towards resilient and sustainable cities: a conceptual...

Scientia Iranica A (2016) 23(5), 2081{2093

Sharif University of TechnologyScientia Iranica

Transactions A: Civil Engineeringwww.scientiairanica.com

Research Note

Towards resilient and sustainable cities: A conceptualframework

M. Tabibiana;� and S. Movahedb

a. Department of Urban Planning, University of Tehran, Iran.b. Department of Urbanism, Qazvin Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qazvin, Iran.

Received 1 September 2015; received in revised form 6 February 2016; accepted 30 May 2016

KEYWORDSResilience;Sustainability;Mashhad City;Water resources.

Abstract. Cities are complex and dynamic meta-systems in which technological andsocial components interact with each other. A variety of hazards threaten cities; thus,planning for resilience in the face of urban disaster is important. We are just beginning torealize the scope and magnitude of the challenges inherent in making our cities resilient tothreats from natural hazards and terrorism. To meet these challenges, a national resilient-cities initiative aims at the vision of the resilient city as the goal that covers all typesof hazard mitigation. To succeed, this initiative will require changes in national disasterpolicy, funding for urban systems research, support for advanced education program, andactive collaboration among the city professions. One of the natural hazards to which citiesshould be resilient is drought that is resulted from climate change. The city of Mashhad,which has faced water crisis in recent years, is selected as a case study. By analyzing thestatus of water resources and their changes during the periods of growth and development ofthe city, its function in resilience and sustainability is measured. Also, necessary strategiesfor improving the water resources condition in order for the city to become resilient andsustainable are proposed.© 2016 Sharif University of Technology. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

With the September 11, 2001 attacks, New York Citysustained an iconic urban systemic shock. Three yearsafter the monumental storm of Hurricane Katrina, onlyan estimated two thirds of the pre-Katrina populationhas remained and large areas of the city sit vacant.New Orleans as a whole is struggling to develop thecapacity to adapt and to rebound [1]. While these twoexamples might not seem comparable, they both pointto the importance of designing cities that are resilient.

Rapid urbanization and growing mega-cities pointto a need for smarter and more resilient cities thatpossess the capacity to withstand the shocks of popula-

*. Corresponding author.E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Tabibian);[email protected] (S. Movahed)

tion growth, world economic crises, rapid demographicshifts in population, and environmental catastrophes.In addition, resilience must also be displayed in termsof events that have a more long-term horizon, suchas when we see cities in decline. Cities are com-plex and interdependent systems, extremely vulnerableto threats from both natural hazards and terrorism.The very features that make cities feasible and de-sirable, i.e. their architectural structures, populationconcentrations, place of assembly, and interconnectedinfrastructure systems, put them at a high risk to oods, earthquakes, hurricanes, and terrorist attacks.Increasing support for the notion of resilient cities isfound in the hazard mitigation literature. Godschalket al. [2] proposed a sustainable mitigation policysystem whose goal was to develop resilient communitiescapable of managing extreme events. Many otherrecent disaster studies also call for the development

2082 M. Tabibian and S. Movahed/Scientia Iranica, Transactions A: Civil Engineering 23 (2016) 2081{2093

of resilient communities. Beatly [3] notes that a sus-tainable community is resilient-seeking to understandand live with the physical and environmental forcespresent at its location. Vale and Campanella [4]explore the historical meanings of resilience and ur-ban trauma. Despite such interest in the conceptof resilient communities, few studies have formulatedsystematic principles of resilience and applied themat city scale. Regarding the above statements, it isessential to understand why a city must be resilientand how cities, as complex systems, can be resilient.Building capacity for resilience may be a dauntingtask when one considers the multitude of components,processes, and interactions that take place withinand beyond physical, logical, and virtual (cyberspace)boundaries of a city. The main aim of this paper isto introduce a conceptual framework for launching thenational initiative of a resilient city. This frameworkentails changes in national disaster policy; funding forbasic and applied urban systems research; support foradvanced education program; and active collaborationamong the city planning, design, and constructionprofessions. In order to achieve the main objective ofthe research, the concept of resilient city, its impor-tance, and its relationship with other concepts such assustainability are discussed. By explaining the urbanresilience and sustainability framework, the dimensionsof these concepts are determined. Therefore, theenvironmental dimension as one of the common aspectsof these concepts has been selected for review in thisarticle. This research concentrates on natural resourcesconservation as a signi�cant issue in the environmentaldimension of resilience and sustainability. Hence,resilience of Mashhad against drought through theassessment of its water resources as a part of naturalresources is analyzed as a case study. Finally, theanalysis results of three objects; i.e., the relationshipbetween resilience and sustainability; Mashhad waterresources; and the relationship between water resourcesmanagement, urban sustainability, and resilience; arediscussed.

2. Methodology

2.1. DelimitationFor determining the study limits, the current researchconsidered only one of the main elements of resilientand sustainable cities, i.e. their environmental aspect.While other dimensions of resilience and sustainabilityare proposed, environmental dimension is consideredmore carefully in the research process because of theimportance of ecological issues of cities.

2.2. OperationalizationIn order to implement the concepts and principlesextracted from the literature survey in the second

section, water resources and natural water circlesare considered as one of the main proposed issuesin environmental dimension and for achieving urbansustainability and resiliency. The following factors areevaluated as e�ective variables on water resources ofMashhad:

1. Growth and development of the city;2. Impermeable surface;3. Drainage patterns;4. Water basin exit;5. Springs, aqueducts, and wells.

2.3. MaterialThe current research can be divided into two sectionsregarding methodology; the �rst section was donethrough a descriptive and analytic method. Throughperforming a library study, reviewing literature, andanalyzing di�erent views about resilient and sustain-able cities, required information about all features andrelations between these concepts were gathered. Inthe second section, required information about thesituation of Mashhad City and its water resources wasgathered through �eld studies and referring to therelated organizations. Thorough statistical analysis ofachieved information, hydrological state of this city(maintenance of water resources and circles) and itsrole in sustainability and resiliency were measured.Therefore, through scrutinizing the relation betweensustainability and resiliency and analyzing the princi-ples proposed in them, the intention of this research,unlike other articles that are based on theoreticaldiscussions, is to analyze achieved information in thegiven case study and �nd practical strategies.

3. About resilient and sustainable cities

3.1. What is a resilient city?When resilience is the aim, it is crucial to understandwhat the term means and what a resilient city shouldcomprise. As may be expected, there are manyde�nitions of a resilient city, ranging from very narrowto very broad, re ecting di�erent cultural values.

One feature that always seems to be presentis `strength'-making communities and cities strongeragainst establishing forces that put their citizens andstructures at risk. Generally, resilience is also linked tosustainability principles.

To the World Bank, for example, \a resilient cityis one that is prepared for existing and future impacts,thereby limiting their magnitude and severity".

The world Urban Forum's Vancouver WorkingGroup takes a more con�ned approach and links re-silience to the ability of a city to expand its productionbase (e.g. from depending on one industry to attractingand embracing a broader base and economy).

M. Tabibian and S. Movahed/Scientia Iranica, Transactions A: Civil Engineering 23 (2016) 2081{2093 2083

Yet, another de�nition links resilience directlyto peak oil and de�nes resilient cities as the cities\that can last, make through crises and possess innerstrength and resolve as well as appropriate built formand physical infrastructure" [5].

The European Environment Agency (EEA) sees aresilient city as an \urban ecosystem" that is dynamic;consuming, transforming, and releasing materials andenergy in an adaptive way and interacting with otherecosystems, tackling mitigation and adaptation e�orts,and addressing quality of life through better andgreener urban planning [6].

As a �nal and comprehensive approach, Inter-national Council for Local Environmental Initiatives(ICLEI) in the Bonn Resilient Cities Conference de�nesa resilient city as [7]:

� A city that supports the development of greaterresilience in its institutions, infrastructures, andsocial and economic life;

� Resilient cities reduce their vulnerability to extremeevents and respond creatively to economic, social,and environmental changes in order to increase theirlong-term sustainability;

� Resilient city activities are sensitive to distinctivelocal conditions and origins. E�orts undertakento prevent crisis or disaster in one area should bedesigned in such way as to advance the communityresilience and sustainable development in a numberof areas;

� Resilient cities de�ne a comprehensive `urban re-silience' concept and policy agenda with implica-tions in the �elds of urban governance, infrastruc-ture, �nance, design, social and economic develop-ment, and environmental resource management;

� Local resiliency with regard to disasters means thata locale is able to withstand an extreme naturalevent without su�ering devastating losses, damage,diminished productivity, or decline in quality oflife and without a large amount of assistance fromoutside the community [8];

� A resilient city is a sustainable network of physicalsystems and human communities.

Physical systems are the constructed and thenatural environmental components of the city. Thephysical system acts as the body of the city; its bones,arteries, and muscles. During a disaster, the physicalsystem must be able to survive and function underextreme stresses. A city without resilient physicalsystems will be extremely vulnerable to disasters.Human communities are the social and institutionalcomponents of the city. They include the formal andinformal, stable and ad hoc associations that operatein an urban area: schools, neighborhoods, agencies,

organizations, task force, and the like. In sum, thecommunities act as the brain of the city, directing itsactivities, responding to its needs, and learning from itsexperience. During a disaster, the community networksmust be able to survive and function under extreme andunique conditions. If they break down, decision makingfalters and response drags. Social and institutionalnetworks exhibit varying degrees of organization.

Resilient cities are constructed to be strong and exible, not brittle and fragile. The lifeline systems ofroads, utilities, and other support facilities are designedto continue functioning in the face of rising water, highwinds, shaking ground, and terrorist attacks.

3.2. Why is resilience important?Resilience is important for two reasons: First, becausethe vulnerability of technological and social systemscannot be predicted completely, resilience { the abilityto accommodate change gracefully and without catas-trophic failure { is critical in terms of disaster [9]. Ifwe knew exactly when, where, and how disaster wouldoccur in the future, we could engineer our systems toresist them. Since hazards planners must cope withuncertainty, it is necessary to design cities that cane�ectively cope with contingencies.

Second, people and property should fare better inresilient cities struck by disasters than in less exibleplaces faced with uncommon stress [10,11]. In resilientcities, fewer buildings should collapse, fewer poweroutages should occur, fewer households and businessshould be put at risk, fewer deaths and injuries shouldoccur, and fewer communications and co-ordinationbreakdowns should take place.

Some skeptics argue that the pursuit of com-munity resilience is laudable but unpractical using aconceptual framework based on the theoretical modelsof mitigation, recovery, and structural cognitive inter-action. Tobin [12] examined data from the State ofFlorida to assess the possibility of developing sustain-able, resilient communities, analyzing the state as awhole rather than considering any individual cities.Tobin concluded that major (unlikely) changes in po-litical awareness and motivation would be necessary toovercome obstacle to resiliency and sustainability fromFlorida's existing demographic traits, spatial patterns,and hazard conditions.

3.3. Qualities that characterize a sustainablecity

A sustainable city is one that is reducing its ecologicalfootprint, its resource consumption, land consumption,and waste production, whilst simultaneously improvingits quality of life (its health, housing, work opportunity,and livability). Thus, the three characteristics of asustainable city are [13]:

� The city \recognizes" there are real limits to its eco-


logical footprint that it cannot continue to expandits use of energy, water, and materials;

� The city sees its innovations in economic and socialdevelopment to be essential but not divorced fromthe need to reduce its footprint. Most programsmust do more for people with less from the earth;

� The city has a governance system that rewardsthe sustainability innovation which integrates thecontributions of the business, community, and gov-ernment. They rejoice in the creative expressionsof its artist in expanding sustainability sensitivitiesthat build its particular sustainability approacheson the identity and sense of place in the city andcommunicates it for all other cities to learn from.

4. Framework for resilience and sustainability

4.1. Resilience and /or sustainabilityResilience and sustainability are not mutually exclu-sive, but should be seen as powerful companions toshape both the future planning and daily managementof cities. Sustainability represents the end goal thatward-thinking cities are pursuing to secure a goodquality of life for all people, today and future, throughstrong and prosperous communities, a vibrant andstewardship of both local and global environmentalassets. Resilience works within the context of long-term sustainability objectives, but speci�cally em-braces the turbulence of daily life. Resilience is aboutlearning with the spectrum of risks that exists inthe interface between people, the economy, and theenvironment and in maintaining an acceptable stabilityor equilibrium in spite of continuously changing circum-stances. Resilience also addresses the independenciesbetween systems and minimizes unforeseen `gaps' inrisk management [14]. Therefore, system planning anddesign should seek to measure performance againstboth resilience and sustainability indicators.

There are two more points that a resilient cityneeds to take into consideration. One is that becomingresilient is a process that demands continual improve-ment and that, by de�nition, is an ever-evolving e�ort;this process is adaptive because it aims at a continualimprovement of the decisions taken (e.g., in rethinkingurban planning, in increasing local renewable energysupply, or in putting alert systems in operation) andthe action implemented. The second point that aresilient city needs to consider is that resiliency shouldbe embedded in the context of sustainability. Re-siliency solutions, which are largely addressed throughclimate change adaptation, climate change mitigation,and disaster risk reduction, need to contribute to theamelioration of environmental degradation and realitiesof poverty and inequality, as shown in Figure 1. Oth-erwise, solutions will not be e�ective in long term [15].

Figure 1. The context of resilience [15].

As Figure 1 shows, addressing disaster risk re-duces vulnerability, as do sustainable measures todeliver climate change (and mitigation, at least, in longterm). These two �elds { disaster risk managementand climate change adaptation { are becoming closerin their approaches, as disaster risk management movesto include, along with reaction, prevention as a majorobjective [16]. These e�orts enhance resilience ofa community or city (the second biggest ball) andthey contribute to sustainability and to the long-term prevalence of communities, cities, and humanbiodiversity, only if they are shaped with sustainabilitycriteria (the biggest ball).

4.2. The cost and bene�ts of being resilientThere is abundant literature on the economic costsand bene�ts of adaptation and mitigation, whereasthe cost of resilience remains more `obscure' and moredi�cult to de�ne. One smart way to reduce the needfor dedicated adaptation funding and to e�cientlyuse resources to reduce vulnerability in cities is toincorporate climate change, adaptation, and resiliencecriteria into present investments on urban �xed assets(many of which stem from private sector). The conceptof `resilience upgrading' looks for enhancing resilienceof the city by increasing its performance { its abilityto deliver a high quality of life and quality servicesto its residents [15]. Instead of approaching the topicof adaptation and disaster risk from the perspectiveof `escaping risks', it rather looks at the bene�ts thatsmart, climate-proof investments can deliver to the cityand to the service or product providers, as shown inFigure 2(a) and (b).

The European Union's 2020 strategy is centeredon growth. It aims to achieve smart growth, sustain-able growth, and inclusive growth; growth in a worldthat is dominated by unsustainable practices, wherethe global population depletes natural resources andecosystem services faster than the planet can replenishthem, as a major challenge. The symbolism used bythe global footprint network to describe the problemof growth and unsustainable use of resources is ane�ective way to transmit the message: Today, weconsume the resources equivalent to 1.5 planet earths {that is, it takes \the earth one year and six months to


Figure 2(a). Striking a balance between growth,sustainability, resilience, climate changeadaptation/mitigation, and disaster risk reduction [15].

Figure 2(b). Framework for resilience work at the locallevel [15].

regenerate what we used in a year" and to absorb thewaste we generate { and by year 2030, we are likely toneed two planet earths [17].

The complicated systems of cities and regionsneed management on various levels. To name buta few, the economy, the social sector, and personnelare all managed in one way or another. Managingtasks individually and sectorally, however, is mostoften ine�cient and leads to increased workload andweak results. Re-organizing and integrating existingpractices, plans, and strategies with one steering wheel,i.e. the Integrating Management System (IMS), willsystemize the work, boost e�ciency, and provide amultitude of positive outcomes. It will direct allavailable resources towards the goals de�ned and securethe transparency and democratic principles of deci-sion making. In the IMS, the unsuccessful e�ort inrunning several parallel management systems can betransformed into sustainability. The IMS consists of�ve major steps repeated in annual cycles. Althoughthe system follows an annual cycle, full revision will berequired once per election period, and preferably at theoutset [15].

4.3. Dimensions of resilience andsustainability

In recent years, di�erent studies have considered re-silience dimensions and the proposed criteria and prin-

ciples. Cutter et al. [18] proposed a series of indicesfor measuring basic features of communities consider-ing resilience improvement in 6 dimensions. UnitedNations University Institute of Advanced Studies [19]and Shari� and Yoshiki [20], respectively, explainedindices and criteria for developing resilience in its mainforming dimensions. Therefore, in Figure 3, whichis achieved by reviewing references and researcher'sprocesses, dimensions of resilience and the proposedindices in each dimension are listed for codifying ofurban resilience framework.

Di�erent research works can also be namedfor sustainability and its dimensions and factors.Bahreini [21] suggested the main issues in achievingsustainable urban development. Pourjafar et al. [22]and the Department of Economic and Social A�airs ofthe United Nations [23] also analyzed sustainable urbandevelopment and main factors of sustainability. Re-viewing sustainability literature shows their commonaspect in explaining main dimensions of sustainabilityaccording to Figure 4. Achieving sustainable citiesneeds combining �ve main factors: social developmentwith the aim of social justice, economic developmentwith the aim of economic survival, environmentalsustainability with the aim of ecological balance, or-ganizational development with the aim of planningintegration, and physical sustainability with the aimof morphological balance.

Comparative analysis of Figures 3 and 4, whichseparately demonstrate the main dimensions and themost important forming indicators of resilience andsustainability framework, can lead to common aspectsof resilience and sustainability. As it is observedin the given �gures, economic, social, environmental,and organizational dimensions are the most importantdimensions for regulating a framework for resilientand sustainable cities. In this research, environmentaldimension has been selected as the most importantfactor which resiliency and sustainability emphasize.This study focuses on the state of water resourcesas a part of the environmental dimension in Mash-had.

5. Case study: Mashhad

Mashhad is the second large city of Iran, covering328 km2, located in Mashhad Plain and KashfroodBasin between mountain chains of Kopehdagh andHezarmasjed in northern areas and Binaloud altitudesin southern areas. This city has been developingrapidly and vastly in the recent decades [24]. Fig-ure 5 shows geographical details of this region and itssurrounding altitudes.

One of the most important e�ective factors onurban water resources is rapid and widespread growthand development of cities. The analysis of demographic


Figure 3. Urban resilience framework.

Figure 4. Urban sustainability framework.

changes and physical development of Mashhad, asshown in Figure 6, indicates that unplanned rapidgrowth of this city in the recent decades (1956-2011)has caused environmental crisis, especially in the caseof surface and underground water resources.

5.1. Mashhad growth and developmentanalysis

As Table 1 and Figure 7 show, and according to the�rst formal census in 1956, the population of this city

consisted of 242000 citizens and its size was 16 kM.In this period, Mashhad slowly developed, relativelycentralized, and had a relatively high density of 151citizens per 1 hectare. In the next years, urban growthand development took the lead of the population size,i.e. urban density in 1966 reduced by 124 citizens per1 hectare. Unplanned rapid growth and developmentbetween 1966 and 1977 and their problems resultedin comprehensive urban plan development in 1967.Although the anticipated urban development in this


Table 1. Demographic changes, size, and population density of Mashhad (1956-2011) [25,26].

Year 1956 1966 1976 1986 1996 2006 2011

Population (person) 242000 409000 667000 1463000 1887405 2430800 2772287

Area (hectare) 1600 3300 7800 22000 24499 29377 30000

Growth percent 2 5.39 5/01 8.17 2.58 2.56 2.66

Population density 151/2 124 85/5 66.5 77.3 82.74 92.4

Figure 5. Geographical image of Mashhad.

Figure 6. Demographic changes and physicaldevelopment of Mashhad.

plan was about 170 kM2 until 1991, its size increasedover 220 kM2 in 1986, i.e. 5 years before the predictedperiod. Moreover, the population density between 1976and 1986 reached the lowest level, i.e. 66.5 citizens per 1hectare. Accordingly, Mashhad grew very rapidly and

Table 2. Land-use and geomorphologic unit changes dueto urban development [28,29].

Landuse/geomorphology

unit

Areain 1966(km2)

Areain 2009(km2)

Alluvial fan 137.4 19Compact plains 251.68 171.08

Agricultural land 107.36 45.63Uncultivated Land 132.23 19.41

followed a dispersed and sprawling growth pattern inall periods of urban growth.

5.2. Urban development and changes in watercycles and resources

Mashhad urban development has exerted negativeimpacts upon its water resources due to negligenceof environmentally sustainable development principles.This study highlights these impacts upon surface andunderground water.

5.2.1. Surface water resourcesUrban development signi�cantly impacts upon surfacewater resources from di�erent dimensions. Surfacewater resources of Mashhad have changed due to threemain causes: (1) Extensions of impermeable levelsas the result of further urban land development; (2)changes of natural drainage patterns as the result ofconstructions; and (3) pressures on water basin exit.They are discussed in the following sections.

Impermeable surface extensions and hydrologicimbalances. According to Table 2, over 50 percentof agricultural lands and large areas of uncultivatedlands, compact plains, and alluvial fans, includingpermeable areas, have transformed into impermeableurban lands due to urban development, which inturn causes changes of watercourses hydrology, runo�size, and the volume of incoming water drainages andunderground water tables [28,29].

Changes of drainage patterns. A large number ofnatural waterways have been removed, or blocked, orthey have changed their routes due to urban develop-ment of Mashhad. Indeed, the main natural channelsare a�icted with a limited space and change their ways.


Figure 7. Urban development of Mashhad in di�erent periods [27].

Even, they are likely blocked, their width is reduced,or they are unessentially deviated due to embankmentand construction building. 227 sub-channels with alength of 140 km and 43 main channels with a lengthof 82.9 km were blocked or signi�cantly changed dueto urban development [29]. Indeed, urban designstructure and urban drainage system in the studieddeveloped areas are not signi�cantly in agreement withnatural drainage patterns. In other words, Mashhadurban development has happened without any environ-mental and morphological consideration and it causesenvironmental crisis in this metropolis.

Pressures on water basin exit. Development ofconstructions and residential context in suburbs andriver basin exits makes the main waterway bottleneckcompressed in entry of plains and reduces width ofthe channels and watercourses [30]. This createsinsu�cient space for movement of oodwaters andcauses cyclic oods.

5.2.2. Underground water resourcesMashhad underground water table, including 2200 km2

of areas, is one of the largest aquifers in Iran [31]. Thesewaters are used by di�erent resources including springs,aqueducts, and wells.

Springs. Mashhad plain springs were large in number,which have reduced due to sprawling urban develop-ment and excessive use of water resources. 337 springsexist at the present time and about 14 springs arelocated in Mashhad zone. Only one of these cases ows

permanently over 9 months of each year, which is usedfor drinking [32].

Aqueducts. There were 162 aqueducts in Mashhadcity and its suburbs. 88 aqueducts, containing 10736liters of water per second, have moved into infrastruc-tures and have been inactivated. Today, two aqueducts,containing 320 liters of water per second, are used forurban water consumption [33]. The most devastatingimpact of the urban development upon aqueducts isinattention to their limits at the time of constructionactivities, which destroys aqueducts and eliminatesthem from water supply cycle. Accordingly, they areused for urban wastewater.

Wells. Because of elimination of aqueducts from watersupply cycle, methods such as deep well and semi-deepwell digging and dam construction were replaced fordrinking water supply to Mashhad. Unlike these newmethods of water supply, wells are greatly consistentwith local conditions and sustainable developmentprinciples, because they do not rely on electric energyand oils. Additionally, they do not qualitatively andquantitatively harm underground water since they aregradually used. As Figure 8 shows, excessive useof water in Mashhad plain surface along with rapiddevelopment of urbanism without any consideration ofenvironmental sustainability principles is an indicationof marked reductions in Mashhad plain undergroundwaters. Underground water decreased by 7 metersfrom 2003-2004 to 2011-2012, i.e. 1-meter reduction perone year. Consequently, Mashhad plain as the largest


Figure 8. Mashhad plain underground water hydrographduring 10 years [34].

aquifer of Iran in the past is presently in the mostcritical state among Iran aquifers.

6. Results and discussion

6.1. Analysis of the relationship betweenresilience and sustainability

With respect to the above-mentioned statements, re-silience is one of the crucial concepts for operational-izing sustainability, which follows a set of social ob-jectives, social justice, and environmental perfection.Resilience is a conceptual and modelling frameworkthat indicates the phenomena which facilitate or inhibitthe achievement of normative sustainability goals. Forinstance, as mentioned in the above de�nitions, one ofthe urban sustainability cases is natural resources usereduction and its correct utilization for the purposeof their maintenance and ful�llment of the needs ofthe next generation. In this context, resilience inecological dimension covers urban system capacitiesfor coping with environmental threats such as ood,drought, and rapid urban changes, and self-organizingand continuing activities against them. Therefore,regular program should be developed and integratedurban management is needed for protecting ecosystem,and its related services, as well as conserving naturalresources. As discussed in Figures 3 and 4, these twoconcepts are together conveyed and both concentrateon parameters that are conceptually similar but di�er-ent in the period of their performance. Indeed, systemcapacities for self-organization and maintenance ofsystem integrity are signi�cant to long-term sustainabledevelopment.

6.2. Results of Mashhad water resourcesanalysis

The analyses indicate that Mashhad urban develop-ment regardless of urban resilience and sustainabledevelopment principles has exerted devastating envi-ronmental impacts and has directly and/or indirectlycaused hydrologic and geomorphologic changes in the

region. Development of this city directly causesmorphologic changes of watersheds, watercourses, andnatural drainage patterns, which in turn results in sur-face inundations, ooding, and system non-resilienceagainst natural disasters. Moreover, it indirectly makesreductions in underground water in successive aquaticyears because of excessive use of water from under-ground water tables and reduction in their feeding and,subsequently, natural cover removal and impermeablelevel extension.

Accordingly, the �ndings demonstrate high vul-nerability of Mashhad to events such as inundationand drought. Resilience, as suggested by Alberti andMarzlu� [35], signi�cantly a�ects ecosystem conser-vation, including natural water resources and naturalcycles of water, and primarily creates balance betweenecosystem services and human services. It can empowerurban systems in order to cope with threats, reducevulnerability, and organize themselves.

6.3. Validation of the relationship betweenwater resources management withresilience and sustainability

The analysis of the similar cases that are successful inwater resources management for urban resilience andfuture sustainability shows that a variety of activitiesare carried out for accomplishment of these objectives.The following are some of the most crucially practicalsamples which can be used in Mashhad according totheir characteristics. Sado� and Muller [36] concen-trate on a combination of soft and hard strategiesincluding knowledge and information retrieval, warningsystem establishment, and stronger management ofinstitutions and infrastructures. These strategies makecontribution to minimization of water cycle disordersa�ected by climate changes and urban development.Furthermore, they view water resource management asan integrated approach, which makes consumers awareof upcoming water resource challenges on the one handand o�ers a framework for removing these challengeson the other hand. Water security investment is alsoone of the integrated long-term strategies for creatinga resilient world.

Novtony et al. [37] suggest development andmaintenance of natural drainage system in cities andconformity of urban drainage system with naturaldrainage patterns for the purpose of surface waterabsorption and improvement in underground waterand examine the implemented plans. For example,Portland green street plan acts as natural drainagesystem through permeable green contexts in both sidesof streets. Chicago green alley plan makes contribu-tion to surface water conservation and its increasingpermeability by using permeable materials and pipesfor water movement. Benedict and McMahon [38],Harrison et al. [39], and Ahren [40] investigate the


use of green infrastructures in urban development forsupporting environmental processes and services andcreating more sustainable and resilient conditions forurban environment. They describe green infrastructureas an integrated network of natural environments andother open spaces, which protects natural ecosystemfunctions and o�ers proper ways and means for sur-face water management. Rain gardens, downspoutdisconnection, bioswales, permeable pavements, greenalleys and streets, green parking, and green roofs areinstances of green infrastructures.

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) con-siders green infrastructures as a solution for improvingwater quality and ood control system, especiallyin Milwaukee [41]. Industrial park of MenomoneeRiver is the largest green infrastructure in Milwaukee,which creates a recreative space and manages water oods.

Pilehvar and Pourahmad [42] evaluate growth anddevelopment of Iran's metropolises and their impactsupon environment. They describe frame density inurban development as one strategy for reducing theseimpacts. Jabareen [43] also introduces high-densitypatterns as the appropriate urban form in environmen-tal terms during his analysis of sustainability of urbantypologies. The �ndings of this study show that high-density patterns bring about less negative e�ects uponenergy, water, soil, and natural cover of lands and leadto higher environmental sustainability.

7. Conclusion

According to the performed analyses of Mashhad waterresources and the related cases, this study puts forwardthe following suggestions for urban resilience and long-term sustainability plans. Some of these strategies aregeneralizable to similar cities and should be applied totheir developments:

Short-term Strategies:

� Creating natural drainage system in urban devel-opment and coordination of urban drainage systemwith natural patterns (speci�cally in Mashhad);

� Use of Green infrastructure in urban developmentfor surface water management;

� Rebuilding of the main natural channels in urbantexture and determination of their limits (speci�-cally in Mashhad);

� Increase in permeable surfaces through creation ofgreen spaces and use of permeable materials in newdevelopments (speci�cally in Mashhad);

� Use of alternative water resources and separationbetween industrial water resource consumption andurban water resource consumption.

Long-term Strategies:

� Creation of urban density patterns for avoidingwaste of natural water resources, soil, natural coverof lands, etc. (speci�cally in Mashhad);

� Public training for heightening awareness of peopleabout water crisis and creation of a proper environ-mental culture;

� Revisions in urban development designs (speci�callyin Mashhad); Planning for higher levels of publicparticipation in natural resources conservation;

� Adoption of integrative approach for water manage-ment and speci�ed planning of water resources fordi�erent consumptions.

Conservation of natural water cycles is one ofthe components, which should be considered for cre-ating resilient and sustainable cities. In order toconvey resilience and sustainability concepts, di�erentsocial, environmental, physical, and other dimensionsof urban regions should be taken into consideration.Corresponding measures should also be implemented.The above-mentioned strategies contribute to waterresource conservation and natural water cycles, thus,making cities resilient against ood and drought. Thus,they are considered as an important step towards envi-ronmental sustainability. In addition to seeing cities asa set of systems and checking their sustainability andresilience in di�erent dimensions, national macro-levelpolicies and plans should be implemented at the �rststep. Creation of resilient and sustainable cities shouldbe viewed as a national priority.

Building resilient cities as a national priority.Cities are complex and dynamic meta-systems in whichtechnological components and social components inter-act. They are made up of dynamic linkages of physicaland social networks. Planning for resilience in the faceof urban disaster requires designing cities that combineseemingly opposite characteristics, including redun-dancy and e�ciency, diversity and interdependence,strength and exibility, autonomy and collaboration,and planning and adaptability. We are just beginningto realize the scope and magnitude of the challengesinherent in making our cities resilient to threats fromnatural hazards and urban terrorism. To meet thesechallenges, the authors propose a national resilient-cities initiative aimed at the vision of the resilient cityas the goal that bridges natural hazard mitigation andcounterterrorism practice. To succeed in this initiative,changes in national disaster policy, funding for basicand applied urban systems research, support for ad-vanced education programs, and active collaborationamong the city planning, design, and constructionprofessions will be required. This initiative should becomprised of:


Basic and applied research. While we havelearned a great deal about the behavior of variousurban systems in recent years, there are still manygaps in our knowledge about how physical and socialsystems within cities respond to extreme stress. Anational program of basic and applied research onthis topic could generate valuable contributions to ourunderstanding of how to plan and design resilient cities.The National Research Council [44] has listed a numberof critical long-term research needs. The list notesthe need for developing new ways of understandingand modeling for complex, adaptive systems. Urbanplanning researchers have made a promising start inthis direction by using GIS to analyze, model, and visu-alize dynamic and interdependent urban systems suchas linkages between land use and transportation [45].The new GIS contingency models are able to respondto `what if' questions that are asked about potentialsystem responses to future changes of various types.

Education program. In concert with the researchcampaign, we need to strengthen education and train-ing in designing and managing resilient urban sys-tems. The goal, here, is to increase our pool ofhuman resources to prompt future engineers, scientists,planners, and emergency managers to make practiceand become educators and researchers. The NationalResearch Council report recommends a human resourcedevelopment program aimed at producing a sustainedincrease in baccalaureate and doctoral degrees in �eldsconsistent with long-term priorities for homeland se-curity [44]. Such program should include support ofuniversity training for students in disciplines that cancontribute to urban resilience. These would includethe physical science, social science, planning, design,and engineering and management �elds. This programshould be discussed in workshops to reach certaincollaborations.

Professional collaboration. If we are to take theachievement of urban resilience seriously, we need tointegrate the goal of resilient city into every practiceof city planners, engineers, architects, emergency man-agers, developers, and other urban professionals. Thisrequires a long-term collaborative e�ort to increaseknowledge and awareness about resilient city planningand design. Prieto notes that, because engineeringtends toward specialization, engineers have di�cultytranslating lessons learned to a broad range of dis-ciplines; he suggests that the National Academy ofEngineering could play an important role in dissemi-nating lessons from disasters [46]. Other professionsface similar di�culties and would bene�t from bothintra-professional and inter-professional collaborations.Such an e�ort could start with a summit conferenceto convene leaders of all the professions concerned

with city design and development to develop resilientcity in practice guidelines. This could be kicked o�by a national conference on planning and building ofResilient Cities. The objective of the conference wouldbe to discuss principles for building resilient cities andways of incorporating these principles into the prac-tice of engineers, planners, architects, administrator'sdevelopers, and other city designers, builders, andmanagers. The program would look at both physicaland social systems, and their linkages.

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Biographies

Manouchehr Tabibian received his MS degree inArchitecture in 1966, PhD degree in City Planning in1973 from University of Tehran, Iran, and MS degreein Regional Science from University of Pennsylvaniain 1978. He is an Emeritus Professor of urban designand city planning. He is teaching in the College ofFine Arts at University of Tehran and in the Facultyof Architecture and City Planning of the Islamic AzadUniversity of Qazvin. He, as an architect and cityplanner, has over 40 years of local and internationalexperience in Iran and in Sydney of Australia. His re-search interest includes planning, design, and methodsof resiliency and sustainability of cities with emphasison urban form and design issues. He has publishedover 14 books and 40 papers in various journals andpresented many others at national and internationalconferences. Since September 2014, he has had thehonor of being the Editor in Chief of the Journal ofSpace Ontology in the Faculty of Architecture and CityPlanning at University of Qazvin.

Sepideh Movahed received her BS degree in Ar-chitecture from Islamic Azad University of Mashhad,Iran, in 2008, and an MS degree in Urban Design fromTehran University, Kish branch, Iran, in 2010. Sheis currently a PhD degree student at Islamic AzadUniversity of Qazvin. Her research interests includeresiliency, ecological design, urban environment, andurban morphology. She has published and presentedmany papers in various ISC Journals and at manynational and international conferences in her interestedsubject.

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