Towards best practice in mediating the ecotourism-environment relationship

A report for the New Zealand tourism industry

David W. Purdie

The University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

May 2006

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Executive Summary

Ecotourism represents a subject of much debate within the academic literature. Proponents assert that it can provide benefits for the environment, visitors and operators while others argue that it is simply a new marketing tool for the wider tourism industry. This industry report examines some of the issues associated with ecotourism in order to understand how reality on the ground matches what is discussed in the literature. Previous research suggests that knowledge gaps exist within the New Zealand ecotourism sector, both on the demand-side and the supply-side. Therefore the central focus of this research project addressed the ecotourism-environment based on the scale of business. This research drew upon a nation-wide sample of businesses which encompasses the broad spectrum of the New Zealand ecotourism sector. The first phase of the research involved semi-structured interviews with the operators of these businesses and the second phase consisted of a survey of visitors to the same businesses included in phase I. Questions used in the visitor survey were primarily informed by the prior interviews with operators, meaning robust links were developed between what New Zealand ecotourism operators aspire to achieve and how such aims are reflected in the visitor experience. A mixed methods approach was thus adopted utilising two closely interlinked phases of research to address the key research questions directing the study. Key findings of this study indicate that visitors considered the environmental goals of operators important, although the majority would have preferred more information regarding these goals pre-purchase. These operations make contributions to conservation in relative proportion to their scale. Therefore, the context within which ecotourism businesses operate influences the ecotourism-environment relationship. Specifically, differences in visitor mix and product characteristics have implications for the depth of environmental education and the degree of conservation activity possible. These results suggest that an ecotourism operation’s environmental sensitivity depends on their context – specifically physical setting, product offered and visitor market(s) – not simply on scale. However, participation in some operations may be limited by discord between market needs, and how operators perceive those needs. Businesses are advised to improve the communication of environmental goals to prospective visitors. It is argued that ecotourism operations possess differing abilities to contribute to conservation according to their scale of their business. It is concluded that ecotourism can indeed be a force for protection, when developed appropriately according to context. The general commitment to environmentally sensitive management by the operations in this study bodes well for future ecotourism development within New Zealand. However, this research has also highlighted future challenges for the sector. There is a need to clearly communicate environmental goals to prospective visitors. Mechanisms should be established that allow feedback regarding the degree and format of operator/visitor interaction. It is also important to facilitate communication with visitors that is appropriate for the physical context within which the business operates, the nature of the product offered and the characteristics of the visitor mix. The central importance of context is a constant theme to arise out of this research. This makes recommending failsafe best practice strategies problematic. However, this study provides some suggestions to assist the successful future development of ecotourism in New Zealand. Operators must be committed and enabled to working collectively and individually to understanding and reacting to the ecotourism-environment relationship as it inevitably continues to change in the future.

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Acknowledgements

I was fortunate enough to receive an inaugural tourism scholarships offered by the Ministry of Tourism which allowed me to undertake research on a national scale. I am grateful to Chrisana Archer for her letter of support which was very helpful when inviting operators to participate in this research. Ross Clapcott also deserves my thanks for making the effort to meet me in person at the beginning of the project. My Masters research would not have been possible without the eight New Zealand ecotourism businesses who participated in the primary research phases. By talking to me and allowing me access to their visitors I was able to gain a valuable inside perspective of this sector. Thanks also to the tourists who took the time when on holiday to complete one of my surveys. James Higham also deserves my sincere gratitude for his undying support as supervisor for the past two years. His intelligence seems outmatched only by his wit – I valued both equally during the writing of this thesis! He has always been open to my ideas, and generously provided his own which proved perfect combination for me. When the chips were down, James never failed to provide the spark of inspiration that would see me through until our next meeting. A close second place to his supervisory prowess, James’ table tennis also provided much needed distraction throughout the last couple of years. I am also in debt to the staff in the department here at Uni. As a team, they offer an inclusive and supportive culture that you can’t put a price on. It is hard not to achieve success within such an environment. Special thanks go to Dave Duval for his interest and encouragement throughout my time in the department, and Diana Evans who could always answer any question I had and ensured everything ran smoothly ‘behind the scenes’!

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Table of Contents

Executive Summary_____________________________________________________________ ii Acknowledgements_____________________________________________________________ iii Table of Contents_______________________________________________________________ iv List of Tables__________________________________________________________________ vi List of Figures_________________________________________________________________ vii 1 Introduction

1.1 Research context_______________________________________________________ 1 1.2 Research problem______________________________________________________ 2 1.3 Research approach_____________________________________________________ 2

2 Summary of the literature 2.1 Introduction___________________________________________________________ 5 2.2 Setting the context for ecotourism_________________________________________ 5 2.3 Investigating the ecotourism-environment relationship_________________________ 5 3 Results

3.1 Introduction___________________________________________________________ 7 3.2 Phase I: Qualitative operator interviews_____________________________________ 7

3.2.1 Small-scale operators____________________________________________ 7 3.2.2 Medium-scale operators__________________________________________ 9 3.2.3 Large-scale operators____________________________________________ 10

3.3 Phase II: Quantitative visitor survey________________________________________ 12 3.3.1 Demographic profile of visitors____________________________________ 12 3.3.2 Relevance of operator environmental goals for

pre-purchase decision-making_____________________________________ 15 3.3.3 Highlights & lowlights relating to the environment____________________ 16 3.3.4 Importance of the guide/staff to visitor satisfaction____________________ 17 3.3.5 Visitor perception of operation’s relationship

with the environment____________________________________________ 18 3.3.6 Visitor satisfaction with different elements of their experience___________ 19 3.3.7 Summary: Phase II______________________________________________ 20

3.4 Section summary______________________________________________________ 21

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4 Operator-visitor-environment: Improving the relationship 4.1 Introduction___________________________________________________________ 22 4.2 Awareness of environmental goals_________________________________________ 22 4.3 Environmental management______________________________________________ 23

4.3.1 Context_______________________________________________________ 23 4.3.2 Environmental education_________________________________________ 25 4.3.3 Operator/visitor interaction_______________________________________ 27

4.4 Ecotourism & environmental change_______________________________________ 28 4.5 Section summary______________________________________________________ 29

5 Conclusions 5.1 Introduction___________________________________________________________ 31 5.2 Addressing the key research questions______________________________________ 31

5.2.1 Environmental goals of operators__________________________________ 31 5.2.2 Strategies employed to achieve environmental goals___________________ 32 5.2.3 Visitor response to operator goals & strategies________________________ 32 5.2.4 Improving the operator-visitor-environment relationship________________ 33

5.3 Recommendations______________________________________________________ 34 5.4 Future research directions________________________________________________ 34 5.5 Closing remarks_______________________________________________________ 35

6 List of references_____________________________________________________________ 36

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List of Tables

Table 3.1 Valid survey returns by sub-sample_____________________________________ 12 Table 3.2 Age of respondents__________________________________________________ 13 Table 3.3 Income level (New Zealand dollars) of respondents_________________________ 13 Table 3.4 International visitor origin_____________________________________________ 13 Table 3.5 Education level of respondents_________________________________________ 14 Table 3.6 Group characteristics of respondents____________________________________ 14 Table 3.7 Relevance of environmental information in pre-purchase decision-making______ 15 Table 3.8 Environmental highlights of activity (top 10 responses)_____________________ 16 Table 3.9 Environmental lowlights of activity (top 10 responses)______________________ 17 Table 3.10 Importance and actual interaction with staff/guides_________________________ 17 Table 3.11 Most important operations’ effects on the environment (top 10 responses)_______ 18 Table 3.12 Effectiveness of operations’ impact management___________________________ 19 Table 3.13 Likert scale responses for total sample: Elements of visitor satisfaction_________ 19 Table 3.14 Comparison of three elements of experience by scale of business______________ 20

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List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Locations of study operations__________________________________________ 3 Figure 4.1 Conceptual relationship between visitor mix and scale of business_____________ 23 Figure 4.2 Conceptual effect of scale of business and visitor mix upon depth of education___ 25 Figure 4.3 Features of an effective education programme for tourism___________________ 25

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1.0 Introduction

This report is written for the New Zealand tourism industry, specifically members of the ecotourism sector. It summarises a year-long period of study at the University of Otago, the principal outcome of which was a Master of Tourism thesis. The aim of this report is to focus upon the key findings of this programme of research and the conclusions which originate from these findings. These aspects are likely to be of primary interest to members of the tourism industry. The report does not provide significant detail regarding the issues discussed within the academic literature or the methods employed during this study, both of which are covered at length within the thesis. It is expected that such aspects of this study hold less relevance for members of the tourism industry in New Zealand.

1.1 Research context Human societies face critical challenges regarding their relationship with the natural environment (Hughes, 2003; Pearce, 2001). It has been argued that society must re-examine the way it views the natural resources upon which human welfare ultimately depends (Hardin, 1993; Holden, 2003). Historically ecotourism has been nominated as a viable means for developing a symbiotic relationship between people and nature (Pearce, 1985; Poon, 1989). However, since the term’s popular introduction in the 1980s, contention has accompanied ecotourism as much as evidence of positive outcomes. Holiday experiences can profoundly influence the lives of tourists both during and after their experience (Orams, 1995b; 1997). Therefore, ecotourism experiences which seek to build a connection between participants and nature via environmental education can potentially further the ideals and practices of conservation (Palmberg & Kuru, 2000; Schultz, Shriver, Tabanico & Khazian, 2004). If ecotourism operations simultaneously make direct contributions to conservation (Weaver, 1999), a two-fold benefit for the environment thus results. However, the concept of ecotourism has attracted considerable criticism as a potential vehicle for such change (Butler, 1991; Wheeller, 1993; 1994). Some have deemed it simply another form of consumerism, whereby such activities differ little from other forms of tourism (Hall, 1994; Ross & Wall, 1999). Operations labelled ecotourism are argued to be capitalising on the positive elements associated with the term, while not living up to its fundamental requirements (Wheeller, 1992). Ecotourism continues to face a crisis of credibility. It is necessary to examine the extent to which ecotourism operators actually meet the standards prescribed. Therefore it is useful to highlight aspects of successful environmental management undertaken within the sector. In addition, the importance that visitors place upon the environmental management exhibited during their ecotourism experience, and their reaction to current management strategies employed by operators represent key issues within ecotourism. By discovering and sharing such information it is likely that that ecotourism can continue to develop, making meaningful contributions to conservation in the future.

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1.2 Research problem The reported diversity within the New Zealand ecotourism sector has led to knowledge gaps on both the supply- and demand-sides (Higham & Carr, 2002b; Orchiston, 2004; Warren & Taylor, 1994). Further research is needed to identify the experiences offered by New Zealand ecotourism operations (Higham & Carr, 2002b). At the same time, a better understanding of the demand for ecotourism in New Zealand is required with a particular focus upon visitor demographics, expectations and satisfaction (Juric, Cossens, & Barton, 1996; Pearce & Wilson, 1995). There also exist challenges for the New Zealand ecotourism sector from a supply perspective, such as reported barriers to effective interaction with visitors and businesses’ under-capitalisation (Warren & Taylor, 1994). Such challenges potentially vary according to the context of the operation, specifically the scale of business. The primary focus of this research therefore addresses the ecotourism-environment relationship on the basis of scale of business.

1.3 Research approach This study investigates the nature of New Zealand ecotourism to see how some of the issues described within the literature match the situational reality within this sector, in particular the outcomes for visitors and the natural environment through their association with ecotourism. By virtue of its natural environment and the promotion of such attributes overseas (Tourism New Zealand, 2006), it could be said that New Zealand represents an ideal destination within which successful ecotourism can develop. This research is aligned with the New Zealand Tourism Strategy (NZTS) 2010, in particular the section addressing the natural environment. For example, the NZTS aims to “have all operators and organisations recognising the value of the natural environment and actively protecting, supporting and promoting its sustainability as part of what they do” (Ministry of Tourism 2005:30). This study seeks to directly address industry priorities by “investigating the options for monitoring and minimising conflicts between tourism and the environment” (Ministry of Tourism 2005:31). As a component of the overall tourism industry, ecotourism has a central role to play in working towards these two aims. By examining the nature of the ecotourism-environment relationship within New Zealand throughout this study, it is anticipated that a contribution will be made to the future development of the sector. The focus of this research is upon ecotourism at the national level within New Zealand, encompassing operations from across the broad spectrum of the sector. A sample of eight operations throughout the country was used in this research, located both in the South and North Islands (refer to Figure 1.1, page 3). The study sample was developed to maximise variation based on geographic location, size of business, nature of the experience offered by operators, and potential type(s) of visitors attracted. Such a sample yields operations offering small-scale and personalised experiences; large-scale and short-term experiences; as well as operations situated between these two extremes. The sample was split into three sub-samples on the basis of scale of business to investigate whether differences relevant to the key research questions (see page 3) were present. Small-scale businesses offer one tour per day or less, medium-scale businesses offer multiple tours per day and large-scale businesses provide high or unrestricted visitor capacity. These sub-samples constitute the principal manner in which the results of this research are interpreted and discussed.

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Figure 1.1 Locations of Study Operations Four key research questions were developed to direct this research;

1. What goals are ecotourism operators seeking to achieve in terms of the relationship between their business and the environment?

2. How are operators seeking to achieve these ecotourism-environment goals? 3. How do visitors respond to these goals and strategies? 4. How could the interrelationships between operators, visitors and the environment be improved?

A mixed methods approach consisting of two closely linked phases was employed to address these research questions. Phase I consisted of semi-structured qualitative interviews with the operators of the businesses included in the sample described above. The second phase of the research utilised a quantitative survey of visitors to the same businesses involved in phase I. The first phase of the research addresses key research questions one and two through the operator’s perspective. This stage of the research identifies how, and to what extent, ecotourism operators are specifically managing the relationship between their business and the natural environment (or wider environment) within which the business operates. Following from this, the strategies by which such operators are attempting to meet this aim are investigated. The second research phase addresses key research question three through the visitor perspective. This phase of the research centres on an investigation of the manner in which visitors respond to the strategies employed by the operators concerned. The research seeks to provide critical insights into the effectiveness of ecotourism operators in mediating the ecotourism-environment relationship as part of the visitor experience.

N

Scale: 1cm : 20km

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The final aspect of this research involves an analysis of the interrelationships between operators, visitors and the natural environment (key research question 4, page 3). The objective of this analysis was to highlight aspects of best practice which can potentially be adopted more widely across the sector. This aspect of the research aims to identify strategies to improve the ecotourism-environment relationship as a whole. The two research phases combined to form a mixed methods approach, utilising both qualitative and quantitative methods to address the research questions. Questions within the visitor survey were largely informed by the preceding operator interviews. Consequently, strong and coherent links were established between what New Zealand ecotourism operators are seeking to achieve, and how these goals are reflected in the experience of visitors to those operations. Essentially, the natural environment represents the subject and the visitor represents the participant. Theoretically, industry’s role takes the form of ecotourism operators who mediate the relationship between the environment and visitors, while adding value to the experience in the process. The intended outcome resulting from this ecotourism-environment relationship is positive environmental change, visitor satisfaction and economic profit. The focus of this research is upon positive environmental change. Specific examples of such change include direct conservation activities undertaken by operators, environmental education and financial contributions to conservation initiatives. If achieved, such outcomes represent obvious benefits for the natural environment, but also for ecotourism operators and their visitors. Operators benefit through the preservation or improvement of the natural resources upon which the success of their business relies. Visitors to such businesses also benefit via environmental education which stimulates their appreciation of the natural environment and enhances their enjoyment of the experience.

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2.0 Summary of the Literature

2.1 Introduction Ecotourism has been the subject of much contention within the academic literature since its popular introduction in the mid- to late 1980s. Different authors hold widely varying opinions on its potential and the motives of its promoters. The degree to which ecotourism has been debated within the literature is vast, so it is inappropriate to delve into it at length here. However, some key points of relevance to this study, and in particular this report, are highlighted below.

2.2 Setting the context for ecotourism Environmental quality is important for the welfare of societies, but humanity faces a crossroads in its relationship with nature (Holden, 2003). The tourism-environment relationship is also complex, demanding a balance between development and environmental protection (Farrell & Runyan, 1991; Ross & Wall, 1999). Tourism can destroy environments, but it also can and should be a force for protection. Indeed, resource protection lies in the industry’s own best interest (Dowling, 1992; Hughes, 2002; Beaumont, 2001). Ecotourism should match the characteristics of the resource base involved; otherwise such development will ultimately become unsustainable (Butler, 1990; Wearing & Neil, 1999). The close interrelationship between ecotourism and conservation necessitates their cooperation. Deflecting pressure away from traditional ecotourism destinations is important, and raises the question of whether protected area status is required for an experience to qualify as ecotourism (Bottrill & Pearce, 1995; Boyd & Butler, 1999). However, successful ecotourism relies upon environmental quality meaning that profit and conservation must be balanced (Valentine, 1993; Warren & Taylor, 1994; Wight, 1993). Ecotourism’s general dimensions are believed to be; nature-based, sustainably managed and providing environmental education (Blamey, 2001). But businesses unable to demonstrate a contribution to conservation in proportion to their size should not claim to offer an ecotourism experience (Weaver, 2001). The environmental sensitivity of such a product should depend on effective management applied based on context, not solely on scale (Weaver, 2001). This makes precise definition of the term less important than ecotourism’s underlying principles applied appropriately according to circumstance (Hunter, 1997; Wight, 1996). Rather than mass tourism’s replacement, ecotourism should aim to improve environmental management within such ‘mainstream’ tourism (Blamey, 1997; Buckley, 2003; Butler, 1990; Wearing & Neil, 1999).

2.3 Investigating the ecotourism-environment relationship Numerous factors common to small businesses constrain ecotourism from realising the ideals ascribed to it (Kirstges, 2003). Therefore, it is likely that a continuum of nature-based operations exists; from those meeting no definitional criteria to those voluntarily meeting all the criteria (Burton, 1998). Ideally, an environmentally sensitive product is developed, and visitors are aware of the concern for the resources involved, both before and after their experience (Wight, 1993). Ecotourism demand seems to be significant and growing, with many dimensions contributing to this demand. It is argued that the preferences of ‘mainstream’ tourists tend to evolve in the direction of ecotourists’ preferred activities (Wight, 1993). In

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New Zealand, demand for ecotourism experiences covers a broad demographic spectrum (Higham & Carr, 2002b). Sustaining the quality of both the visitor experience and the resource base upon which the sector relies is reliant upon understanding the central importance of context (Boyd & Butler, 1996). This makes the search for a single comprehensive ecotourism definition challenging (Bottrill & Pearce, 1995). Many consider environmental education a defining feature of ecotourism. This education should aim to not only alter visitors’ knowledge of the environment, but also to change their attitudes towards it; thereby decreasing inappropriate behaviour and minimising impacts (Blamey, 2001; Kuo, 2002; Orams, 1995a). However, to instigate positive global influence, ecotourism must ‘recruit the uninitiated’ rather than ‘preach to the converted’. The popular image and definition of ecotourism often excludes less obvious locations, and there is a case for development in urban areas to fulfil the sector’s aspirations (Chirgwin, 2005; Higham & Lück, 2002). Satisfaction remains poorly understood within the field of ecotourism, and the complex balance between resource wellbeing, visitor satisfaction and successful ecotourism represents an ongoing dilemma (e.g. Burns & Howard, 2003; Valentine, Birtles, Curnock, Arnold & Dunstan, 2004). However, interpretation and the guide seem to play central roles in positive ecotourism experiences, and operators should prompt implicit connections between participants and nature (Palmberg & Kuru, 2000; Schultz et al., 2004). By focusing on the visitor experience, education may be used in the provision and management of more successful ecotourism.

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3.0 Results

3.1 Introduction Results from the first research phase are reported according to scale of business as defined by the researcher; small-scale, medium-scale or large-scale. While distinctions become clear between these groups, similarities also exist which transcend differences based upon scale and these will be highlighted within this section. Operators are referred to alphabetically to protect anonymity. This will be followed by the quantitative results generated by the second phase of research. Results from this phase are presented in accordance with the research aspects listed below. The demographic profile of survey respondents is presented first, followed by data relating to the remaining five research aspects in the order they appeared in the visitor survey.

1. Relevance of the environmental goals of the operator in terms of pre-purchase decision-making 2. Highlights/lowlights relating to the natural environment for visitors to this operation 3. Importance of the guide/staff at this operation in terms of overall visitor satisfaction 4. Visitor perception of the operation’s relationship with the natural environment 5. Visitor satisfaction with different elements of their experience 6. Demographic profile of visitors to this operation

3.2 Phase I: Qualitative operator interviews

3.2.1 Small-scale operators (n=3) The lifespan of the small-scale businesses varies between 1 and 15 years. All three operators were influenced to enter the sector by previous experience and/or employment related to the environment. They also share the desire to pass on personal environmental knowledge to visitors. Importantly, these motivations have not changed significantly over time, although one operation has only been running for one season. All three operations attract more international visitors than domestics, with stated visitor numbers growing over time in the case of the two more established businesses. Operational goals Two of these smaller operators employ a “fairly loose” strategic planning approach, while the third has a business plan. All these operators acknowledge that financial security is an important factor. Interestingly, all three also share comparable environmental goals, focussing on employing sustainable practice wherever possible and seeking to positively influence the environmental values of visitors. Operators pursue the latter goal by providing learning opportunities for visitors, and by “leading by example” in terms of minimising environmental impacts (Operator B, 2005; Operator C, 2005). All three operators recognise environmental management as a critical factor for their businesses. Two of these operators believe their major contribution to the environment is advocating environmental responsibility via knowledge passed on to visitors. The other operator sees voluntary work carried out of benefit to the natural environment as their primary contribution.

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Delivery of operational goals These operators noted several common factors which challenged the achievement of their stated goals. Both the start-up and ongoing compliance costs associated with running a small ecotourism business were critical challenges. Compliance costs mentioned included payment of DoC concessions and membership of certification or accreditation programmes such as Qualmark and Green Globe 21. Factors out of the operators’ direct influence also posed a challenge; in particular, terrorism effects on global travel and changes in weather patterns producing environmental effects at the local scale. Two operations also find effective marketing an ongoing issue, especially when coupled with the economic constraints noted above. The general response to meeting environmental management challenges appears to be positive, as these operators consider having small visitor groups assists the management of impacts. Operator B acknowledged the importance of support from local contacts, especially the Regional Tourism Organisation, and emphasised the value of working within a network. Operator C was aiming to counter running costs by initiating a 5% price increase for the 2005/2006 peak season. This same owner mentioned that despite the cost of utilising the Green Globe 21 accreditation scheme, its standards constantly challenge the environmental practices of the business. Communication with visitors Communication and interaction with visitors represents the basis of all three businesses. Such interaction is predominantly verbal, with little need for written materials. Furthermore, all these operators seek to “lead by example” when communicating information relating to the management of environmental impacts. In fact, one operator finds “living the message as much as possible” a principal benefit of owning their business (Operator B, 2005). Again, the scale of these operations allows for communication to take place which is generally effective and of a high quality. Therefore, all operators are satisfied with the effectiveness of their communication with visitors. These operators have few language issues, as even when guests do not speak English fluently; there is time to “get the message across in one way or another” (Operator B, 2005). In fact, the opportunity to interact with others forms an attractive component of the business for the operators; as one said, “It’s empowering to share knowledge, but also to learn from guests at the same time” (Operator C, 2005). Generally, these businesses seem to attract visitors of a like mind to the operators, which also contributes to effective communication. Although two operators mentioned that this means that they may be “preaching to the converted” (Operator B, 2005; Operator C, 2005). In terms of measuring the effectiveness of visitor communication, none of these operators formally survey their guests to assess tour satisfaction. However, two do employ a visitor’s book as a medium for comments relating to the overall tour experience. A common link between all three businesses is that their tour experiences provoke regular and ongoing communication. This renders the use of formal surveys unnecessary according to operators A and C. Additional evidence of successful interaction with guests is the fact that all of these operators reported that visitors frequently become friends following a tour. Future intentions None of these smaller operators have significant plans for future changes. The two more established operators will maintain the current size of their business. It seems that if changes to the product offered did occur, it would be a diversification of what is offered, rather than business growth. For instance, one operator is considering initiating the development of an area for conservation of native species which could be included in future tour options. Another has purchased accommodation facilities in order to diversify what they offer their visitors. This operator will give their tours a three to five year trial period, whereas the accommodation will likely be ongoing regardless of the future success of ecotourism tours.

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3.2.2 Medium-scale operators (n=2) The two operations included in this sub-sample are reasonably well-established, with life spans of 13 and 15 years respectively. One is owned and operated by the couple who established it, while the other has changed ownership three times since its inception. The core focus of these businesses differs which has implications for much of the results. Visitors to these operations are predominantly from overseas, with the majority being western European and Australian. Operation E welcomes a wider diversity of visitors, basically all-comers, whereas operation D offers options on an increasing scale of difficulty tending towards a more restricted market. Neither operator notes any significant changes in visitor types over time. Similarly, both businesses have experienced consistent historical growth, and both are limited in terms of visitor numbers. However, while operator D has initiated self-imposed limits; the impetus for tour limits seems to come from DoC regulations for operator E. Operational goals Both operators recognise the critical importance of environmental management strategies, but what they see as their role vis-à-vis the natural environment appears to differ. While Operator E (2005) is interested in “showing visitors the best parts of New Zealand”, the other operator sees their role as assisting protection of the surrounding area. However, when asked what they saw as their primary contribution to environmental management, the operators’ responses were more similar. For Operator D (2005) it is giving visitors the opportunity to “experience wilderness in a wilderness way”, whereas for the other business it is “protection and raising awareness of what’s out there” (Operator E, 2005). These operators differ from one another in their respective business approaches. Operator D readily admits that they are not business-oriented, while the other has a formal plan focusing on growing visitor numbers and maintaining a unique experience; in their words “maintaining economic and environmental sustainability” (Operator E, 2005). Regarding their environmental goals, both state that they consider the environment on a daily basis, as well as aiming to establish positive relationships with other stakeholders in their respective areas. However, Operator D (2005) goes further by explaining that “it’s restricting the growth which is what our business is about”. Notably, this business is also a member of both Qualmark and Green Globe 21. Delivery of operational goals The biggest challenge for Operation E so far is tightening regulations, which are seen as unfair. Interestingly, while this operator seems to view DoC as a barrier to business growth, the other operator views DoC more as an ally. Operator D (2005) highlighted three key challenges; the gradual softening of peoples’ outdoor experiences making them less compatible with the operator’s product, the local tourism industry developing along over-commercialised lines, and the negative effects of “small business syndrome” on the owner-operators and the business generally. Another noteworthy distinction between these two operations is that Operator E sees the recreational public as the natural environment’s main threat, but the other operator readily admits that their operation actually represents part of the threat. However, these businesses function in differing environmental contexts and therefore it seems that different problems inevitably lead to distinct approaches. Operator E (2005) counters challenges through the “informal monitoring” of and “discussions with” members of the public they see as acting irresponsibly. This operator also suggests that funds paid to DoC for permitting and such would be best spent on policing the behaviour of the local recreational boating public. For the other operation, the wilderness experience is enhanced by timing multi-day trips to avoid meeting other groups, as well as through the self-imposed growth limits. These two responses also contribute to minimising impacts on the local natural environment. The challenges imposed by small business syndrome have been countered by

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hiring extra guides and an assistant operations manager. This strategy represents a trade-off for Operator D however, in that hiring extra personnel obviously reduces profit. Communication with visitors The predominant form of communication with visitors to each operation is verbal. Both the length of tour and the size of the group involved combine to influence the depth of interaction with individual visitors. The tour duration of up to four hours for Operation E contrasts starkly with that of the other operation whose tours last one to six days. Likewise, there are significant distinctions between the two operations based on tour group size. While groups at Operation D are limited to eight visitors with one guide; the two boats used by the other operator can carry up to 50 and 105 people respectively. Interestingly, safety and communication are treated as discrete issues in the case of Operator E; whereas these are believed to be intricately tied to one another by the other operator. Similarly, visitor communication represents a priority for Operator D, but it “falls into line with other issues” for the other business (Operator E, 2005). However, both operators deem their communication strategies to be effective. Neither business is currently surveying visitors to formally gauge reaction to their tours, although Operator D identified an opportunity to “informally” ascertain communication effectiveness and visitor satisfaction. Each operator stated a different factor challenging the effectiveness of visitor communication. Operator E identified occasional language issues; while Operator D mentioned some issues with indirect communication when off-shore agents were used during the booking process. Future intentions Again, when looking into the future responses from these two operators tended to differ. For Operator E (2005) the general focus is on growth “based on any opportunities that may arise”. In the other case, the owner-operators are wary of “burnout”, and believe that any growth would occur by way of diversification rather than pure numbers; potentially through the development of on-site accommodation for visitors. This operator also mentioned the potential future challenges posed by increasing fuel costs, both on their business, and on the local tourism industry.

3.2.3 Large-scale operators (n=3) All three businesses within this sub-sample are well established, and have been operating for between two and three decades; developing their product in an evolutionary manner during this time. Each one focuses on New Zealand flora and fauna, with two having stronger conservation ideals than the other. However, all seem motivated to co-exist sustainably with the natural environment. Each operation attracts broad demographic visitor markets; although one has recently developed a more intensive small group tour option aimed at visitors with a greater interest in the focal species. These operations all enjoy more international visitors overall, while attracting a larger domestic market during school holidays. Moreover, the three businesses encourage local ownership of their facilities. All these operations have experienced growth over time; one dramatically so, leading the operator to recognise that a plateau in visitor numbers is not far away. With increased visitor numbers, the mix of visitors has also evolved over time – significantly so in one instance – with a shift from a majority of domestic visitors to higher international numbers. Interestingly, two operators have also noticed a general increase in environmental awareness among visitors over time.

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Operational goals These operations have reasonably extensive plans, either in place or in various stages of development. All of these operators closely collaborate with either Trusts or Councils, especially in terms of planning. These operations are focussed on constantly improving the customer experience, with education and/or conservation advocacy playing a significant role. Restoration of species habitats is also a stated priority for these businesses, and two are also seeking to improve the cultural element within the visitor experience. Interestingly, when asked what their specific environmental goals were, there was little distinction between these responses and the answers given to the question mentioned above. While Operation H is Qualmark accredited, they and Operation F are aiming to achieve Green Globe 21 accreditation during the next year. All of these businesses work with the DoC, with two closely involved via captive breeding and release programmes of native species. Furthermore, two recognised that in order to deserve the label ‘ecotourism’ the entire operation must be aligned with such principles. Regarding the role these businesses see themselves fulfilling in relation to the natural environment; Operation H focuses upon sharing a positive experience with visitors and using tourism to pay for conservation, whereas the other two put equal emphasis upon educating visitors and assisting endangered species through conservation. Two operations view their primary contribution to environmental management benefiting a single focal species, while Operator F feels they offer a unique combination of forest restoration and captive breeding. Delivery of operational goals These businesses experience similar challenges as they seek to achieve their respective goals. All three have experienced – and in one case, is still experiencing – issues associated with operational funding. Another major challenge facing this sub-sample is balancing conservation activities with profit-making. In the case of Operator H (2005), it was stated that because their operation was viewed as a “strategic economic asset” for the council, there was often both direct and indirect pressure to prioritise profit maximisation. Also, managing exotic flora and fauna species provides an ongoing challenge for two of the businesses – largely as a result of the land area on which they operate. In one instance, the economic burden has been alleviated by the employment of volunteer workers. This operator noted that “volunteers make a huge contribution to the running of the operation” (Operator G, 2005). Furthermore, two businesses regularly appeal for donations for their respective Trusts, as well as running successful school holiday programmes for local visitors – both are believed to be effective in relieving economic pressure. Communication with visitors Visitor communication at these businesses is challenged because they attract a highly diverse market, especially in the case of Operation H. Specifically, the diversity of nationalities with a variable command of English, a broad range of visitor ages, as well as differing levels of interest combine to make “catering to the needs of individuals difficult” (Operator G, 2005). In response, one business has recently introduced a new tour option aimed at small groups, with “above-average” interest in the focal species. One operation is also trialling a new method of visitor interaction, whereby camera-capable mobile phones convey one minute interpretative audio messages, related to the specific location where the visitor is on-site. This development seeks to allow multi-lingual communication which is location-specific, without needing a human guide. The third operator specifically mentioned that a rigorous training regime is in place ensuring guides are confident, competent and friendly thereby enhancing the visitor experience as much as possible. All three operations provide introductory brochures to visitors at the outset of tours, as well as aiming to provide a friendly and “homely” atmosphere (Operator F, 2005). These businesses also offer visitors a fairly structured experience; two provide tours at set times, while the other offers the opportunity for visitors to

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attend two interpretive talks every afternoon. Alternatively, visitors are free to roam independently on-site at two of these businesses. The two operations which are run by, or in conjunction with, Trusts seek to make visitors aware during guided tours that they can donate time and/or money to the Trust. Some self-completion visitor surveys are employed at each operation, but this was not carried out particularly regularly. One of these businesses also makes use of a visitor’s book. One has also conducted some interview-based research with visitors to determine the effectiveness of the business’ interpretation strategy. However, they are still awaiting the results for this study. All three operators commented that visitors seemed to be becoming more inquiring in recent years. Operator F also commented that visitors tended to be spending a longer duration on-site recently. Future intentions All of these operations have plans for the future which are based on developing and expanding the product they currently offer. In fact, all mentioned specific ideas to implement in years to come which were based on fairly comparable principles. All are seeking to build upon the interpretation that already exists, expanding both their static and verbal interaction with visitors. Likewise, all are similarly committed to finding ways to involve their visitors more with the product offered, in order to enhance the experience. This was in specific reference to the local domestic market visiting these businesses.

3.3 Phase II: Quantitative visitor survey A total sample of 279 valid surveys was obtained during the second phase of research (see Table 3.1 below). These results are presented so as to demonstrate how the results from the three sub-samples diverge from the total dataset. Table 3.1 Valid Survey Returns by Sub-sample

Small Medium Large TOTAL Frequency 33 86 160 279 Percent 11.8 30.8 57.3 100.0

3.3.1 Demographic profile of visitors Overall, there are more female (58.9%) than male respondents in the total sample. Visitors to the small-scale operations consist of more females (69.7%) than males, while the gender split for the medium-scale operations is much more even, with 50.6% male visitors, and the large-scale sub-sample is between the two with 61.8% female respondents. The age of those visiting the large-scale businesses is well spread between 18 and 64, closely replicating the total sample (see Table 3.2 below). However, those at the small-scale operations tend to be older (81.8% over 55) and those at the medium-scale businesses tend to be younger (79% younger than 44) with half the sub-sample being 25-34. A similar pattern is evident in the personal income levels of respondents (see Table 3.3 below). The incomes of tourists at the large-scale operations range across all the income categories relatively evenly, with the most common income bracket (22.5%) being $NZ40,001-60,000, mirroring the total dataset. Most of the visitors to the medium-scale businesses (25.6%) earn between $NZ40,001 and $NZ60,000, with just under a quarter (24.4%) earning less than $NZ40,001 and just over a third (34.9%) earning more than $NZ60,000. The tourists surveyed at the small-scale operations tend to earn significantly more compared with the total sample with over half (57.6%) earning more than $NZ60,000 individually per year. It is noteworthy that more than one third (36.6%) of the total sample earns more than $NZ60,000 per year.

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Table 3.2 Age of Respondents (%)

18-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 55-64 65 + Small (n=32) 0.0 3.0 9.1 3.0 54.5 27.3 Medium (n=85) 11.6 50.0 17.4 8.1 9.3 2.3 Large (n=157) 14.4 28.1 22.5 11.3 18.1 3.8 TOTAL (n=274) 11.8 31.9 19.4 9.3 19.7 6.1

Table 3.3 Income Level (New Zealand dollars ) of Respondents (%)

$0 – 20,000 $20,001–40,000 $40,001–60,000 $60,001–80,000 $80,001+ Small (n=27) 6.1 9.1 9.1 21.2 36.4 Medium (n=73) 7.0 17.4 25.6 18.6 16.3 Large (n=141) 14.4 18.1 22.5 11.3 21.9 TOTAL (n=241) 11.1 16.8 21.9 14.7 21.9

In terms of visitor origins, almost three quarters (72.3%) of the total sample are from overseas, with 14.2% travelling from outside the operation’s region, 10.8% from within the operation’s city and a minority (2.9%) coming from within the operation’s region. Most visitors to the small-scale businesses come from overseas (78.8%), with most of the domestic visitors travelling from outside the region where the operation is located. International tourists make up the vast majority (90.5%) of the medium-scale sub-sample, with the remaining domestic tourists come from outside the operation’s region. The large-scale businesses attract a more even mix of international (61.1%) and domestic (38.9%) tourists, with almost one fifth (17.8%) of all visitors coming from the city in which the operation is located. In terms of the origin of overseas visitors, there are some clear differences; both between the three sub-samples, as well as between the total sample and all foreign visitors to New Zealand (see Table 3.4 below). There are a much higher proportion of UK visitors within this study, but a much smaller proportion of Asian tourists compared to the total inbound market to this country (Tourism Research Council New Zealand, 2006). It is also interesting to note that there is a smaller percentage of Australians within this sample than for New Zealand overall (TRCNZ, 2006). Comparing the three sub-samples, it seems that the visitor mix becomes more diverse as the size of business increases; with by far the greatest percentage of Asian tourists visiting the large-scale businesses. Table 3.4 International Visitor Origin (%)

Origins Small Medium Large Total Sample New Zealand* UK - 52.8 35.7 37.8 12.0 USA 52.0 11.8 8.4 15.3 9.1 Australia 28.0 11.8 7.4 11.7 36.2 Germany - 6.6 10.5 7.7 2.5 Canada 12.0 2.6 3.2 4.1 1.8 Austria - 2.6 4.2 3.1 - Switzerland - - 6.3 3.1 - Netherlands - 1.3 3.2 2.0 1.1 Holland - - 4.2 2.0 - Ireland - 3.9 1.1 2.0 - Asia - 1.3 10.5 5.6 22.3 Other Europe 8.0 5.3 5.3 5.6 3.2 TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 88.2

* International Visitor Survey data: Year end March 2005 (TRCNZ, 2006) - Figure is less than 1%

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The total sample is generally well educated, with two thirds (66.3%) having some form of University schooling; although 16.5% of respondents stated High School as their highest form of education (see Table 3.5 below). Respondents from the small-scale sub-sample tend to be more educated still, over half (57.6%) holding a Postgraduate degree and over a quarter (27.3%) holding an Undergraduate degree. Visitors at the medium-scale operations display similar education levels to the total dataset, but a slightly higher proportion have University qualifications and a slightly smaller percentage stated High School as their highest education level. Tourists visiting the large-scale businesses have a higher proportion of High School education (23.1%) than the total sample but one third (33.8%) of the sub-sample still hold a Postgraduate qualification. Interestingly, all three sub-samples have approximately the same percentage of visitors holding a trade qualification of some kind. Overall, almost two thirds of the total sample was travelling with either family (27.2%) or their partner (35.2%), while a number were also travelling with friends or independently (see Table 3.6 below). Visitors to the medium- and large-scale businesses were quite similar to the total dataset regarding their group characteristics. Although the large sub-sample had the smallest proportion travelling independently (9.4%) and the medium sub-sample had the biggest proportion travelling with their partner (39.5%). Interestingly, almost a third (30.3%) of the visitors to small-scale operations was travelling as part of an organised tour group. In saying this however, these businesses also had the greatest percentage of independent travellers (24.2%) of the three sub-samples. Table 3.5 Educational Level of Respondents (%)

High School Trade Qual. Undergraduate Postgraduate Other Small (n=33) 6.1 9.1 27.3 57.6 0.0 Medium (n=82) 8.1 10.5 40.7 32.6 3.5 Large (n=153) 23.1 10.6 25.0 33.8 3.1 TOTAL (n=268) 16.5 10.4 30.1 36.2 2.9

Table 3.6 Group Characteristics of Respondents (%)

Independent Family Partner Friend(s) Business Tour Group Small (n=32) 24.2 9.1 21.2 12.1 0.0 30.3 Medium (n=84) 11.6 26.7 39.5 17.4 1.2 1.2 Large (n=152) 9.4 31.3 36.3 13.8 1.9 2.5 TOTAL (n=268) 11.8 27.2 35.2 14.7 1.4 5.4

Almost half (47.4%) of visitors from the small sub-sample intended to stay in New Zealand for a total of two to three weeks, while approximately one quarter intended to stay for a total of three to four weeks (26.3%) and one to two weeks (21.1%). In terms of the medium-scale businesses, there was substantial variation within this sub-sample and they tend to stay longer than those at the smaller operations. The most common period stated was between 29 and 56 days (20.6%); followed by two to three weeks (19.1%), one to two weeks and three to four weeks (17.6% each). With respect to the large sub-sample, there was also considerable variation in length of stay, with the most common falling between 29 and 56 days (30.1% of the sub-sample). Between two and three weeks was also a common response (21.6%), followed by one to two weeks (14.8%) and two to three weeks (13.6%).

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3.3.2 Relevance of the operator’s environmental goals for pre-purchase decision-making Taken as a whole sample, many visitors to these operations consider the business’ environmental goals either important (35.1%) or very important (33.0%) when purchasing their experience (see Table 3.7 below). The importance visitors attach to these environmental goals seems to increase as the scale of the business concerned increases. Worthy of note is the fact that the lowest mean response for this question (3.67) is provided by tourists at the small-scale businesses. However, when comparing the scales of business visitors tend to consider the environmental goals held by the operator to be moderately important in their decision to participate in the experience. A chi-square test for relatedness was conducted, but a statistically significant relationship was not found between scale of business and relevance of environmental information in pre-purchase decision-making. When asked whether or not they had sufficient access to information relating to such environmental goals the overall sample is quite evenly split; just under half (45.4%) state they did, but just over half (54.6%) believed they did not. Nevertheless differences do exist between the visitors to each scale of business. Less than a quarter (22.6%) of visitors to small-scale businesses state they did, while approximately two thirds (62.4%) of visitors to the medium-scale operations feel they did, and under half (40.8%) of those at the largest operations sampled claim they did.

Table 3.7 Relevance of Environmental Information in Pre-purchase Decision-making Importance of Environmental Goals (%) 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Small 6.7 6.7 13.3 33.3 20.0 3.67 Medium 3.5 5.8 25.6 37.2 27.9 3.80 Large 3.8 6.3 16.4 34.6 37.7 3.97 TOTAL 3.9 6.1 19.0 35.1 33.0 3.90 Importance of Environmental Information (%) 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Small 6.7 10.0 16.7 16.7 10.0 3.22 Medium 1.2 2.3 11.6 15.1 5.8 3.61 Large 3.1 7.5 21.4 15.1 10.1 3.37 TOTAL 2.9 6.1 17.6 15.8 9.0 3.43

NB: Percentage totals do not add to 100 due to non-responses Scale: 1=”Of little importance” and 5=”Very important” For those who felt they had access to sufficient information, the most common formats from the total sample were the operations’ brochures (35.7% of those who answered) and the Internet (31.3% of those responding), as well as guide books (8.9%). Visitors to the small-scale operators most commonly found environment-related information on the Internet, while for respondents from the medium-scale businesses; the Internet was also the most popular, followed closely by the operations’ brochures and operation staff. For the large-scale sub-sample respondents, the operations’ brochures were the most common, followed by the Internet and guide books, as well as signage or billboards on-site. Visitors in the latter sub-sample appeared to draw on a wider range of information sources in this instance than the other respondents. With respect to the total dataset, most visitors who felt they did not have sufficient information relating to the environment felt it was neither important nor unimportant (17.5%) or important (15.8%) to gain more details (see Table 3.7 above). Respondents at medium-scale businesses who were in this position considered it relatively important (mean of 3.61) to gain more details. Visitors to the small- and large-scale operations considered this slightly less important (means of 3.35 and 3.38 respectively) than those within the medium-

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scale sub-sample. A chi-square test for relatedness was conducted, but a statistically significant relationship was not found between scale of business and importance of environmental information.

3.3.3 Highlights & lowlights relating to the natural environment Overall, the opportunity to see species of flora and fauna were the most common highlights of the experience for visitors (see Table 3.8 below). One fifth (20.2%) of the total sample ranked seeing viewing such species in a captive environment as their top highlight; while slightly fewer respondents (17.9%) ranked viewing species in a natural/wild environment as theirs. The other two aspects of the experience to stand out for the total sample are a general enjoyment of nature or sightseeing (8.4%) and general education (8.0%). The remaining responses are rated very similarly when the total dataset is taken into account. When the responses from different scales of business were analysed, some variation does exist. No visitors to the small- or medium-scale operations ranked viewing species in a captive environment as the best aspect of their experience, but this was by far the most common response from the large-scale sub-sample (35.3% of responses). The most common top highlight for respondents from the medium-scale businesses was seeing species in a natural or wild context (31.3% of responses). This aspect of the experience was also rated highly by large-scale visitors (12%) and small-scale visitors (12.1%). The second most common highlight for visitors to medium-scale businesses was interaction with animals (18.8% of responses), but this was not rated as the best aspect by any visitors from the other two scales of business. Similarly, for one tenth from the large sub-sample the conservation activities undertaken by the operation was the best element of their experience; however, none of the visitors from the other businesses mentioned this as their top highlight. The most common response to this question for those visiting small-scale operations was general education (18.1%); but this was mentioned less often by visitors to both medium-sized (5%) and large (7.3%) businesses. Table 3.8 Environmental Highlights of Activity (top 10 responses)

Categories of Response Small (n=33)

Medium (n=80)

Large (n=150)

TOTAL (n=263)

Viewing species in a captive environment 0 0 53 53 Viewing species in a natural/wild environment 4 25 18 47 General enjoyment of nature/sightseeing 1 13 8 22 Education (facts & figures) 6 4 11 21 Conservation activities 0 0 15 15 Minimal impact of activity 2 5 8 15 Interacting with animals 0 15 0 15 Experiencing untouched/peaceful environment 5 8 2 15 Behaviour of species viewed 0 4 8 12 Modified setting replicates nature well 0 0 12 12

NB: Table ordered by frequency of response therefore relative sub-sample sizes must be taken into account As with the stated highlights of their ecotourism experience, respondents provided lowlights of their experience which varied according to the scale of business (refer to Table 3.9 below). It is also worthy of note that while most visitors (94.2%) provided a response for the highlight of their experience relating to the environment; barely a third (38.3%) of the total sample provided one for the lowlight of their experience. Generally, there tends to be a wide range of responses given to this question, both within the total sample and the three sub-samples. The most commonly mentioned lowlight of the experience for visitors from the large sub-sample was the viewing of particular species in a captive environment (23.9% of those who answered this question). In the case of medium-scale visitors, crowding and the use of motorised transport (28.6% respectively) were the main elements detracting from their experience. The most common responses also varied for those visiting

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the smaller businesses; in this instance the viewing of specific landscape features and receiving too much information during the experience (25% respectively) were detracting factors. The disparate contexts under which the different scales of business operate seem to contribute to the wide variation in responses to this question. Table 3.9 Environmental Lowlights of Activity (top 10 responses)

Categories of Response Small (n=12)

Medium (n=28)

Large (n=67)

TOTAL (n=107)

Viewing species in a captive environment 0 0 16 16 Crowding (people/vehicles) 0 8 2 10 Material aspects of operation/environment 0 0 9 9 Behaviour of other visitors 0 1 8 9 Use of motorised transport 1 8 0 9 Not seeing something that was expected 2 0 6 8 Weather/environmental conditions 0 5 2 7 Impacts on environment/animals 0 3 3 6 Experience not natural enough 0 0 5 5 Activities/attractions too ‘touristy’ 1 0 3 4 Information provision – inappropriate/irrelevant 2 0 2 4

NB: Table ordered by frequency of response therefore relative sub-sample sizes must be taken into account

3.3.4 Importance of the guide/staff to visitor satisfaction

On the whole, visitors considered the interaction with staff or guides to be important (mean response of 4.03), with the majority rating such interaction as important or very important (see Table 3.10 below). Relatively few respondents ranked this interaction as unimportant to them. Visitors to small-scale operations rated interaction with staff or guides more important than the other sub-samples, with over two thirds (66.7%) rating it as very important. In contrast, the mean response from the large sub-sample was almost one point lower than for the small sub-sample, and 15.7% of these visitors rated their interaction with staff or guides as unimportant. However, it should be noted that visitors to the large-scale businesses displayed wider response variation than those respondents from the other businesses. A chi-square test for relatedness was performed on the unmodified data, but a statistically significant relationship did not exist between scale of business and importance of interaction with staff or guides. However, when the small- and medium-scale businesses were grouped together (to increase sample size), a statistically significant relationship was found. This indicates importance of interaction with staff or guides tends to decrease as scale of business increases. Table 3.10 Importance and Actual Interaction with Staff/Guides

Importance of Interaction with Staff/Guides (%) 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Small 0.0 0.0 6.7 26.7 66.7 4.60 Medium 1.2 0.0 9.3 37.2 51.2 4.39 Large 7.5 8.2 22.0 29.6 32.7 3.72 TOTAL 4.7 4.7 16.5 31.2 42.7 4.03

Scale: 1=”Of little importance” and 5=”Very important”

Actual Interaction with Staff-Guides (%) 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Small 0.0 0.0 43.3 33.3 23.3 3.80 Medium 2.3 2.3 43.0 29.1 22.1 3.67 Large 7.5 11.9 56.0 14.5 8.2 3.04 TOTAL 5.0 7.5 51.6 21.1 14.5 3.32

NB: Percentage totals do not add to 100 due to non-responses Scale: 1=”Less than wanted” and 5=”More than wanted”

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When asked to rate their actual interaction with staff or guides – on a scale of 1 to 5 where 1 represents not enough interaction, and 5 represents too much – visitors tended to receive slightly more attention than desired overall (mean response of 3.32) (see Table 3.10, page 17). Although it should be noted that over half of all respondents felt they enjoyed an appropriate level of interaction (rating of 3 on the scale provided) with staff or guides during their experience. Interestingly, the respondents most satisfied with this level of interaction were from the large operations who on average rated interaction at 3.04. In contrast, visitors from both the small and medium-scale operations tended to feel they had more interaction than desired (mean responses of 3.80 and 3.67 respectively). Furthermore, no visitors from the small sub-sample rated their interaction as less than they wanted; whereas, 6.6% of the medium sub-sample and 19.4% of the large sub-sample did. A chi-square test for relatedness was performed on the unmodified data, but a statistically significant relationship did not exist between scale of business and importance of interaction with staff or guides. However, when the small- and medium-scale businesses were grouped together (to reduce degrees of freedom), a statistically significant relationship was found. This demonstrates that visitors to the large-scale operations were more likely to enjoy an appropriate level of interaction with staff or guides that those at the other operations.

3.3.5 Visitor perception of operation’s relationship with the environment 88.5% of respondents provided written comments on the operator-environment relationship. The most common first responses from the total sample were that the operation simply had a positive effect on the environment, and the operation enhances visitors’ environmental appreciation or advocates for conservation (18.2% of those answering this question respectively) (see Table 3.11 below). Importantly, the top nine overall responses to this question indicate visitors perceive these operations to have a positive effect or no effect, directly or indirectly upon the environment. A negative effect on animal behaviour was the most often mentioned detrimental effect, but was only mentioned by 3.2% of all visitors. The first responses to this question were less diverse between the different sub-samples than was the case for the earlier two open questions in the survey. The responses from the three sub-samples also follow a similar pattern to the overall dataset, in that responses were far more likely to be positive or neutral than negative. Visitors to the large-scale operations most often mentioned a general positive effect on the environment (21%), followed by environmental appreciation or conservation advocacy (14%) and conservation/preservation activities undertaken by the business concerned (12.6%). Causing minimal environmental impact was the most common response from the medium sub-sample (22%), closely followed by environmental appreciation or conservation advocacy (20.5%). With respect to respondents from the small-scale operations, environmental appreciation or conservation advocacy also featured prominently (32.3%), as well as a generally positive effect upon the environment (29%). It is also interesting that a greater proportion of visitors to the large operations (8.4%) stated education or sharing knowledge than visitors to both the medium (6.8%) and small-scale (3.2%) businesses. Table 3.11 Most Important Operations’ Effects on the Environment (top 10 responses)

Categories of Response Small (n=31)

Medium (n=73)

Large (n=143)

TOTAL (n=247)

Positive 9 6 30 45 Enhances environmental appreciation/conservation advocacy 10 15 20 45 Conservation/preservation 2 2 18 22 Neither positive nor negative (no effect) 2 8 12 22 Minimal environmental impact 5 16 0 21 Education/sharing knowledge 1 5 12 18 Other (positive) 0 4 13 17 Captive breeding of animal species 0 0 11 11 Raises funds for environment 0 2 6 8 Negative effects on animal behaviour 0 3 5 8

NB: Table ordered by frequency of response therefore relative sub-sample sizes must be taken into account

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Overall, visitors to the businesses sampled felt that operators were doing a good job of managing their impacts upon the environment, with a total mean of 4.25 (see Table 3.12 below). Most of the total sample rated the management of environmental impacts by these operations as effective (80.7% of total responses). The way in which respondents perceived the effectiveness of impact management differed little between the three sub-samples involved. The rating of this effectiveness tended to very slightly decrease as the scale of operation increased. Almost two thirds (60%) of respondents from the small-scale operations provided the top rating available for this question. A chi-square test for relatedness was performed, but a statistically significant relationship between visitors’ perception of impact management and scale of business was not present.

Table 3.12 Effectiveness of Operations’ Impact Management

Effectiveness of Operations’ Management of Environment Impacts (%) 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Small 0.0 6.7 6.7 26.7 60.0 4.40 Medium 1.2 0.0 18.6 26.7 48.8 4.28 Large 1.9 1.9 10.7 42.8 39.6 4.20 TOTAL 1.4 1.8 12.5 35.5 45.2 4.26

NB: Percentage totals do not add to 100 due to non-responses Scale: 1=”Ineffective” and 5=”Effective”

3.3.6 Visitor satisfaction with different elements of the experience Within the total sample, overall satisfaction was very high (mean rating of 4.56) and all respondents were very likely to recommend their experience to others (mean rating of 4.62) (see Table 3.13 below). Of the five remaining aspects of the experience, the elements associated with the performance of the operation tended to be rated more highly than outcomes more related to the individual tourist involved. Table 3.13 Likert Scale Responses for Total Sample: Elements of Visitor Satisfaction

Response Variable 1 2 3 4 5 Mean Recommend experience to others 0.4 1.1 6.5 17.6 67.7 4.62 Good experience overall 0.4 1.8 2.5 29.0 59.5 4.56 Operation’s empathy with environment 1.1 1.4 12.2 26.2 52.0 4.36 Impacts minimised during experience 2.2 2.2 17.9 26.9 43.7 4.16 Quality of interpretation/guide 2.2 4.7 15.1 26.5 44.8 4.14 Challenged to learn 4.7 10.0 31.5 26.5 21.1 3.52 Consideration of impact in daily life 10.8 15.4 25.8 21.5 19.7 3.25

NB: Percentage totals do not add to 100 due to non-responses Scale: 1=”Strongly disagree” and 5=”Strongly agree” There was some variation based on scale of business for three elements of the experience; the operation’s empathy with the environment, the quality of the interpretation or guide and the degree to which visitors were challenged to learn about the environment (see Table 3.14, page 20). When rating the operations’ empathy with the environment, visitors to the small-scale businesses rated this slightly higher than visitors to the other operations, and higher than the average response for the total dataset. However, when a chi-square test for relatedness was undertaken, there was no statistically significant relationship present between perception of operations’ environmental empathy and scale of business. Regarding the quality of the interpretation encountered, visitors to the small- and medium-scale businesses rated this noticeably higher (4.47 and 4.53 respectively) than those visiting the large-scale businesses (3.86). Respondents from the small-scale sub-sample believed they were more challenged to learn (3.93) than those

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from the medium- and large-scale businesses (3.41 and 3.49 correspondingly). It is worthy of note that for these two elements, there was a visibly larger range of responses from the large-scale visitors, than the other two sub-samples. A chi-square test for relatedness was conducted, and a statistically significant relationship did exist between scale of business and quality of interpretation or staff. This indicates that perceived quality of staff or interpretation was higher at the small- and medium-scale operations than the large operations. The same test was undertaken examining the relationship between scale of business and the degree to which visitors were challenged to learn. This relationship was also statistically significant, indicating that visitors to the small-scale operations were more challenged to learn than those visiting the medium- and large-scale businesses. Table 3.14 Comparison of Three Elements of Experience by Scale of Business

1 2 3 4 5 Mean Empathy with Environment Small 0.0 0.0 6.7 16.7 76.7 4.70 Medium 0.0 0.0 17.7 26.6 55.7 4.38 Large 1.4 2.7 11.6 32.2 52.1 4.31

Quality of Interpretation Small 0.0 0.0 13.3 26.7 60.0 4.47 Medium 0.0 2.5 7.4 24.7 65.4 4.53 Large 4.1 7.6 21.4 31.7 35.2 3.86

Challenged to Learn Small 3.3 10.0 10.0 43.3 33.3 3.93 Medium 6.3 15.0 27.5 33.8 17.5 3.41 Large 4.7 8.8 41.9 21.6 23.0 3.49

Scale: 1=”Strongly disagree” and 5=”Strongly agree”

3.3.7 Summary: Phase II The gender split tends to vary widely between the sub-samples. Visitors to the large-scale businesses are spread across a range of ages, while the age profiles at the small- and medium-scale operations tend to be older or younger respectively than the total sample. Visitors to the small-scale operations earn significantly more than the total dataset, but incomes for other respondents are more evenly distributed. Overseas visitors constitute a clear majority for both the small- and medium-sized businesses, whereas nearly one in four tourists to the large operations is domestic. The visitor origin mix becomes more diverse as scale of business increases, while visitors to the small- and medium-scale businesses possess a higher level of education than those at the large operations. The importance respondents attach to the environmental goals of businesses seems to increase as size of business increases. However, the majority of visitors felt they had not received sufficient access to such information; the medium-scale sub-sample had the highest proportion of respondents who stated they did, followed by the large-scale then the small-scale visitors. The range of information sources tends to increase with the scale of business, with the most common being the Internet and operators’ brochures. Stated highlights and lowlights of the experience relating to the environment vary quite widely according to operation context. Interestingly, while most respondents (94.2%) provided an environmental highlight of their experience, only 38.3% provided an environmental lowlight.

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The importance of interaction with staff or guides tends to decrease as scale of business increases when the small- and medium-scale sub-samples were grouped together. It is noteworthy that although over half of the total sample enjoyed an appropriate level of interaction, visitors most satisfied with this were from the large-scale operations. Visitors from the other sub-samples generally felt they had more interaction than they wanted. When the small- and medium-scale operations were clustered together, visitors to large-scale operations were more likely to enjoy an appropriate level of interaction with staff or guides than other visitors. When visitors were asked how they perceived operations’ relationship with the environment, the top nine overall responses indicated a positive or neutral effect upon the environment. Overall, responses were much more likely to be positive or neutral rather than negative. The most common specific answer across all scales was that businesses enhanced environmental appreciation or provided conservation advocacy. Of note is the fact that a larger proportion of visitors answered education or sharing knowledge within the large-scale sub-sample than the other sub-samples. The majority of the total sample rated environmental impact management at these operations as effective; this varied little between the three sub-samples. The total sample rated overall satisfaction very highly, with respondents being very likely to recommend their experience to others. Significant variation in responses occurs between the sub-samples regarding the operations’ empathy with the environment, the quality of interpretation or staff and the degree to which visitors were challenged to learn about the environment. Visitors to the small-scale operations rated the operations’ empathy with the environment higher than other visitors, although this difference was not statistically significant. However, it was found that the perceived quality of interpretation or staff was rated higher at the small- and medium-scale businesses than at the large operations. Statistical analysis also showed visitors to the small-scale operations were more challenged to learn than other visitors.

3.4 Section summary

This section provided an overview of individual results from both research phases. The principal focus within this section has been upon the first three key research questions (refer to Section 1.3). Analysis of the results was performed upon the overall sample, as well upon the three sub-samples distinguished by scale of business. Key findings have also been highlighted relating to each stage of the research for discussion within the following section, which will continue to investigate the first three research questions as well as the final overall research question.

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4.0 Operator-visitor-environment: Improving the relationship

4.1 Introduction Appropriate ecotourism management approaches are unclear, perhaps due to an insufficient understanding of tourism behaviour and environmental processes. The previous section presented results from the two research phases, demonstrating that both similarities and differences exist between the three sub-samples in this study. Wight (1996) argues that the appeal of ecotourism is reaching more population segments and that the traits of the ‘experienced’ ecotourist are being integrated into conventional markets. This may explain the market variations between the different scales of business studied here. Visitors to large-scale operations more closely approximate the ‘mainstream’ New Zealand inbound tourist than those visiting the small-scale operations who may perhaps be thought of as more ‘experienced’ ecotourists. In particular, visitors in this study demonstrated high levels of education, with evidence of an inverse relationship between the proportion of respondents holding a University qualification and scale of business. Different scales of business potentially lead to different outcomes for both visitors and the environment (e.g. Fennell & Weaver, 2005; Higham & Lück, 2002; Weaver, 2005). This section discusses the research results, with the focus being on mediating the ecotourism-environment relationship within New Zealand. Discussion will be largely based upon key research question 4: How could the interrelationships between operators, visitors and the environment be improved? This section highlights key themes which have emerged during the course of this study.

4.2 Awareness of environmental goals This study aims to address current knowledge gaps within the New Zealand ecotourism sector; gaps which are likely to hinder the future development of such businesses and the sector as a whole. The issue of visitors to ecotourism operations in New Zealand possibly being unsure of the nature of the experience provided by operators has already been raised in Section 1. It also seems unfavourable for operators that little is known about the consumers of their products (Higham & Carr, 2002b). In this research it was revealed that all operators possessed comparable environmental goals, which seem appropriate to their scale. These businesses generally appear to make commendable attempts at environmentally sustainable operation. This validates the premise that ecotourism development in the ‘correct’ direction is perhaps more important than precise goal definition (Clarke, 1997; Weaver, 2001). There is evidence of more formal planning by the large-scale operators, who are run by, or in conjunction with, Trusts as opposed to the other businesses which are privately owned and operated. However, all of these operators recognise the central importance of careful environmental management, which is illustrated by the close links most have with DoC. It seems that the operators of these businesses understand that protection of the resources they rely upon lies in their own best interest (Beaumont, 2001; Butler, 1991; Romeril, 1989). This represents a critical basis for the future development of this sector, as the operators within this study acknowledge their responsibility to practice environmentally sensitive management. Overall, the visitors sampled considered operators’ environmental goals to be important. This provides evidence that environmental quality is central to ecotourism (Huybers & Bennett, 2003) and that environmental protection can potentially stimulate demand for ecotourism experiences (Higginbottom, Tribe

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& Booth, 2003; Li, 2004). Interestingly, the larger the business, the greater the importance visitors placed upon environmental goals, with visitors to small-scale businesses finding such goals the least important (mean of 3.67 out of 5). This runs counter to the supposition that such visitors are more ‘experienced’ ecotourists (Wight, 1996). If such visitors are more ‘experienced’, it would be reasonable to expect that they would attach higher relevance to the environmental goals of operators than tourists closer to the ‘mainstream’, in this instance the visitors to large-scale operations. However, this is not verified by this research. Contrary to previously published literature, it appears that the scale of business does not necessarily characterise the environmental sensitivity of the visitor. Despite the apparent importance of the operator’s environmental goals for visitors, the majority of the sample felt they did not have access to sufficient information regarding such goals. This is a similar finding to research undertaken by Armstrong and Weiler (2002). If environmental marketing and commitment to environmentally sensitive action is the ideal, it is argued that visitors should be aware of the concern for natural resources both pre-purchase and during the experience (Wight, 1993). However, this research does not consistently confirm this to be true. Participation in some ecotourism operations may be limited by such discord between what the market needs and how operators perceive those needs (McKercher, 2001). This issue was particularly prevalent within the businesses in the small- and large-scale sub-samples. It is noteworthy that over 70% of visitors to large-scale operations consider environmental information important or very important, but 60% would have preferred to have had more of this information pre-purchase. In this study, it seems that individual consumers are unable to identify the environmental effects of operations, which means that businesses must increasingly promote their environmental performance (Font & Tribe, 2001). Research findings suggest that these operators, especially the small- and large-scale ones, would do well to improve the communication of their environmental goals to prospective visitors; potentially leading to increased demand for the experiences they offer.

4.3 Environmental management

4.3.1 Context The broad context within which these businesses operate has implications for what they can achieve regarding environmental management. An important contextual factor for the operations in this study is visitor demographics. The nature of the markets these operations attract influences aspects of the ecotourism-environment relationship discussed later within this section. The general relationship found between scale of business and the diversity of the visitor mix is illustrated in Figure 4.1. The results from this research indicate that as an ecotourism operation increases in size, the demographic variation of its visitors also increases.

Figure 4.1 Conceptual relationship between visitor mix and scale of business

Scal

e of

Bus

ines

s

Visitor Mix

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As the scale of business increases visitors to the operations within this research considered interaction with staff or guides less important. This implies that visitors understood that the size of operation would likely affect this level of interaction. In this way, visitors generally appear to hold realistic expectations regarding their ecotourism experience. At least in part, this verifies the work of Duffus and Dearden (1990) who found that the type(s) of visitors attracted to a location are contingent upon the nature of the site involved. In other words, the context of the operation seems to directly affect the outcomes of the visitor experience. Across the total sample, wide variation exists in terms of the type of product offered to visitors. There exist specific differences regarding the level of physical activity, the focus of the experience as well as the size of tour and the duration of the experience. This corresponds to previous studies on ecotourism in New Zealand which found substantial variation in terms of scale (Higham & Lück, 2002) and range of experiences (Warren & Taylor, 1994) provided by such operations. This disparity is reflected by comments from visitors regarding the highlights and lowlights of their experience. The factors of viewing species in a natural/wild environment and general education were comments mentioned relatively frequently across the three sub-samples. However, despite this there were substantial differences in stated highlights and lowlights between the sub-samples. This indicates that, in many cases, individual operations provide distinctive experiences which yield varying outcomes for visitors. Therefore, these results generally support the notion that the scope of ecotourism in New Zealand should be increased to acknowledge the sector’s diversity, as suggested by Higham and Lück (2002). Results from this study confirm that, for the majority of visitors, elements relating to the environment form the basis of their experience. As Garrod and Fennell (2004) note, evaluating the performance of ecotourism operations is complicated by differences between different international locations. In the context of New Zealand it is likely that most international visitors will be at least partially attracted by the natural environment; as implied by evidence from prior research upon visitor demand (Diamantis, 1999; Juric et al., 1996). But more specific variation does exist, which is influenced by the context of the operations examined in this research (described above). Such diversity of experiences available within New Zealand should be viewed as a strength for, and of added value to the ecotourism sector. Visitors to small-scale operations mentioned slightly broader highlights (e.g. holistic or ecosystem-specific) than others who mentioned highlights which were more narrowly-focused (e.g. species-specific). Such comments were likely influenced by the nature of the visitor mix, as larger operators may believe that providing diverse audiences with anything other than basic interpretative information represents too great a challenge. Perhaps the larger operations could aim to broaden this focus to inform visitors about the wider ecologies of the setting involved (Fox, 1984 in Acott, Trobe & Howard, 1998; Forestell, 1993; Higham & Carr, 2003b). In this way, such operations should endeavour to promote implicit connections between their visitors and nature, thus raising the likelihood that participants will be stimulated to act in the interests of the environment (Palmberg & Kuru, 2000; Schultz et al., 2004). Many also contend that ecotourism should not occur in protected areas as these locations, by definition, warrant protection from development and tourism is a form of development (Bushell, 2003; Wearing & Neil, 1999). Ecotourism experiences within large-scale operations which are located in, or near urban areas can potentially satisfy the motivations and preferences of many visitors as effectively as experiences within more environmentally sensitive settings. Thus, if large-scale businesses can offer an ecotourism experience successfully promoting a connection with nature, some demand for experiences within protected or sensitive areas may be diverted.

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Design of Program

The Affective Domain

Curiosity

Motivation to Act

Opportunity to Act

Feedback

Effectiveness Assessment

4.3.2 Environmental education This research indicates that as the scale of businesses decreases, operators are in a better position to interact with visitors and potentially implement successful education programmes (see Figure 4.2). However, it is asserted that visitors with the lowest levels of environmental consciousness need to be motivated to be further involved in learning about the environment if values and attitudes are to be altered in the long term (Beaumont, 2001). Such visitors are most likely to be found at the larger operations within this research. It is worthy of note that respondents from the large-scale sub-sample placed the greatest importance upon operations’ environmental goals, suggesting that they may be open to environmental education within their experience. Thus, education initiatives undertaken at such businesses must be carefully planned and implemented according to opportunities and challenges presented by the specific operational context.

Figure 4.2 Conceptual effect of scale of business and visitor mix upon depth of education This study constitutes the ‘effectiveness assessment’ component of Orams’ (1997) ‘features of an effective education programme for tourism’ model (see Figure 4.3 below). This allows for feedback in the design of such programmes, offering potentially useful information for ecotourism operators within New Zealand. Many consider environmental education a defining feature of ecotourism (Blamey, 2001; Blamey & Braithwaite, 1997; Higham & Carr, 2002b). It is suggested that such learning experiences can foster a rapport with nature and amend visitor behaviour in order to minimise on-site impact and encourage lifestyles of long-term environmental benefit (Beaumont, 2001; Buckley, 2003; Chin, Moore, Wallington & Dowling, 2000; Forestell, 1993; Higham & Carr, 2002b).

Figure 4.3 Features of an effective education programme for tourism (Orams, 1997)

Visitor Mix Depth of Education Provision

Scal

e of

Bus

ines

s

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In New Zealand conservation advocacy is argued to be an essential element of the ecotourism sector (Higham & Carr, 2003b) and tourists at such sites wish to learn about the subject of their experience (Lück, 2000). If operators wish to educate their visitors on matters of environmental relevance, it is important that they also implement internal mechanisms for feedback in situations where programme effectiveness is not clearly obvious. This would allow operators to optimise what is presented to visitors in terms of environmental education. The scale of business tends to influence the nature of visitor education implemented at these operations. Specifically, operators perceive that they have differing abilities to interact with their visitors. This is clearly tied to both the demographic variation and the variation in product offered as noted in Section 4.4.1 above. The operators within this study noted the particular effect that these two factors had upon the depth of visitor education opportunities. Such factors reinforce the fact that people take different approaches to learning, and that numerous other variables combine to inhibit effective education within ecotourism (Higham, 1998; Orams, 1996; 1997; Stein, Denny & Pennisi, 2003). It is concluded that the businesses attracting greater visitor numbers felt that interacting with tour participants was more difficult than the smaller businesses (see Figure 4.2, page 25). One of the large-scale businesses (Operator H) has recently developed a more intensive tour option which involves much smaller groups than those partaking in their other product. In this way, the operator is segregating visitors according to specialisation, with participants in the more intensive tour enjoying closer interaction with guides and the ability to ask questions. Such a management approach which potentially matches visitor expectations more closely with what they actually encounter is likely to improve the overall visitor experience. As in modern schooling whereby pupils are often segregated based on their ability, perhaps there are lessons that can be learnt from adopting such an approach more widely within ecotourism. This type of management strategy would seem especially applicable to larger ecotourism operations. Results from the visitor survey confirm the perceptions of operators. Respondents from small and medium sub-samples rated the quality of interpretation or staff higher than visitors to the large-scale businesses. In addition, visitors from small-scale operations felt they were more challenged to learn than visitors to the other operations. The issue of whether educational (cognitive) or experiential (affective) factors forms the basis of ecotourism experiences is relevant here (Ryan, Hughes & Chirgwin, 2000; Ryan & Saward, 2004). It could be argued that these findings indicate the importance of educational factors decreases relative to experiential factors as scale of business increases. This questions whether previously developed, hardened sites can be used for ecotourism, possibly easing pressure on natural or protected areas (Chirgwin, 2005; Chirgwin & Hughes, 1997; Weaver, 1999). Many visitors to urban ecotourism locations, such as zoos or wildlife parks, are suggested to be more ‘generalist’ (Duffus & Dearden, 1990) presenting a valuable opportunity for mass education (Higginbottom et al., 2003; Higham & Lück, 2002). In such circumstances, less direct interpretation may be more useful in providing environmental information to those more casual ecotourists (Stein et al., 2003). In addition, higher visitor numbers at such locations can raise the sophistication of interpretive facilities, due to the higher economies of scale present (Weaver, 2001). It seems logical that in the case of the small-scale operations the education of visitors should warrant a higher priority than within the larger businesses. This represents a relatively cost-effective means of contributing to conservation, and such small-scale businesses are well positioned to implement such activities.

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4.3.3 Operator/visitor interaction The amount and quality of interaction between operation staff and visitors is clearly influenced by the scale of business concerned. This is important, as previous research has found the guide can positively influence the visitor experience in an ecotourism setting (Forestell, 1993; Higham & Carr, 2002b; 2003a; 2003b; Reynolds & Braithwaite, 2001; Schanzel & McIntosh, 2000). In this study however, chi-square analysis did not reveal a relationship between interaction with staff or guides and overall visitor satisfaction. The general variation in terms of visitor mix and the nature of the product offered (discussed in Section 4.3.1) affects the degree to which operators feel they can cater to the needs of individual visitors. Large-scale operators explicitly mentioned that this issue poses a considerable challenge. The duration of the experience and group size are variables playing a key role in this instance. In this study, some dissonance exists between operator perceptions and the visitor perspective, although there is wider variation of responses within the large-scale sub-sample than the others. However, it is argued that planning for ecotourism requires an understanding of visitor preferences, motivations and needs (Meric & Hunt, 1998; Pearce & Wilson, 1995). Such discord between operators’ perception of visitor needs and their actual needs has also been identified elsewhere (McKercher, 2001). The level of interaction with staff or guides desired by visitors decreases as the scale of business increases; perhaps reflecting realistic pre-purchase expectations held by visitors, or specific preferences held by visitors prior to their experience. This may also lend weight to the notion that for participants in large-scale ecotourism experiences, experiential factors outweigh factors associated with learning. This adds to the argument that education is important to ecotourism participants (Bottrill & Pearce, 1995), but this research demonstrates that there are numerous factors involved in the ecotourism experience which potentially contribute to overall visitor satisfaction. As the scale of business increases, operations are gradually more challenged to strike a balance between initiating too much or too little interaction with visitors. While variations in responses do exist, it is noteworthy that of the three sub-samples, the large-scale operations seem closest to achieving this balance. Given these research findings, larger ecotourism operations could afford to concentrate less upon personal interaction with visitors, as visitors to these businesses feel that the level of operator/visitor interaction is appropriate overall. This perhaps indicates that ecotourism operations can exist in a more ‘passive’, larger scale than is often prescribed (Blamey, 2001; Bottrill & Pearce, 1995). A reduced focus upon direct operator/visitor interaction could be offset by putting more resources into the development of static and interactive interpretive facilities. It is suggested that in such situations learning opportunities may be facilitated which foster informal personal appreciation of, and interaction with, the environment (Fennell & Weaver, 2005) rather than via direct interaction with staff or a guide (Stein et al., 2003). On the other hand, respondents from small- and medium-scale businesses generally felt they received more interaction than they wanted, or expected. This suggests that visitors within the two smaller sub-samples may prefer more independence and freedom from the attention of staff or guides than they receive at present. This represents a challenging management issue for such operators, but in this study it does not appear to adversely affect overall visitor satisfaction. In fact overall satisfaction was higher for these two sub-samples compared with the large-scale businesses (mean scores of 4.63 versus 4.50 out of 5).

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4.4 Ecotourism & environmental change Across the sample visitors approved of the impact management and conservation activities undertaken by these operations. This is significant as it is asserted that profit and conservation should be balanced because each can reinforce the other in the long term (Wight, 1993). Additionally, a central argument for ecotourism is that it can provide economic resources for conservation purposes (Boo, 1993; Chin et al., 2000). It is reasonable to say that only businesses demonstrating a contribution to conservation in proportion to their size should claim to offer an ecotourism product (Buckley, 2003). If this assertion is deemed valid, it appears that the operations in this study fulfil this requirement. This is a positive finding and indicates that, generally speaking, these operations represent good examples for others in the New Zealand ecotourism sector to follow. Several of the operators possess substantial environmental goals, but all are realistic about what they aim to achieve in their relationship with the environment. This is particularly the case with their direct conservation activities and the environmental education of visitors. The businesses refute the claims of some that ecotourism simply represents a new marketing tactic for the wider tourism industry (Orams, 1995b; Ross & Wall, 1999; Wheeller, 1993). Indeed, the businesses studied here appear to successfully balance the satisfaction of visitors with the protection of the local resource base. International visitors are likely to come to New Zealand regardless of the nature of the national tourism product; although the nature of the product offered may affect the types of tourists attracted. Offering environmentally sensitive activities and experiences is therefore preferential to products or experiences which may instigate negative environmental change. This simultaneously matches the current 100% Pure New Zealand overseas marketing campaign which highlights the country’s iconic natural attributes (Tourism New Zealand, 2006). Similarly to Higham and Carr (2002a) there are differences in the ratio of international to domestic visitors between the sub-samples, with a greater proportion of domestic visitors (38.9%) within the large-scale sub-sample than for the other businesses. Arguably, New Zealand ecotourism operations should target domestic to a greater degree than international visitors, if they are to be truly considered ecotourism; owing to the level of resource consumption presumably required to travel to New Zealand from overseas. Visitors tend to recognise the efforts of the operators regarding their relationship with the natural environment. This should perhaps convince ecotourism operators that by taking a nature-centred approach a stable market would exist for the products they offer (Butler, 1991). Environmental impact management by these businesses was rated as effective overall. The fact that this rating varied little by scale provides additional evidence that, from a visitor perspective, all of these operators make a reasonable attempt to operate in an environmentally sustainable manner. This finding corresponds to past research conducted by Higham and Carr (2003b). A majority of visitors providing a positive or neutral environmental effect by the operation concerned further confirms this; again there was little variation based on scale. However, it should be acknowledged that while tourists play an important role in evaluating an attraction or business (Hillery, Nancarrow, Griffin & Syme, 2001), many dimensions of impact exist which they may be unqualified to judge (Honey & Stewart, 2002). This should be considered whenever visitor opinions are sought. The fact that visitor perceptions altered little in terms of scale strengthens the argument that an operation’s environmental sensitivity depends on management effectiveness applied based on context, not simply on scale (Steele, 1995; Weaver, 1999; 2001). Moreover, in the case of the large-scale businesses in this study what is often described as ‘soft’ ecotourism seems to be just as conducive to sustainable results as ‘hard’ ecotourism on a small scale (Fennell & Weaver, 2005). This is particularly true in this instance where

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significant contributions to conservations are made, especially by the larger operations. It is also interesting that a proportion of respondents from the large-scale operations mentioned the conservation activities (10%) or the minimal impact of the business (5.3%) as highlights of their experience. While tourism can potentially damage environments, a key finding of this research is that it can also be a force for protection as evidenced by the activities of many businesses here. Similar conclusions have also been made elsewhere (Dowling, 1992; Hughes, 2002; Wild, 1994). It is argued that large-scale operators should focus upon direct contributions to conservation via their activities and financial donations. These businesses are in a stronger position than smaller-scale operations to adopt such an approach, while continuing to pursue less direct forms of visitor education. However, visitors can be provided with reasons why they should consider their environmental behaviour (Orams, 1995b), a straightforward way in which to prompt interest in ecological issues and potentially raise their environmental consciousness. Such operations are also encouraged to provide more interactive material in their interpretation programmes (Tubb, 2003), which they are expected to be able to do owing to their larger visitor base (Weaver, 2001). On the whole, visitor satisfaction is very high with minimal variation between different scales. Similarly, respondents were very likely to recommend their experience to others. Maintaining the quality of the visitor experience and the resource base is equally important; while businesses maximising visitor satisfaction and causing minimum environmental impacts are noted to be the most desirable (Boyd & Butler, 1996; Kuo, 2002; Reynolds & Braithwaite, 2001). It is suggested that people enjoying a high quality experience in nature will be more willing to pay fees to maintain the area in question (Ross & Wall, 1999). This indicates that some truth may lie in the contention that ecotourism experiences in urban settings could ease pressure on more natural areas elsewhere, by providing experiences sought by ecotourists (Chirgwin, 2005; Weaver, 1999). Overall, the results of this research potentially place all of these operators in a strong position to provide conservation advocacy, undertake direct conservation activities and/or act as intermediaries for environmental donations. However, the relative emphasis they place upon each factor will depend on their particular context, in particular the scale of their business.

4.5 Section summary The demographic variation of visitors increases as the scale of business increases. These operators hold comparable environmental goals and their visitors consider these goals important, with importance increasing as scale increases. However, small and large-scale businesses in particular would do well to improve the communication of their environmental goals to prospective visitors. Larger operators should also seek to broaden the focus of the experience provided to inform visitors about the ecologies of the setting involved, potentially diverting some demand for experiences within more sensitive areas. The smaller the business, the better operators are positioned to interact with visitors and implement successful education programmes. Less direct interpretation may prove more useful for more casual ecotourists at larger operations. Smaller ecotourism operations should focus upon education as a cost-effective means of contributing to conservation as they are well positioned to implement such activities. This study clearly finds the amount and quality of operator/visitor interaction to be affected by scale of business. Interestingly, the large-scale operations seem closest to achieving a balance between too little and too much interaction with visitors, while visitors within the two smaller sub-samples would prefer more independence from staff or guides.

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The results suggest that an operation’s environmental sensitivity depends on management effectiveness applied based on context, not simply on scale. It seems appropriate that large-scale operators focus upon direct contributions to conservation via their activities and financial donations. Operators perceive visitor satisfaction to be high, which is confirmed by visitors, with little variation based on scale. It may be that large-scale ecotourism in more developed settings provides experiences sought by ecotourists, thereby easing pressure on other more natural sites.

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5.0 Conclusions

5.1 Introduction This study investigated the nature of New Zealand ecotourism to identify how some of the issues described within the literature match the situational reality within this sector. New Zealand represents an ideal setting for successful ecotourism to develop and ecotourism is capable of setting the standard for the wider national tourism industry in terms of environmental management. New Zealand ecotourism has been reported to be a diverse sector, both in terms of supply and demand (Higham & Carr, 2002b; Warren & Taylor, 1994). However, despite its significance, some crucial aspects of ecotourism experiences have been largely under-researched, which resulted in calls for further investigation regarding the experiences offered by New Zealand ecotourism operators, as well as a better understanding of the demand for such experiences (Juric et al., 1996; Pearce & Wilson, 1995; Warren & Taylor, 1994). This research has addressed the ecotourism-environment relationship principally on the basis of scale of business. Within this section the key research questions are addressed by providing key results and conclusions. This is followed by several recommendations arising from this study which would be of potential future benefit to the ecotourism sector in New Zealand. Some suggestions for areas of future research in ecotourism are also provided, and the section finishes with some brief closing comments.

5.2 Addressing the key research questions

5.2.1 Environmental goals of operators All of the ecotourism operators included in this research held similar motivations regarding environmental management. They were all realistic about what they seek to achieve in terms of environmental goals, although the practice of planning became more important as the scale of business increased. The large-scale operators intended to improve the way in which they interact with visitors in the future, while the small-scale operators considered their current approaches to be effective. In particular, large-scale operators noted that improving local community involvement and ownership represents a future priority. Some variation exists between the different businesses in terms of how well profit is balanced with conservation, especially as this balance must also take visitor satisfaction into account. The general dedication to environmentally sensitive management demonstrated by these operations bodes well for the future development of the sector in New Zealand. The businesses sampled here refuted the claim that ecotourism simply represents a new marketing tactic for the wider tourism industry (Hall, 1994; Ross & Wall, 1999; Wheeller, 1992). All of the operators aimed to provide some degree of visitor education, although demographic and product variation influenced the depth of interaction and education opportunities available. The smaller operators aimed to lead by example in terms of conservation advocacy, while larger operators acknowledge the constraints placed upon their interaction with visitors. Communication with visitors therefore holds differing priorities for the businesses within this study.

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5.2.2 Strategies employed to achieve environmental goals Previous research has found appropriate approaches for ecotourism management to be unclear, owing to an insufficient understanding of both tourist behaviour and environmental processes. It is asserted, however, that profit and conservation should be balanced in order that they reinforce each other in the long term (Wight, 1993). There is a general recognition amongst these operators that environmental management strategies command central importance and that resource protection lies in their own best interest. Results indicate that the businesses studied here made direct contributions to conservation which seems to appropriately match their scale. All the operations have either direct or indirect links with DoC, with most having a strong relationship. A key finding of this research is that while tourism can potentially damage natural environments, it can also be a force for protection when developed appropriately according to context. One medium-scale operation typifies this by actually reducing visitor numbers in order to minimise detrimental environmental change. Therefore, the operations included in this research arguably represent positive examples for other members of the New Zealand ecotourism sector to follow. There are assertions that ecotourism planning requires an understanding of visitor preferences, motivations and needs (Meric & Hunt, 1998; Pearce & Wilson, 1995). This study demonstrates that the nature of visitor market(s) influences the ecotourism-environment relationship. Specifically, differences in the visitor mix and tour characteristics have implications for the depth of environmental education possible and the conservation activities undertaken by ecotourism operators. While all of these operators understand the importance of meeting visitor expectations, the businesses attracting higher visitor numbers consider interacting with individuals more difficult than the smaller businesses. However, across the sample little formal assessment of the effectiveness of environmental education or visitor satisfaction was undertaken by operators. This raises the possibility of future research into the perspective of visitors to be undertaken by operators in the sector and/or academics interested in the field of ecotourism.

5.2.3 Visitor response to operator goals & strategies Given what these operators are seeking to achieve in terms of both environmental management and the visitor experience, it was pertinent to investigate how their clients reacted to such goals and strategies. As the scale of business increased visitors considered the operations’ environmental goals increasingly important. Crucially, the majority of visitors believed they received insufficient information regarding these goals, particularly in the case of visitors to the small- and large-scale businesses. This indicates that dissonance exists between visitor needs, and operator perception of these needs. However, in terms of actual environmental performance, the majority of the total sample rated the environmental management undertaken by these operations as effective. Visitors to the small-scale businesses rated empathy with the environment slightly higher than visitors to the other businesses. When visitors were asked to indicate their perceptions of the operations’ relationship with the environment, the top nine overall responses reported a positive or neutral effect upon the environment. In addition, visitor perception of effective environmental management varied little according to the scale of business concerned. This serves to justify the argument that an operation’s environmental sensitivity depends on management effectiveness applied based on context, not simply on scale (Steele, 1995; Weaver, 1999; 2001). Regarding the operator/visitor relationship, visitors to the large-scale operations were more likely to enjoy an appropriate level of interaction with staff or guides than visitors to the smaller businesses. This suggests that more realistic expectations may have been held by such visitors regarding their interaction with staff or guides. The results indicate that as scale of business decreases, operators are in a better position to interact

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with tour participants and potentially implement successful education programmes, owing to a more specialised visitor market. Ironically though, respondents from the small- and medium-scale businesses felt they were involved in too much interaction with staff or guides overall. However, visitors to small-scale operations felt they were more challenged to learn than other visitors. Interestingly, slightly broader (e.g. holistic) highlights of the experience were mentioned by small-scale visitors compared to other visitors whose highlights tended to be more focused (e.g. species-specific). In addition, the quality of staff or guides was perceived to be higher at small- and medium-scale operations than at the larger businesses. From the research findings it could be concluded that, for visitors, the importance of educational factors decreases relative to experiential factors as the scale of business increases.

5.2.4 Improving the operator-visitor-environment relationship The final key research question sought to identify ways in which the ecotourism-environment relationship can be improved. This entailed the analysis of both operator and visitor perspectives to understand where inconsistencies exist and how they can be successfully managed in the future. If environmental marketing and commitment to environmentally sensitive action is the ideal, it is argued that visitors should be aware of the concern for natural resources both pre-purchase and during the experience (Wight, 1993). This does not appear to consistently be the case within this study. Operators, especially small- and large-scale ones, would potentially improve the overall visitor experience by improving the communication of environmental goals to prospective clients. As the size of an ecotourism business increases, operators are increasingly challenged to strike a balance between initiating too much or too little interaction with visitors. Environmental education should constitute a high priority for small-scale businesses as they are well positioned to develop such an approach, and this represents a cost-effective means of contributing to conservation. However, in the case of the small-scale businesses in this study, visitors may prefer more independence and freedom from staff or guides than received at present. This represents a challenging management issue for operators and necessitates a clearer understanding to be developed between operators and clients at the outset of the experience. On the other hand, it seems that large-scale operations should concentrate upon direct contributions to conservation via their activities and financial donations. Such businesses are in a stronger position to adopt such an approach, while continuing to pursue less direct forms of visitor education. A reduced focus upon direct visitor interaction by these businesses could be offset by putting more resources into the development of static and interactive interpretive facilities; an approach recommended by Tubb (2003) and Weaver (2001). Less direct interpretation in such operations where a greater variation in visitor mix exists may be more appropriate for these visitors (Stein et al., 2003). Larger operations could also broaden the focus of information provision, without necessarily increasing the amount, in order to promote implicit connections between tour participants and nature. Experiences within large-scale operations located in, or near urban areas can potentially satisfy many visitors as effectively as experiences within more environmentally sensitive settings. According to such a scenario, there would be a reduction in visitor pressure brought to bear upon more natural environmental locations potentially less able to cope. Any education initiatives need to be planned and implemented according to operational context; especially in the case of larger ecotourism businesses. Where the effectiveness of educational programmes is unclear, internal mechanisms for feedback should be established. This should be a priority for any ecotourism business and would allow such programmes to be tailored both to the nature of the activity and the particular visitor market(s) attracted.

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5.3 Recommendations It is important to concentrate upon constantly improving the environmental sensitivity of what is offered to visitors to ecotourism operations. This goes hand-in-hand with a continued integration of national tourism promotional goals and the aspirations of the New Zealand ecotourism sector. Further development of this sector may also be aided by the formation of an ecotourism council, or similar, which reflects the diverse nature of the New Zealand sector. This would allow for coordination of future research and lobbying; networking and dialogue sharing of successes and failures; and the potential for coordinated marketing activities. Establishing and highlighting complementary ecotourism products or experiences within New Zealand may also lead to greater cohesion and cooperation within the sector in the future. Larger ecotourism operations should aim to move from a narrow, specific focus of interpretation to more holistic, ecosystem-specific information provision. This would potentially lead to richer environmental education for visitors, without necessarily providing more information for them to digest. Those businesses attracting high visitor numbers may also benefit from adopting a process enabling more regular feedback from their visitors. This would provide the opportunity for appraisal of the visitor experience, and would allow for consistent development of elements of the product in a positive direction. Ecotourism can potentially set the standard for the wider New Zealand tourism industry in terms of environmental sustainability. It is likely that a market for small-scale ecotourism operations will continue to exist within this country. However, the potential influence of such businesses upon both the demand- and supply-sides of the tourism industry is limited, largely as a result of the restricted numbers of visitors participating in such experiences. Therefore, the continued development of large-scale (urban) ecotourism businesses should be a future focus. At the national level there is a need for a supply-side focus to strengthen the sector’s future development. The development of large-scale, urban ecotourism should represent a future goal as numerous potential benefits would result. Such operations tend to satisfy a broad range of tourists, and appear to cater to a proportion of the domestic market. Urban ecotourism businesses can act as a tool which simultaneously ‘greens’ urban areas and reduces the environmental footprint of tourism by reducing average distance travelled by such tourists and utilising ‘hardened’ settings. This would lead to a net benefit for society.

5.4 Future research directions Research initiatives in the future could undertake an examination of the nature of visitor learning, both pre- and post-experience at New Zealand ecotourism operations. This would provide more detailed conclusions as to the effectiveness of environmental education programmes in the sector, as well as where and how this effectiveness varies. It would be of particular value if future studies could identify successful approaches to implementing such programmes, as well as raising awareness of potential pitfalls that may exist, especially in the New Zealand context. Through the dissemination of such research findings, the effectiveness of environmental education programmes within the national ecotourism sector could be developed. This study has investigated how operators say they undertake environmental management, and how visitors perceive these approaches. Key questions to arise from the present research include; how could the environmental performance of individual ecotourism businesses be improved, are operators really protecting their focal environments effectively, or could they be making a greater effort? Therefore, there exists an opportunity for future research to audit New Zealand ecotourism operations in greater detail regarding their environmental performance. Such an audit may lead to the development of a nationally recognised award

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which highlights examples of this kind of exemplary performance, potentially assisting development of the sector towards increased environmental sensitivity. Within this research, a snapshot of the ecotourism sector has been provided which is static in time. Owing to the changeable nature of ecotourism and tourism generally, it is important that further research is undertaken which reassesses the state of the ecotourism sector. If insights into ecotourism in New Zealand in the future are achieved, the research presented here and previous research to date can act as a foundation for comparison. An understanding of how different aspects of this sector change over time within New Zealand will likely place operators and managers in a better position to foresee and react effectively to other potential changes as and when they occur. An investigation of the potential for non-travellers to engage in ecotourism experiences may also provide useful insights. Such research could sample citizens from New Zealand or elsewhere in the world. Studying tourists engaging in other tourism experiences in New Zealand may also provide useful information in relation to ecotourism. If such travellers were asked questions regarding their interest and/or past experience in ecotourism experiences, this would lead to a greater understanding of the nature of demand for such products. Such an understanding would contribute to future planning and management within the New Zealand ecotourism sector. The findings of such research would also act to further illuminate the trip characteristics of ecotourism participants in this country; in particular the extent to which engaging in ecotourism is simply one component of a multi-purpose holiday.

5.5 Closing remarks The ideal scenario is that the natural environment, operators and visitors all benefit through ecotourism. The operations studied here seem to achieve a balance between visitor satisfaction and protection of their local resource base. Therefore, this provides evidence that such a scenario is realistic and ecotourism does not simply represent a marketing gimmick. These research findings imply that the scope of ecotourism in New Zealand should be widened to acknowledge this sector’s diversity, as demonstrated here and elsewhere. Overall, these businesses appear to be in a strong position to provide conservation advocacy, undertake direct conservation activities and/or act as intermediaries for environmental donations. However, as long as there is discord between operator perceptions of visitor needs and actual visitor preferences and expectations further work is needed. The central importance of context is a constant theme to arise out of this research. This makes recommending failsafe best practice strategies problematic. However, this study provides some suggestions to assist the successful future development of ecotourism in New Zealand. It is likely that visitors to the operations examined here will become increasingly critical. They are likely to become more concerned about their ‘environmental footprint’, more worried about environmental impacts generally, more critical of interpretation and education programmes and take a greater interest in direct contributions to conservation. Concurrently, it is also probable that visitor markets to such operations will become more diversified in terms of prior experience and expectations. While the current research provides insights into the contemporary challenges associated with mediating the ecotourism-environment relationship, it is important to remember that this relationship is a dynamic one. Operators must be committed and enabled to working individually and collectively to understanding and responding to this relationship as it inevitably continues to change in the future.

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