouches, each of which may correspond in his mind with some orchestralinstrument.Thefingertouch,forexample,maybelikenedtothedelicateflute,the hand touch to the agile violin, the arm-weight touch to the bright clarinet,andthefull-armtouchtothesonoroushorn.

ValuesinContrapuntalMusicJusthowthesetouchesaretobecombinedandcontrastedwilldependon

thetypeofthegivencomposition.Amorehomogeneoustreatment,forinstance,willbeaccordedapolyphonicpiece,suchasoneofBach’fugues,sinceherethevoice-partsaretheoreticallyofequalvalue.Butinanartisticinterpretationthisequalityiscontinuallyupsetbythefactthat,whileallthepartsshouldbeplayedwithmelodicexpression,whatever isofspecial thematicvalueshouldcometothefore—ina fugue, theprincipalsubjectoranswer,next, thecounter-subject,next,anyinterestingrecurrentfigure.Consider,asanillustration,thefollowingpassage from Bach’s three-part fugue, Vol. I, No. 21 of the Well-TemperedClavichord. Here the principal subject in the lower voice (1) is of primary

importance,whilethecounter-subjectinthemiddlevoice(2)andthelittlefigurewhichdartsinontop(3)viewithoneanotherforsecondplace:

Consequently,while the subjectproper isplayedwith the full-arm touch,thistouchismoreorlessmodifiedbyusingthehandorarm-weighttouchinthesubordinatemelodies.

ValuesinHarmonicMusicComing now to the harmonic type ofmusic,we find this in its simplest

formwhenamelodyorrunningpassageissupportedbychords,eitherbrokenormassed together. But even in this case three different values may bedistinguished,namely,themelodyproper,theprogressionofthebassnotes,andtheinterveningchordcombinations.Oftentothesethreeafourthpartisadded,closely connected to themelodic part, as in this passage fromChopin’sValsebrillante,Op.34,No.2:

HeretheuppersustainedA’sshouldbeplayedwiththefull-armtouch,thebass notes by the arm-weight touch, while the running melodic part and theaccompanyingchordsareplayedbythehandtouch.

Such a union of four voices occurs in all sorts ofmelodic and harmoniccombinations. Consider, for instance, Schumann’s Romance, Op. 28, No. 2,wherethemelodicduetisplayedwithfull-armtouchbyboththumbs,whileonbothsidesofittheaccompanimentisdelicatelyshadowedbythefingerorhandtouch:

InthefollowingpassagefromLiszt’sthirdLiebestraum,thefourvaluesaremoreclearlydefined,callinguponall four touchesin thisorderof importance:(1) the chiefmelody, full-arm touch; (2) the countermelody in the bass, arm-weighttouch;(3)theupperchords,handtouch;and(4)thearpeggiatedchords,

fingertouch:

Whateverthecombination,therefore,thepianistshouldcarefullyconsiderthe different values involved, should decide on their order of importance, andshouldchoosefortheexpressionofeachthespeciesoftouchwhichseemsbestadaptedtoplaceitinitsproperperspective.

In such an estimate, the student should remember that dynamicmarks such asp,mf, f are merelygeneral intheirapplication,andthat theydonotrefertoindividualvoice-parts.Thelastexample,quotedfromLiszt,forinstance,maybemarkedpiano,acompositeeffectproducedbyplayingthemelodyandbassmf,whiletheaccompanimentisplayedpp.

Observe also that the loudness or softness indicated by thesemarks should continue until they arecontradicated.Asubordinatecrescendoanddiminuendomayoccurinapassagethat,asawhole,ispianoineffect;butwiththeintroductionofaforte,anewtonalrangeisindicated.

II.PULSATIONINMUSIC

Having thus adjusted his values, the pianist should now call upon everyfactor thatwill investhis interpretationwithvitalityandinterest;forhecannotsuccessfullyconducthisauditorsthroughanaridplain,whereonlythestubbleoftechnicmeetstheirview.Rather,itishispleasanttasktoleadthemalongaroadborderedwithcolorfulflowers,constantlyascendingtogreaterheights,untilonthemountain top the full glory of the view forwhich they have been strivingbreaks upon them. In other words, music, like speech, is a progressive art,proceedingfromoneclimaxtoanother,eachclothedindetailsofeverincreasinginterest.

NormalandAbnormalConditionsDuringthisprogress,theplayerhastodealwithcertainnormalconditions,

whichmayeasilybestated.Buthismettleisbestassertedinhistreatmentofthemultiple unusualwayswithwhich a composer varies themonotony, and addsattractive novelties. In our study of the factors of expression, therefore, let usfirstobservetheconditionsandprinciplesofregularityincomposition,andthenglance at those irregularities which are so numerous and varied as to defycompleteanalysis.

BeatsFirstofall,then,istheeverrecurringpulsationorbeat,whichisthevital

factor in music. For just as life conditions are determined by the strength,evenness and frequency of the heart-throb, so is the character of the musicdetermined by the emphasis, regularity and rapiditywithwhich the pulsationsarepresentedbytheplayer.

Letusobserve,however,thatinmusicbeatsarenevertreatedasindividualentities,butthattheyoccurinvariablyingroups,withonebeatpredominantoverthe others. Of these groups the smallest is themeasure, with a fundamentalstructurethatiseitherdupleortriple.

Here letussharplydistinguishbetween theso-calledbar-measure,whichlasts from one bar to the next, and the true phrase-measure, which regularlyproceedsfromapoint inonebar-measuretoacorrespondingpoint inthenext.For, in musical notation, a bar is in reality an accent, indicating that thefollowing beat has a strong pulsation.Now, inasmuch as it ismore natural toworkuptosuchapulsationthantobeginwithit,thebarlineismostapttooccurin themiddleor justbefore theendofaphrase-measure thanat itsbeginning.Thusinduplemeterthephrase-measureoftenconsistsofthebeats:2|1thanof|12|;whileintriplemeterthephrase-measureismoreoften23|1,or3|12than | 1 2 3. But note again that a phrase-measure regularly ends in one bar-measureattheexactpointwhereitbeganintheprecedingbar-measure.

Asanillustrationofthestatementsjustmade,letusnowexamineChopin’slittlePrelude,Op.28,No.7:

Hereeachphrase-measureevidentlyinvolvesariseandfallinthestrengthofpulsation,sothatthebeatsfollowoneanotherintheorder—weakSTRONGweak,weakSTRONGweak,etc: .

While recognizing that,asa rule, thechiefaccentof themeasure fallson the firstbeat, thestudentshouldbeonthealerttodetecttheerrorofmisplacedbars,whichhassometimesbeenmadeevenbytheleadingcomposers.AnotableinstanceofthiserroroccursinChopin’sNocturne,Op.9,No.2,where,ashehaswrittenit,thechiefaccentismadetofallwronglyinthemiddleofeachbar-measure.Inthefollowingexcerpt,thedottedlinesrepresentthecorrectbarring,whiletheunbrokenbarsarethosegivenbyChopin:

AnotherinstanceisfoundinSchumann’sNovelette,Op.21,where thebarsshouldcomebefore thethirdbeatsasthecomposerwroteit.EventheimpeccableMendelssohnsometimesnodsinthisrespect,asisshowninhisSongwithoutWords,Op.38,No.16,wherethebarsshouldbeplacedinthemiddleofeachmeasureasMendelssohnhasit.

AccentsLet us now pause to consider what kinds of accents are at the pianist’s

disposal.Asawhole,thesemaybedividedintotwoclasses,ofwhichthefirstisthedynamicorforceaccent.This,whichconsistssimplyinplayingthestressednotelouderthanitsfellows,isemployedwhenevervitalityistheprimerequisite.Chopin’sMilitary Polonaise, Op. 40, No. 1, for instance, demands a strongdynamicaccentoneachfirstbeat:

In contrast to this species is the agogic or time accent, where a note isgiven prominence by slightly prolonging its time-value. Indicated in thisway,the phrase-measure consists of slightly irregular beats, ofwhich the chief (thefirst of the bar-measure) is the longest. Thus in meter, the beats may be

,etc. ( —shortbeat,—= longbeat.)Poetic and tenderlyemotionalcompositions,suchasChopin’snocturnes,callforthisformofaccent.ThePrelude,Op.28,No.7(page27)maybetreatedasanexampleofitsuse.

Observealsothattheamountofprolongationofthebeatwillcorrespondtothefluctuationofthesentiment.IntheabovePrelude,forinstance,thefirstbeatof most of the measures is only infinitesimally prolonged; but at the chiefclimax, in measure 12, the first chord is considerably more stressed, and isfurtheremphasizedbyarpeggiatingit.

Inactualpractice,however,thetwokindsofaccentareconstantlyusedincombination, either one becoming dominant according to the demands of thepiece.ReferringagaintotheChopinPrelude,forinstance,thereisatouchofthedynamicaccent at thebeginningof eacheven-numberedmeasure:2,4,6, etc.

Chopin’sNocturneinFmajor,Op.15,No.1,presentsastrikingexampleoftheinterplayofthetwoformsofaccent,sincethepoeticPartI(measures1-24)anditscounterpart (measures49-74)callprimarilyfor theagogicaccent,while thestormyPartII(measures25-48)requiresthedynamicaccent.

III.PHRASESANDTHEIRCOMBINATION

Ordinarilyaphrase-measuredealswithbutasinglemusicalfigure,which,when continued in the followingmeasure, becomes a completemotive. In theChopinPrelude,Op.28,No.7,forinstance,thetwo-measuremotiveconsistsofthetwofigures:

Again, thequestion-likeeffectof thismotive isansweredin thenext twomeasures, the whole constituting a four-measure phrase. Similarly, a phraseansweredbyanothermayproduceaperiod,andtwosuchperiodsmayproduceasection.TheaboveChopinPreludewellillustratesthisstructure,sinceitconsistsof a single section, which is made up of two eight-measure periods, each ofwhichinturnconsistsoftwofour-measurephrases.

Now it is for the pianist to determine just what is the relation of eachphrasetoitsfollowingphrase,andultimatelytothewholepiece;consequently,whatdegreeof intensity itshouldreceive.Eachphraseandperiodshouldhaveits own climax; and these individual points of stress should work up to theclimaxof thesection.Finally, these“sectional”climaxescontribute theirquotatowardtheclimaxoftheentirecomposition,whichnaturallyoccursatortowardthe end. In a bravura piece, for instance, such as Mendelssohn’s RondoCapricciosoorChopin’sBallade inGminor, thewholecompositionends inablazeofglory;whileinadreamypiece,suchasChopin’sNocturne,Op.15,No.1,theperiodof“stormandstress”maybefollowedbyarestfulclose.

In a complex composition, themonotonyof exactly balancing phrases isusually arrested by the extension, or, less often, the abbreviation of certainphrases. Lingering pieces, such as Mendelssohn’s Songs Without Words,gravitate towards the lengthening of phrases, as in No. 1, where the secondphrase (after the introduction) is extended from four to nine measures. Thecontraction of a phrase, on the other hand, has an abrupt effect, as at the

beginningofthesecondmovementofSchubert’sSonata,Op.120:

Bothof thesephrasesare irregular, sinceeach isbut threeandahalfmeasures long, insteadof theexpectedfourmeasures.Butwhereasthefirstphrasesimplyomitsthethreeunessentialintroductorynotes,thesecondiscutoffabeatandahalftoosoon,asthoughSchubertwereinahurrytoendit!

Awordofwarningshouldbegiven thestudentagainst themisleadingphrase-marksfound inmanyso-called “standard editions”of the classics.Through the carelessnessof composer or publisher or both,slurshaveoftenbeenintroducedwhichareasabsurdas thoughmarksofpunctuation—commas,periods,etc.—werepostedatregularintervalsinapieceofpoetry,regardlessoftheireffects.Forinstance,observethismelody from the lastmovement ofBeethoven’s Sonata,Op. 2,No. 1, inwhich the erroneous slurs(copiedfromastandardedition)areplacedabovethenotes,whilethecorrectphrasingisindicatedbeneaththem:

Fortunately,publishersaregivingmoreattentiontothisimportantmatter,sothatmostoftheclassicsare now available edited by experts.1 The student should strive to employ only thesemore authoritativeeditions,andshouldeventhentesttheirvalueinthelightofhisowntasteandsenseoffitness.

IV.IRREGULARACCENTS

An important device for securing variety is the introduction of a specialaccent which conflicts with the normal accent of the measure. Some dancerhythms,indeed,arebasedonjustsuchconflicts,especiallythemazurka,wherethechiefaccentoftencomeson the thirdbeat,andoccasionallyon thesecondbeat.Forexample,inMoszkowski’sMazurka,Op.10,No.3,notethethird-beataccentinthefirsttwomeasuresofthispassage:

In such a case, it is quite possible to stress both regular and irregularaccentsbyemploying thedifferent species: in theabovepassage, for instance,the agogic accent for the first beat, which continues the regular swing of thepiece,precedesthesharplycontrastingdynamicaccentonthethirdbeat.

IrregularRhythmsAssumingthatregularrhythminvolvesthepresenceontheprincipalbeats

of notes that are as long or longer than those on the subordinate beats, it isevidentthatsuchregularityisupsetwhenthelongernoteoccursinasubordinateposition. If for instance, instead of the regular rhythm of triple measure:

we have the irregular rhythm weinstinctivelyresenttheintrusionofthelongnoteontheweakbeat.Consequentlythisnoteoften justifies itspresencebya specialemphasis,as inScharwenka’spopularPolishDance:

Asbefitsthemazurkacharacterofthispiece,aconflictingaccentoccursonthesecondbeatofthefirsttwomeasures,and(inlesserdegree)onthethirdbeatofthenexttwomeasures.

While such a long note frequently calls for a sharp accent in stronglyrhythmicmusic,itshouldbemoresubtlytreatedinmusicofalyricnature,since,as with the agogic accent, its very length gives it sufficient prominence. InSchubert’s Impromptu,Op. 142,No. 2, for instance, themeasure accent takesdecidedprecedenceoverthatsuggestedbythelongernoteonthesecondbeat:

Wemay state as a general principle, therefore, that the player should givemost prominence to theregularmeasure accent unless a conflicting accent is especially indicated by the composer or is clearlydemandedbythespiritofthecomposition.

SyncopationAlongnoteoccurringdirectlyafterthemeasureaccentmayhavetheeffect

ofakindofreverberationorreinforcementofthataccent.Schubertisespeciallyfondofthisdevice,oftenemployingitintheaccompaniment,whilethemelodicpartproceedsinregularrhythm—aneffectwhichrunsthroughhisentireThemeandVariations,Op.142,No.3,asinthesecondvariation:

In thiscase, theregularaccentandthatof thefollowingchordshouldbeequallystressed,since thetwoaccentednotestogetherreallycompleteabrokenchord.

Thedevicejustdescribedisaformoftheimportantmusicalfactorknownassyncopation,whichoccurswheneveranoteorchordsoundedonaweakbeatis prolonged into the following strong beat. Inasmuch as this syncopated notethustakestheplaceofthenotewhichwouldregularlycomeonthestrongbeat,itshouldreceivethelatter’saccent.

Syncopation is a favorite device for varying the monotony of regularrhythmicperiods.Schumann,anadeptinitsuse,oftensyncopatesentirechords,asinhisGrillen,fromOp.12:

Thesyncopatedchordsaremarkedbyanasterisk(*).

Suchsyncopationmayresultinsoradicalachangeofmeterastodemandnewbarring,asattheeighthmeasureofthepassagejustquoted.

Unless, too, the syncopation is defined by occasional normal accents, itmay defeat its own object by establishing a new regular rhythm of its own.SchumannfellintothistrapinthefirstmovementofhisFaschingsschwankausWien,Op.26,wherethissyncopationpervadesanentiresection:

In listening to this passage, since there is nothing to prevent, the auditorassumesthateachsyncopatednotecomesontheregularmeasureaccent,sothathe hears the regular rhythm: , instead of what Schumannintended.Underthecircumstances,thebestthatthepianistcandoistodepressthe pedal on the first beat of each measure, as indicated above, thus slightlyreinforcingthetone(page63).

Moresubtleformsofsyncopationoccurwhereanoteisthustreatedinonepart while regular rhythms occur in the others. This is a favorite device forsecuringmelodiccontrastinpolyphonicmusic,asinthefollowingexcerptfromthe first fugue in Bach’sWell-TemperedClavichord. Observe how syncopatednotesansweroneanotherintheupperandmiddlevoices:

An instanceof syncopation in theaccompanimenthasbeenshown in thereinforcingaccent,thatisillustratedonpage34.Conversely,melodicnotesmaybesyncopatedoveranaccompanimentinregularrhythm,asatthebeginningofChopin’sNocturneinGminor,wheretheinitiatoryDdrawsattentiontothelyricmelodywhichitstarts:

AbeautifulexampleofsuchasyncopationinthebassoccursinthethemeofthesecondmovementofBeethoven’sSonataAppassionata:

Syncopation, as has been said, is essentially anticipatory of importantnotes.Thiseffectisreversed,however,whenanoteisdelayedinitsutterance.InthefollowingpassageatthebeginningofChopin’sNocturneinCminor,thefirsttwo notes of themelodywould regularly occur on the first and third beats ofmeasure 1, and the third and fourth notes respectively on the first and secondbeats ofmeasure2.Observe that the secondmelodynote inmeasure2 servesalsoasasyncopation:

Likesyncopatednotes,delayednotesshouldbeespeciallystressed.

SpecialAccentsOccasionally a composer introduces a special accent to vary the even

rhythmic flow, or to surprise the listener. In the works of Beethoven and hiscontemporaries (particularly Clementi) we find frequent accents of this kind,indicatedbythetermsforzando(sf),meaningforced.Inhisveryfirstpublishedsonata,forinstance,Beethovenprecedesthefinalcadenceofthefirstmovementbythreeexplosionsontheweakbeats:

Besidestheseprescribedaccents,however,theplayershouldconstantlybeon the lookout for any peculiar note or chordwhichmight pass unnoticed oreven sound like a mistake on the player’s part unless duly stressed. In thisdecorativerunfromChopin’sNocturneinEb,forinstance,theunexpectedbbC,

ifslightlyaccented,givesdistinctiontothewholepassage:

Similarly,inDebussy’sClairdelune,onthereturnofthefirsttheme,aCbadded to the supporting chord on the second beat results in a new harmonicflavor,andshouldthereforebegivenprominence:

V.DYNAMICCONTRASTS

Duringitsevolutionfromtheweak-tonedclavichordandspinet,thepianohas gradually grown in tonal capacity and sustaining power, until a vastdifference now exists between the ppp and fff possible to themodem concertgrand.Consequently,whileonlyfeebledynamiccontrastswereatthecommandof the early clavier composers, such contrasts have grown steadily inimportance, especially from the time of Beethoven, until they have finallybecomeoneofthemostpotentfactorsofexpression.

This growth in dynamic possibilities, too, has resulted in continualexperimentationastothemeansofhandlingthevariousgradesofintensity;withthe result that the different touches described in Part I have supplemented theoriginal finger touch,which formerly sufficed. Indeed, itwould requireonly abrief attack of themodernmuscular technic to effect the complete ruin of thedelicateandfragilepianosoftheearlynineteenthcentury.

Despitehisuncouthmannersandhisdefianceofconventions,Beethovenwaseagerlywelcomedinthemostselectcirclesofhisday.Andwhy?Becausewhenhisfingerstouchedthekeyboard,hishearerswerethrilledbyanunheard-ofwealthofexpression,largelyderivedfromtonalcontrasts.Reactinguponhispublishedcompositions, thesecontrastsare indicatedby themarksf, sprinkledthrough the pages, by the words crescendo, diminuendo, rinforzando and thelike,inshort,byanunprecedentedarrayofdynamicvarieties.

ThusBeethovensetthepaceforfollowingcomposers,untilinthetheatricglitter of Liszt’s accomplishments the range of intensity of the strengthenedpianoistestedtoitscapacityineitherdirection.

Asheacquiresamasteryoverthistonalwealth,thepianostudentshouldatthesametimecultivateacontroloverhisresourcesthatwillinsureaconstantreservepower.Eventhemostbrilliantpiece,whenitseverynoteisrenderedfortissimo,becomesmerelyaceaselessdin,exasperatingtothehearer.Furthermore,to begin a piece at the limit of one’s strength precludes any further increase, and thus nullifies thoseclimaxeswhicharethefocalpointsofinterest.

Careful study of values (page 21) will help to secure the proper perspective. But even in brilliantcompositions,thepianistshouldpainthishighcolorsuponalow-tonedbackground.Forjustastheheightof thehillsofMt.Desert is enhancedby their sheer rise from the sea level, so thedynamiccontrasts inmusicarerenderedmorevividiftheystandoutfromquietsurroundings.

ContrastsofMoodDependentonextremedynamiceffectsarethosecompositionsofthesalon

typeinwhichwholesectionsaresharplycontrastedinpianoandforte.PerhapsthemostfamousforerunnerofmanysuchmodernworksistheInvitationtotheDanceofC.M.vonWeber—whoseextensiveoperaticexperiencefittedhimforthe sensational qualities shown in this, as in others of his works, notably theConcertstiick, Op. 79. In the Invitation to the Dance we find a seductivelyromanticintroduction,followedbythisbrilliantwaltztheme:

A tenderly soft section (molto dolce) immediately ensues, beginning aseriesofconstantlyshiftingemotionalmoodswhichworkuptoafinalcrashthatismitigatedbyasuavepostlude.

Ofthelonglineofsimilarlyhighly-spicedconcertpieceswhichfollowed,wemay instanceLiszt’sValse Impromptu inAb,Moszkowski’sAir de Ballet,Op.36,No.5,andRubinstein’sValseCapriceinEb.

Aneffective classofpieces inwhich the contrasts are lessnumerous arethoseof theABAstructure, inwhich theBdivisionhasamarkedlydifferentdynamicrangefromtheothers.Sometimes,asinChopin’sFantasieImpromptu,Op.66,theBdivisionisinlowertonalvaluesthantheA’s;moreoften,however,the A divisions are in quiet, lyric style, while the B division works up to afrenetic climax. Such a one is Chopin’sNocturne, Op. 15, No. 1 (page 29).Another fine example is Sgambati’sNocturne in B minor, Op. 20, where theconnectionbetweentheextrememoodsismadewithespecialcleverness.

Particularlyintheshorterforms,asinglemoodmayprevailthroughoutthepiece.Livelydances lend themselves readily to theexpressionofcontinuouslyjoyousmoods.Asanoteworthyexample,wemayagainciteChopin’sPolonaisein A major, Op. 40, No. 1, where the pomp of military panoply gleamsthroughout,reinforcedduringthemiddlesectionbyatrumpet-likemelody.

At theoppositepole stand thosevague, impressionisticpicturesofwhichDebussy was past master, in which the prevailing low tones are rarely muchintensified,andinwhichthemysticatmospheresuggestsanalmostcontinualuseofthesoftpedal.Debussy’sClairedelune(page39) typifies thisstyle,asalsodoesitstwinfromtheNorth,Palmgren’sMayNight.

Between theseextremes lievariousshadesofemotionalmoods,ofwhichthemostconspicuousarelyricpiecessuchasthedelicatecameosofGrieg,thepicturesque sketches of MacDowell, and especially Mendelssohn’s perennialSongswithoutWords,inwhichquietmoods,suchasthoseofNo’s.1,9and25,contrastwithagitatedoutbursts,asinNo’s.8and21.InhisDesAbends,Op.12,No.1,Schumannhasgivenusanidealexpressionoflyricbeauty,inwhichtheevennessofthesong-partischarminglydiversifiedbythecrossrhythmsoftheaccompaniment.

Dealingwithsuchexamplesofasinglemood,thestudentshouldconsider itsrestrictedtonalrange,andthusguardagainstexaggeration,especiallyof thequiet, restfulpiece,bytoostrenuouscrescendosortooexplosivechords.LethimtreatagenrepiecebyDebussy,forinstance,asabitofdelicatechina,whichmaybeshatteredbyaviolentblow.

ContrastsofDetails

Distinguished fromsuchgeneralcontrastsashavebeenpresentedare theinstances where a note or short group of notes are in direct contrast to thoseadjoining.

Treatedinthisway,asinglechordmayacquireextraordinarysignificance.We are all familiar with the “surprise” chord inHaydn’sGmajor Symphony,which, interrupting themusic’s placid flow, is calculated, as Haydn put it, to“maketheladiesjump.”OfdifferentnatureisthedominantchordinthesecondmovementofBeethoven’sSonata.Op.10,No.1(measure45),whichisstronglyemphasized since it represents the entire development section of the sonata-allegroform:

In the same movement are examples of “echoing” effects, where anassertivegroupisansweredfromadistance:

HereisanexamplefromMozartofechoesindifferentregisters:

Such short contrasting groups may, however, represent not so much anechoastwosupplementarymoods.BeethovensuggestedthathisSonata,Op.90wasacontestbetweentheheadandtheheart,anideaembodiedintheansweringphrasesoftheopeningmeasures.

For picturesque purposes, too, quick contrasts are invaluable. Can weimagine a more thrilling effect on the piano than that at the close ofMacDowell’sEagle,Op. 32,No. 1,where, fromhis crag above the “wrinkledsea”thebirddashesdownfffuponhisprey:

ValueofRestsIntheforegoingpassageweobservealsothevalueoftherestasameansof

emphasizingdynamiccontrasts.Comingfromaninstantofcompletesilence,thefinalchordsareaveritable“boltfromtheblue.”ItisrelatedthatMozart,when

asked what is the finest effect in music, replied “no music,” meaning rests.Frequentrestsinhismusicshowhowhepracticallyappliedthistheory,asinthepassagefromhisFantasiainCminor,quotedabove.Rests,then,mayenhancedramaticmoments,ortheymayfurnishbreathingspacesinwhichtheauditor’scuriosityastowhatmayfollowiskeenlyalert.

Aprevalenterror intowhichpianostudents fall is thatofhurryingoverrests,ornullifying thembyretainingthedamperpedalthroughthem.Onthecontrary,arestshouldbegivenmore,ratherthanlessthanitsprescribedtime,especiallywhenitfollowsaslur.Unfortunately,restsaresometimesinsertedinmodernmusictorepresenttechnical,insteadofactualpauses,sincethedamperpedalisevidentlytobekeptdownduringtheirduration.ThelastfourmeasuresinLiszt’sGondoliera,isaninstanceinpoint,sincethepedalisretainedthroughtherestsinthefirsttwoofthesemeasures.Thestudentwilldowelltoavoidsuchalibertyexceptwhenitisclearlycalledforinthetext.

DirectRepetitionOftenashortpassageisdirectlyrepeated,asthoughthecomposerwished

thustocallattentiontoitsbeautybeforeproceedingonhisway.Inthiscasetherepetitionwill be given somemark of distinction, perhaps by playing itmoresoftlythanitsoriginal,asinRavel’sSonatine,secondmovement:

Inatransitionalpassageleadingtoanewideaorthereturnofanoldone,such repetitionsmay in somewaybe increasinglyemphasized, as inmeasures45-52ofthemovementjustquoted.Ofcoursethemererepetitionofatechnicalfigure,suchas is frequent inpianoetudes,doesnotordinarilycall forespecialattention.

VI. DYNAMICSHADINGS

Strong dynamic contrasts, as we have seen, are employed chiefly forsensationalanddramaticeffects.Underordinarycircumstances,however, sucheffects should be avoided by the player in favor of more carefully gradednuances,andanartisticsmoothnessofinterpretationwhichrequiresthatstrongpulsations be approached by a gradual increase of tone that is oftencomplementedbyacorrespondingdecrease.Eventhemeasureaccentshouldbeconsideredtobetheculminatingpointofashortbutgradualgrowthinintensity,and not as an unpremeditated blow. Wrong and right uses of dynamics areindicatedinthisexamplefromBeethoven’sOp.2,No.1:

Thustheunderlyingprogressofmusicismarkedbyasuccessionoftonalwaves of all degrees of intensity, the longer waves broken up into those ofshorterlengths,andtheselattertraversedbyripples,eachameasureinlength.Itis only when these waves meet with an opposing force that the dynamiccontrastswhichwehavestudiedoccur.

Sinceitisleastinimportanceandfrequentlybutmarkstherhythmicswing,themeasurewaveisoftensominimizedastobemergedimperceptiblyintothephrasewave.Again,astillbroadereffectisgainedbytreatingthewholephraseas a crescendo, to be answered by a diminuendo in the following phrase. Asgivenonpage27, for instance, theChopinPreludehasbutonewave foreacheight-measureperiod,dividedbetweenitstwocomponentphrases.

GradesofClimaxes

Infinite degrees of shading, too, may be employed in the individualphrases. Tchaikovsky, in the first movement of his Sixth Symphony, indicatesthese subtle gradations of tone: So one set ofbalancingphrasesmaybefollowedbyanotherofgreaterorlessintensity.IntheChopinPreludejustmentioned,forinstance,thesecondsetofeightmeasuresis,as a whole, more intense than the first set, with the greatest stress of all inmeasure 12. Similarly in an extended composition the pianist will contrast orintensify whole sections or periods, thus constantly whetting the auditor’scuriosityandinteresttotheveryend.

Following the structure of thepiece, too, theplayerwill correspondinglyvary the lengthofhiscrescendosanddiminuendos.Often twoshortemotionalwavesprecedeoneof longer compass: as inChopin’sMilitaryPolonaise, Op.40,No.1,where there isacompletecrescendoanddiminuendo ineachof thefirst two pairs of measures, followed by a longer, more intense crisis whichoccupiesfourmeasures.

Someclimaxes,too,areproducedbyaveryquicktonalincrease,sothatabrilliancy is attained that reminds one of the crackling of fireworks: witnessthoseintheChopinPolonaisejustcitied.Others,onthecontrary,movesteadilyonward with the cumulative power of the long ocean rollers: witness theinexorableonwardsweepofBeethoven’sFuneralMarch (fromOp.26).Whilequick climaxes furnish plenty of opportunity for the pianist to display histechnicalbrilliancy,itisintheslowlymovingcrescendoordiminuetfdothathisreservepowerisespeciallycalledupon:forthenthecrescendoshouldadvancebyalmostimperceptibledegreesuntil,whennearthesummit,thepent-uptonalavalanche is unloosed. In representing such a crescendo, curved lines shouldreplacetheordinary

straightones,thus:

Conversely, in a long diminuendo the original intensity should bedecreased very gradually until the final drop, the whole represented by thecurvedlines:

As an example of this latter effect, we may cite the final eight measures ofGrieg’sBerceuse,Op.38,No.1.

CorrelationofPhrasesWhile, as has been said, the pianist should recognize the length of the

phrases, he should also make clearly evident the connection or lack ofconnection between them. In music of a dance-like character, phrases aregenerally quite distinct, sometimes even separated by rests. Also in formalmusic,suchasthatoftheclassicsonatawriters,endingsofsectiorte,atleast,areunmistakablyobvious.

With the advent of nineteenth century romanticism, however, there is agrowing tendency to substitute vague outlines for the clarity of classicism;consequently phrases are more closely connected, so that one often runs intoanother without perceptible break, the two linked by a continuous melodicoutline,byasustainedaccompaniment,orbyconnectingfigures.Consider, forinstance, amodernwork such asDebussy’sClair de lune. Here all the abovefactors areutilized to create that shimmering atmospherewhich floats steadilyonwithoutbreak.

Lettheplayerbeprepared,therefore,tomakehisphrase-connectionslitthepiece in hand, and even on occasion to eliminate all phrase divisions,merelyshadowingthemintheriseandfallofthemeasures.

EffectofVaryingPitchIn ascending any scale, the number of vibrations of the individual tones

rapidlyincreaseinnumber.Ifa1,forinstance,has435vibrationspersecond,itsoctavea2hastwicethatnumber,or870vibrations.Butasvibrationsincreaseinnumber,thestrengthoftonetendstodiminish.Itisquiteevidentinthepiano,forinstance,thatthelong,thickbassstringstendtoproducealoudertonethanthevery short, thin upper ones. Hence, to preserve the proper balance in tonalstrength, we normally observe the principle that a rise in pitch demands acrescendo,andafallinpitchadiminuendo.

Applying this principle to a melody of varying outline, we obtain aconstantsuccessionofupsanddownsinintensity,asinChopin’NocturneinEflat:

Observe that in the above passage (with one slight exception) the points ofmelodic stress occur on the strongbeats, so that pitch and rhythmcoincide toemphasizetheclimaxes.When,however,thehighestnotesofthemelodydonotthus agree with the rhythmic accent, a new problem is presented which theplayer’sgoodtastemustsolve.If,forinstance,thehighestnoteofthemelodyisespeciallyimportant,itwilltakeprecedenceofthemeasureaccentattheclimaxpoint. In the following example fromMendelssohn’sSongwithoutwords,No.22, the firstclimax isbestplacedon the importantCof themelody,while thesecondoccursonF,disregardingthelessdistinctiveA,twonotesbeforeit:

Ingeneral, itmaybesaid thatas themelodynotesgrowmorerapid, lessattentionispaidtomerenuancesofintensityandmoretotherhythmicaccent.

Aswith amelody, so an upward progression of chords or passageworknormally suggests a crescendo, and a descending passage a diminuendo. Forspecial effects, however, this principlemay be contradicted, as in this excerptfromChaminade’sAutomne,whereabuoyantpassageistenderlyechoed:

Conversely, a downward crescendo is sometimes utilized to produce averitableavalancheoftone,asattheoutsetofGrieg’sConcertoinAminor,ortheendingofLiszt’sRigolettoParaphrase.

InterruptedClimaxesOccasionally, after a crescendo, our expectation of a climax is suddenly

thwartedbyasoftchord.Beethovenisfondofthusdisappointinghisauditors’expectations,asintheAndanteofhisPastoralSonata,Op.28:

Similarly,Beethovenoftenprecedesanentiresoft sectionbyacrescendouptoforte.ThiseffectoccursseveraltimesinthefirstmovementofthePastoralSonatajustquoted.

VitalizingEmbellishmentsItmaybe said thatwheneverapassage runs thedangerofbecoming flat

and insipid to thehearer, itmaybevitalizedby the judicioususeofcrescendoanddiminuendo.Thisisespeciallytrueoftrills,whichshouldneverbepresentedin a lifeless manner. For example, the trills at the beginning ofMacDowell’sImprovisation,Op.46,No.4,shouldhaveasubtlecrescendo,whilethecomplextrillinthecodaofChopin’sNocturne,Op.9,No.2,callsforanascendinganddescending wave. Similarly, the frequent trills in the second movement ofHaydn’s Sonata in F (No. 20 in Peters Edition) should each have its slightgrowthordecreaseinintensity.

VII. TEMPO

All the elements of rhythm and phrasing which we have discussed arefinallycontrolledandregulatedbythetempo,atermbywhichismeant(1)therateofspeedadoptedforagivencomposition,and(2)thewayinwhichthisrateismanagedbytheplayer.Attheveryfoundationofconsistentplaying,indeed,istheemploymentofamovementthatisneithersofastastobeuntelligiblenorsoslowas tobecomemonotonous,andthemaintenanceofaneven,steadyswingthat is modified or broken only when the exigencies of expression plainlydemandit.

TempoaRelativeFactorLetusagreeattheoutsetthattherateofspeedisnotabsolutelyfixedfora

given piece. For just as two readers may interpret a poem equally well atdifferentratesofutterance,sotwopianistsmayeachgiveanexcellentrenditionof thesamepiece,although theirconceptionsof itsmovementbedifferent.Tojudgethemeritofaperformance,therefore,onehassimplytoaskwhetherornoitembodiesthespiritandexpressionwhichwasinthecomposer’smind.

Forthisreason,metronomemarks,evenifinsertedbythecomposer,maybetakenwithconsiderablelatitude.Itmightbewell,indeed,iftwosetsofsuchmarksweregivenforacomposition,theonerepresentingthemaximumandtheothertheminimumlimitofspeed.

In theirzeal tosatisfy themetronomemarkings,studentsoftenattempta rapidity that is farbeyondtheirability,andthatconsequentlyresultsinallsortsoferrorsinnotesandtechnic.Remember,asChristianiaptlysays,that“itisnotsomuchaquestionofplayingagreatmanynoteswithgreatvelocityinagivendegreeof strength,as toplayeverynoteclearly,and in thespiritof thecomposition.”2Better, therefore,

disregardtroublesomemetronomemarks,andconfineyourspeedstrictlytoyourability!

Thus it is the general mood of a piece—lively, melancholy, peaceful—which should be the prime consideration.Most of the Italian terms associatedwith tempo, indeed, refer rather to the spirit of the performance than its rate.Andante,forinstance,doesnotmeanslow,butwalkingalong,andallegrodoesnot mean fast, but rather gay and joyous. Vivacity and brightness are neverattainedbymerespeed;ifthiswereso,themosteloquentpreacherwouldbehewho could talk the fastest. But precise and controlled rhythms, clear andpertinentaccentuation—indicatingastrongheart-beat—willinvestevenaslowmovementwithabundantvitality.

ModificationofTempoFundamentalsteadiness,however,shouldnotmeanstiffnessoftempo;for

just as the apparently straight lines of the Parthenon at Athens have all beenfoundtopossessaslightcurvature,soanapparentlyinflexibletempo,underthefingersoftheartist,retainsasubtleelasticitythat invests itwithhuman,ratherthanmechanicalappeal.

Suchelasticityhasbeensuggested inourdiscussionof theagogicaccent(page 28). While the latter slightly prolongs each first beat, however, thecontinual recurrence of this effect does not detract at all from the regularrhythmic swing. In compositions in which rhythm is the predominant factor,indeed, thepianistshouldbecharyofdisturbingtherecurringheart-throbevento a slightdegree. It is onlywhen the lyricordramaticmoodsof a singer aresimulatedthatmorelatitudeisallowed.

Hence incompositions inwhich the formalstructure isemphasized, suchasthepolyphonicworksofBachandthesonatasofHaydn,MozartandtheearlyBeethoven, the strictness of the tempo should be little, if any, disturbed. Weshouldexcept from this list, however,piecesby thesecomposers inwhich theromanticschoolisplainlyforecast,suchasBach’sChromaticFantasy.

Tempomodificationinendingsisgenerallyregardedaspermissibleinbothclassicandmodernmusic.InthetimeofBach,forinstance,dignitywasaddedto thecloseof a compositionbya rallentando in the final cadence. Inbravuramusic,however,afinalcrescendoisintensifiedbyacorrespondingacceleration—videBeethoven’sSonata,Op.13,orMoszkowski’sAirdeBallet,Op.36,No.5. Conversely, a gradual retard emphasizes the restful effect of a finaldiminuendo,asinthecloseofGrieg’sBerceuse.

Withoutquestion,thelyricpassageswhichoccurespeciallyinBeethoven’s

slowmovements should be played with a certain emotional freedom; but “inplayinggreatworks,works continuousand large in their construction, suchasare Beethoven’s, we must often restrain the impulse to color each detail toostrongly, lestwelosesightof the largershapesof thepiece, itsgeneralfeelingandthemajesticprogressionofitsgreatproportions.”3Sointheworksofallthegreatmasters,frompre-Bachdaystothepresent,theemotionalvaluesmust,inthefinalanalysis,controlmeretempolimitations—despitethecontentionofso-called“classicists,”whowouldplaytheworksofdeadcomposersasthoughtheinspirationoftheircompositionshadbeenburiedwiththem!EvenMendelssohn,sticklerforrigidtempothathewas,musthaverelaxedhisownprincipleswheninspiredby themoodsofsomeofhisSongswithoutWords. Inawildflightoffancy,indeed,hetreatsthesedatefuguewithacontinualaccelerationinhisOp.35,No.1!

TempoRubatoWhile Schumann’s frequent marks of tempo-changes prove his own

freedom from the strait-jacket of strict time, it was Chopin who boldlyproclaimedthevirtuesofajudicioustemporubato.

Meaning literally changing time, the tempo rubato of Chopin hascommonly been interpreted to signify a slight fluctuation, in which anaccelerando is compensated for by a corresponding ritardando, or vice versa.Thus if the same phrase were begun simultaneously by two persons, one ofwhomplayedrubatoandtheotherinstricttime,theywouldplaythefinalnoteinunison.

Hence, by the use of rubato, a pianistmay handle an emotionalmelodywitha singer’splasticity, inwhich,gracefully soaringup to each little climax,the voice poises upon it for an instant, and then flutters down like an autumnleaf.Forexample,considerthefirstphraseoftheNocturneinBmajor:

Occasionally the rubato is used for a highly dramatic effect, as in an

ensuingphraseofthesamenocturne:

Especially susceptible to rubato are those vocal-like cadenzas which arefrequentinChopin’slyrics,andtowhichhepurposelyrefrainedfromassigningexacttime-values.HereisanexamplefromtheNocturnein :

Inapplyingtherubato,oneshouldpaydueregardtoChopin’sinjunctionthatwhilethemelodyisthusbent,theaccompanimentshouldretainitssteadfastswing.True,atooliteralinterpretationofthisrulemightresultinanawkwardconfusionbetweenthetwohands.Doubtless,however,Chopinsoughtbythismeansto restrain the exuberant student from exaggerating an effect which should be employed with extremesubtlety. Illustrating right andwrong rubato toapupil,Chopin is said tohave firstblownuponacandleflamesogentlythatitonlyflickered,saying,“See,thisismyrubato;”afterwhichheblewouttheflame,saying,“andthatisyourrubato.”

In Chopin’s waltzes and polonaises especially, the rubato should not beallowedtointerferewiththerhythmicstability.Butwiththemazurkas,saturatedby the fitful moods of the Slav, greater liberty is natural. Sometimes, forinstance,themoodnowdwellsonapompouscrisis,andnowdashesrecklesslyon; as in the Mazurka in where a lingering crescendo incites a livelyreaction:

Suchafreetreatmentoftempomayinameasurejustifythecontentionofsomemusiciansthatthecompensationofanaccellerandobyaritardandoisnotnecessary, and that, if pushed too far, such a rule nullifies the very freedomwhich rubato is intended to afford.Nodoubt this “robbingPeter to payPaul”maybecarriedtoapedanticlimit;butitsunderlyingprincipleisajustone,sinceby such compensation that rhythmic symmetry is preserved which is afundamentalfeatureofmusicalstructure,withoutwhichacompositionismerelya fitful successionofunrelateddetails. It is thisvery incoherentuseof rubato,indeed, that has made it such a dangerous weapon in the hands of unskilled,“temperamental”amateurs,andwhichshouldbeshunnedasan instancenotofjustifiedliberty,butofunrestrainedlicense.

VIII. COLOR

Awatchwordofmoderncompositionandinterpretationiscolor.Borrowedfromtheartofpainting,itsmusicalsignificanceissomewhatvague;butinthecommonacceptanceofthetermitrefersprimarilytodistinctivequalitiesoftone—such as those of the clarinet, horn and violin—and only secondarily todifferent tints of the same general color, such as are represented by varyingdegreesofforteandpiano.

Hence in theprimarysense, thechiefmediumforcoloristiceffects is theorchestra, in which many distinct qualities of tone are available for thecomposer’s palette, andwhich hemaymingle or distinguish according to thepromptingsofhisgenius.

On the piano, however, owing to the limited range of quality that isavailable,wemust often fall back upon the secondarymeaning that has beenmentioned, and create the illusion of different hues by dynamic contrasts and

shadings. How these factors may be utilized by the player has already beendescribed.Itremains,therefore,toinvestigatejustwhatvarietiesofqualityaretobefoundintheinstrument,andtowhatextentthesemaybeemployedasfactorsinexpression.

Toneinthepianoisproducedbythestrokeofthehammeragainstitsstring—or,rather, its threestrings.Also,whatever thepropellingforce, thehammeralwaysstrikesitsstringsatexactlythesameplace.

For thishammer stroke, thedirectpropellingpower lies in thekey-lever,whichmaybedepressedatitsouterendbytheplayer’sfingeronlyaboutthree-eighthsofan inch.During thiskey-depression thehammer is risingat amuchmorerapidrate,untilitarrivesatapointnearthestring,whenthemotivepowerofthekeystops,sincethekeyhasreacheditskey-bed;andthehammeristhusleft to fly the restof theway to the string,actuatedby themomentumalreadyimpartedtoit.Itisimportantthatthislaststatementbewellunderstood,sinceitmeansthatthereallyeffectivepartofthehammer-strokeisactuallywithoutthecontroloftheplayer.

Observe,then,thatagivendegreeofforcebehindthehammer-strokewillalwaysproducethesametone,howeverthekeyisdepressed,whetheritsdescentbegins slowly and accelerates, whether it begins quickly and slows up, orwhetheritdescendsatafixedrate.Hencethepopularconceptionthatdifferentkindsoftone,familiarlydescribedasrich,velvety,dry,dull,etc.,areproducedbycausingthehammertopressthestring,tostrikeitindirectlyandthelike,arequitecontrarytofact;sothatthesetonalvarietiesmustbeaccountedforinotherways.

Butwhileahammer-strokeofagivendegreeof forcealwaysevokes thesamequalityoftonefromitsstrings,itisneverthelesstruethatthequalityisnotthe same when different degrees of force are applied. Strike a key downviolently,andasharptoneresults,causedbybrightupperpartials(orsecondaryvibrationsof the string)which are thus called into action.Press thekeydowngently,andthetonewillnotonlysoften,butwillalsodifferinquality,sincethemoreremoteupperpartialsarenolongeraroused.Betweenthesetwoextremesare a host of slightly differing qualities, according as certain upper partialsappearordisappear.

Twopianistswillnaturallyemployadifferentrangeofforce,hencetheirplayingwillcorrespondinglydiffer in its apparent quality.MissA, for instance,whose touch is habitually quick andnervous, evokesmoreof thesharperupperpartials thanMissB,whoplayswithamorereticanttouch.MissA,therefore,makesthepianosoundbrilliant,andMissBmellow.

Also,whentwoormore tonesaresoundedsimultaneously, theresult isamixtureoftheirindividualqualities;andthismixturewillvaryaccordingasthe

twotonesareofthesameordifferentstrength.Qualitycombinationsmayinthiswaychangeindefinitely,andwilldependupontheexecutant’sskillandtasteinselectingjusttherighttonalvalues(seepage21).

EffectofLegatoandStaccatoWemayherementionafactorwhichplaysaconsiderablepartincreating

the illusion of different qualities—namely, the connection or disconnectionbetween successive tones. If the notes of a melody are played staccato, eachstandsoutinsharprelieffromitsfellows.Closerconnection,however,maybeeitherof threekinds: thenon-legato, inwhich the tonesare just separated, thelegatoproper, inwhich they exactlymeet, and the legatissimo, inwhich theyoverlap.Representingthetonesbycircles,thesethreekindsmaybethusgraphicallyindicated:

Acertainapparentdrynessoftone,resultingfromthefirstkind,issofteneddownbythesecondkind;whileinthethirdkindonetoneminglesforaninstantwiththenext,likeadissolvingview.Henceintheformalandobvioustypesofmusic—like that of Bach, Haydn andMozart—the first two kinds are almostexclusivelyemployed,whilewiththeromanticcomposers,notablyChopin,theblendingofoutlinessuggeststhelegatissimo.

SupplementalNoisesTherearecertainfactors, too,whichmodify the tone-qualityof thestring

itself.Oneof these is thenoiseof thekey-mechanism,which isdeterminedbythe grade and condition of the piano. In instruments of the higher grade thisnoiseisreducedtoaminimumbycarefuladjustmentoftheaction.Eventhebestofpianos,however,withoutpropercareisapttodevelopsqueaksandclicksoftheactionwhichinterfereseriouslywiththetonalbeauty.

Moreunderthecontroloftheplayerarethenoisescausedbythemethodofattackingthekeys.Anargumentinfavorofreducingtoaminimumthestrokeofthe fingers lies in the fact that this stroke involves an unpleasant noisewhichmingleswiththelegitimatetone.

Closethepianolid,andtryplayinguponitwithaforciblefingeraction.Theresultisasuccessionofthuds,loudenoughtobeheardintheadjoiningroom.Whensuchafingerstrokeisextensivelyemployed,therefore,thesethudshaveaverydecidedeffectfortheworseonthetone-quality.

PedalsFor variety in quality, however, the modern pianist relies chiefly on the

pedals.Bydepressingtherightordamperpedal,heliftsallofthedampersfromthestrings,sothatnotonlydothetonesproducedcontinuetovibrate,butalsothequalityofthesetonesisalteredbythesympatheticvibrationofotherstrings.

Withoutsoundingthem,pressdownMiddlec,eandg:

withtherighthand.Sustainthesekeys,andatthesametimeplaybassC:

withasharpstaccato.Youwillthenhearthewholechordc,e,g,whichsoundsinsympathywiththeupperpartialsofthebassC.

Again, when the left or soft pedal on the grand piano is depressed, theaction ismoved to the right, so thateachhammerstrikes two, insteadof threestrings.Notonlyisthetonethussoftened,butitsqualityisalteredbothbythenew relation of the felts on the hammers to the strings, and also by thesympatheticvibrationofthethird(free)string.

Weneednotherediscussthethirdpedal,whichispresentonmostmodernpianos,sinceitsofficeinsustainingindividualtoneshasnoneweffectontone-quality.

SummaryActualchangesintone-quality,therefore,occur:

1. Whenakeyisdepressedwithdifferentdegreesofforce.2. Whentwoormoretonesaremingledindifferentproportions.3. Whenthenoiseofthefinger-strokeonthekeymingleswiththetone.4. Whenthepedalsareused,eitherseparatelyorincombination.Ifweaddtothislisttheeffectsproducedbydynamicsandbygradationsof

staccatoandlegato, it isplainthat thepianistpossessesaconsiderablestoreofcoloristic devices which, if properly handled, may largely atone for thelimitationsofthepianoinregardtotone-quality,andwhichmayatleastcreatetheillusionofawiderangeofhuesandshadings.4

IX. STYLE

Ultimately, themanner inwhich theplayercorrelates thefactorsof touchandexpressionconstituteshisindividualstyle.Ifhelaystoogreatemphasisontechnic, his style will be cold and unfeeling. On the other hand, emotionalexpressionwithoutadequatetechnicresultsinanoverdrawnandslovenlystyle.Incontrast toeitherof theseextremesis thewell-balancedplaying,ofanartistwhose competent technic is accompanied by an equally sane use of all thefactorsofexpression.

Forourpurpose,however,wemayconsiderstyleascompoundedofthreefactors,eachoneofwhichisnecessaryforawell-roundedinterpretation.Thesefactors are: (1) accuracy in rendering the notes, (2) fidelity to the composer’sintentions,and(3)theplayer’sownpersonality.

AccuracyPerhaps the nervous hurry of our American life is responsible for the

insistentsearchforshortcuts toperfection.“Ihaveonlysixmonthstospend,”saysanambitiousstudent,“andmustlearntoplaydifficultmusicinthattime.”Henceamadscramble tograspasmanypiecesaspossible,withaconsequentslurringofdetailsinordertoobtainaspeciousgeneraleffect.OnesuchstudentinformedmethatshehadbeenpracticinganentirenewsonataofBeethovenforeachweeklylesson!

LetmequotetheadvicetoteachersgivenbyMr.ArthurFoote:“Haveyourpupilrealizethatwhileplayingthatisaccuratemaypossessnoothervalue,itisthematerialoutofwhichmusicalplayingcanbemade;thatwhichisinaccuratecannotpossiblybemusical.”5

To strike the correct notes is only one of several factors necessary toaccuracyofplaying.Eachnote andalso each rest (page45)must begiven itsrequiredtime-value;adefinitefingeringmustbeadopted;andthepropertouchmustbedecidedon.Lastly,thesemeremechanicaldetailsmustbemadetomeetthedemandsofphrasing,tempo,dynamicsandthelike,beforethepieceisreadyforthefinishingtouches.

IntentionsoftheComposerInevolvingaconsistentinterpretationofapiece,thestudentshouldmake

careful use of every indication given by the composer as to his own wishes.Unfortunately, in pre-Beethoven music expression marks are few and of amerelygeneralcharacter,suchaspianoand forte.But fromBeethovenon, theindicationsrapidlyincrease,until,withtheexceptionoftheslurs(page31),theybecomeaconstantandsafeguide.Onemust,however,guardagainstconfusingthegenuineindicationsgivenbythecomposerwiththemisleadingmarkingsofmany of the so-called “critical editions.” InmanyGerman editions of the latenineteenthcentury,forinstance,thetheoryisinsisteduponthatafingershouldalways be changed when a note is repeated, notwithstanding the frequentabsurdity of such a proceeding. Even the most scholarly editions, therefore,shouldbeacceptedwithagrainofsalt,and testedby the lightof thestudent’sownmusicalexperience.

Another highly important guide to interpretation is found in the study ofhowpianomusichasgraduallyevolved;whatformsandstylesithasassumedatdifferent epochs; andwhatwere the ideals and resources of its composers.Toplay Debussy in the style of Bach or Mozart, for instance, is as great ananachronism as towear at the present time the garments in vogue during theeighteenthcentury.6

PersonalityButeventhemostexplicitnotationfallsfarshortofcompleteness.Itisjust

as impossible, indeed, to indicate on thewrittenmusic every slight nuance ofexpressionasitwouldbetoshoweveryinflectionofthevoiceinthereportofanorator’s speech. Hence the final factor of interpretation must be found in thepersonality of the player—in his individual reaction to the spirit of the piece,after he has mastered its intricate details, and has viewed them, as far aspossible, from the composer’s stand-point. Each pianist, in otherwords,must

ultimately round out his interpretation in the light of his own intelligence andemotions.Providing,then,thattheresultisconsistent,itisquitejustified,evenifitvaryconsiderablyfromthatofotherpianists.“Ifonlyonecorrectrenditionofa composition were possible,” said Wagner, “the executive artist would be ameremonkey.”

Notonly, indeed,dodifferentplayerspresentvariedinterpretationsof thesame piece, but the same player, under diverse circumstances, may quiteperceptibly alter his own version.7 What pianist, when inspired by anenthusiastic audience, has not introduced unexpected effects of rhythmicvariation,ofstressuponcertainnotes,ofdelicatecontrasts,whichwererevealedtohiminasuddenflashofgenius!Insodoing,hedemonstratesthefactthattheverycreationofthepiecehaspassedfromthehandsofthecomposertohisown:thathehassoabsorbedevery itemof itsexecutionas torelegate it tohissub-consciousmind,while he speaks directly to his audience in terms of his ownpersonality.

Thisisthepoint,then,towhichallourstudyoftouchandexpressionmustleadusifitistobeofanyrealvalue.Foritisonlywhenthemeticulousdetailsareblendedandcoördinatedintooneconsistentwholethattheytrulyvoicetheartisticimpulseoftheperformer,andthattheybecomethefittingvehicleof“artforart’ssake.”

1ThevolumesoftheMusiciansLibrary(OliverDitsonCompany)furnishanexampleofsuchcarefulandreliableediting.2Christiani—ThePrinciplesofExpressioninPianofortePlaying.3Matthay—MusicalInterpretation.4Foraconvincingtreatmentofthesubjectdiscussedinthissection,thereaderisreferredtotheadmirablebookbyOttoOrtmann,entitledThePhysicalBasisofTouchandTone.5Article,CanExpressivePlayingbeTaught?,intheÉtudeforMarch,1926.6Thereaderisherereferredtothevolume,PianoMusic:ItsComposersandCharacteristics,bytheauthorofthisbook.70neofhispupilsdeclaredthat“Chopin’sinterpretationofhisownmusicwasnevertwicealike,yetalwaysperfect.”NodoubtasimilarstatementcouldbemaderegardingtheplayingofLiszt,Rubinstein,andothersofthegreatvirtuosi.

A

B

C

INDEX

CCENT,26,28,29agogic,28dynamic,29irregular,32special,38,39

Accuracy,65AirdeBallet,Op.36,No.5,

Moszkowski,42,56Automne,Chaminade,51,52Arm-weighttouch,12

arm-weightandhandtouchcombined,13-15

OACH,J.S.,22,36,37,55,62,66BalladeinGminor,Chopin,30

Beats,26BEETHOVEN,L.VAN,12,31,37,38,39,40,43,44,45,47,49,52,55,56,66Berceuse,Grieg,49,56

HAMINADE,CÉECILE,51,52CHOPIN,FRANÇOIS,1,10,16,23,27,28,29,30,37,38,39,42,48,49,50,51,53,57,58,62,67

CHRISTIANI,ADOLPH,54ChromaticFantasy,Bach,55Chromaticoctaves,15Clairdelune,Debussy,39,43,50Classicism,50CLEMENTI,MUZIO,38Climaxes,gradesof,48

D

E

F

interrupted,52Color,59

summaryofdevices,64Composer,intentionof,66Concerto,inAminor,Grieg,52Concertstuck,Op.79,Weber,41Contrapuntalmusic,valuesin,21-23Contrasts,dynamic,40

ofdetails,43-45ofmood,41

Correlationofphrases,49,50CZERNY,CARL,1

EBUSSY,CLAUDE,39,42,43,50,66DesAbends,Op.12,No.1,Schumann,43

Details,contrastsof,43-45.Directrepetition,46Dynamicaccent,29Dynamiccontrasts,40Dynamicshadings,47,48

AGLE,THE,Op.32,No.1,MacDowell,45

Effectoflegatoandstaccato,61Effectofvaryingpitch,50Embellishments,vitalizing,53Expression,21

ANTASIA,INCMINOR,Mozart,44,45

Fantasie-Impromptu,Op.66,Chopin,42FaschingsschwankausWien,Op.26,Schumann,36Figure,29Fingers,raisingthe,18Fingertouch,9

G

H

I

K

historyof,9FOOTE,ARTHUR,20,65Forearmrotation,5,6,7FromFlowertoFlower,Kullak,12FuguefromW.T.C.,Vol.1,No.1,Bach,37FuguefromW.T.C.,Vol.1,No.21,Bach,22Full-armtouch,15-17FuneralMarch,fromOp.26,Beethoven,49

ONDOLIERA,Liszt,46Gradesofclimaxes,48

GRIEG,EDVARD,39,43,52,56Grillen,Op.12,No.4,Schumann,35

ANDANDARM-WEIGHTTOUCHEScombined,13-15

Handtouch,10-12Harmonicmusic,valuesin,23-25HAYDN,FRANZJOSEF,16,43,53,55,62HUMMEL,J.N.,1

LLUSTRATIONS,3,4,5,6,8,11Impromptu,Op.142,No.2,Schubert,34

Impromptu,Op.142,No.3,Schubert,34Improvisation,Op.46,No.4,

MacDowell,53Intentionsofthecomposer,66Interruptedclimaxes,52InvitationtotheDance,Op.65,

Weber,41Irregularrhythms,33

ULLAK,THEODORE,12

L

M

N

O

EGATO,9Legatoandstaccato,effectof,61

Liebestraum,No.3,Liszt,24LISZT,FRANZ,1,10,24,40,42,46,52,67

ACDOWELL,EDWARD,35,43,53ATTHAY,TOBIAS,56

MayNight,Palmgren,43Mazurka,inBb,Op.7,No.1,Chopin,58Mazurka,Op.10,No.3,Moszkowski,32Measure,26MENDELSSOHN,FELIX,28,30,43,51,56MilitaryPolonaise,Op.40,No.1,Chopin,28,42,48,49Minimizingmovements,17Modificationoftempo,55Mood,contrastsof,41MOSZKOWSKI,MORITZ,32,42,56Motions,useless,2Motive,30MOZART,W.A.,16,44,45,55,62,66MusicalInterpretation,Matthay,56

OCTURNE,ChopinOp.9,No.2,28,39,50,51,Op.15,No.1,29,30,42Op.15,No.2,57Op.32,No.1,57Op.37,No.1,37Op.48,No.1,38

Nocturne,Op.20,Sgambati,42Noises,supplemental,62Novelette,Op.21,Schumann,28

PUS35,No.1,Mendelssohn,56

P

R

S

ALMGREN,SELIM,43PastoralSonata,Op.28,Beethoven,52

Pedals,19,20,63Period,30Personality,67Phrasesandtheircombination,29-32Phrases,correlationof,49,50Pitch,effectofvarying,50PolishDance,Op.3,No.1,Scharwenka,33Polonaise,Military,Op.40,No.1,Chopin,28,42,48,49Prelude,Op.28,No.7,Chopin,27,29,30,48PrinciplesofExpressioninPiano-fortePlaying,The,Christiani,54Pulsationinmusic,25-29

AISINGTHEFINGERS,18RAVEL,MAURICE,46

Relaxation,2Repetition,direct,46Rests,valueof,45,46Rhythms,irregular,33RigolettoParaphrase,Liszt,52Romance,Op.28,No.2,Schumann,24Romanticism,50RondoCapriccioso,Mendelssohn,30RUBINSTEIN,ANTON,42,67

CHARWENKA,X.,33SCHUBERT,FRANZ,31,34

SCHUMANN,ROBERT,23,24,28,35,36,43,56Section,30SGAMBATI,GIOVANNI,42Shadings,dynamic,47,48SixthSymphony,Tchaikovsky,48Sonata,Beethoven

Op.2,No.1,31,32,39,47Op.10,No.1,43,44

T

Op.13,56Op.28,Pastoral,52Op.57,Appassionato,37Op.90,45Haydn,inF,53Schubert,Op.120,31

Sonatine,Ravel,46SongsWithoutWords,Mendelssohn,30,43,56

Op.38,No.16,28No.22,51

Specialaccents,38,39Staccato,9

effectoflegatoand,61Style,64Supplementalnoises,62Symphony,inGmajor,Haydn,43Syncopation,34-38

EMPO,53modificationof,55relativefactor,a,53

Temporubato,56,57ThemeandVariations,Op.142,

No.3,Schubert,34Timeaccent,28Tone,60,61Touch,1

arm-weight,12classesof,4finger,8full-arm,15-17hand,10-12handandarm-weighttouchescombined,13-15other,18summaryof,17

TCHAIKOVSKY,PETERI.,48

UV

W

SELESSMOTIONS,2

ALUEOFRESTS,45,46Values,21incontrapuntalmusic,21-23inharmonicmusic,23-25

Valsebrillante,Op.34,No.2,Chopin,23

ValseCapriceinEb.Rubinstein,42ValseImpromptuinAb,Liszt,42Varyingpitch,effectof,50Vitalizingembellishments,53

AGNER,RICHARD,67Waltz,Op.34,No.2,Chopin,23

WEBER,C.M.VON,41Well-TemperedClavichord,The,Bach,22,36,37

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