tracy kendler 1918-2001. introduction did it all: ► jewish psychologist ► researcher ►...

Tracy KendlerTracy Kendler1918-20011918-2001

IntroductionIntroduction

Did it all:Did it all:► Jewish PsychologistJewish Psychologist►ResearcherResearcher►ProfessorProfessor►WifeWife►Mother of two sonsMother of two sons

FamilyFamily

► Parents never went beyond an elementary Parents never went beyond an elementary educationeducation They had to workThey had to work

► Worked all of time throughout Tracy’s childhoodWorked all of time throughout Tracy’s childhood Financial hardshipFinancial hardship

► Tracy took care of herselfTracy took care of herself Said this caused her to “develop an independent streak Said this caused her to “develop an independent streak

that later stood me in good stead”that later stood me in good stead”

► Her father died when she was 8 years oldHer father died when she was 8 years old► Mother remarried and had her half-sisterMother remarried and had her half-sister

Tracy helped take care of her sisterTracy helped take care of her sister

Name ChangeName Change

► Tracy born with the first name SylviaTracy born with the first name Sylvia► She worked at a summer camp for She worked at a summer camp for

preschoolerspreschoolers 4 out of the 5 counselors were named Sylvia4 out of the 5 counselors were named Sylvia

► Tracy had just seen “The Philadelphia Story”Tracy had just seen “The Philadelphia Story” A romantic comedy movieA romantic comedy movie The main character’s name is TracyThe main character’s name is Tracy

► Decided to change her name to TracyDecided to change her name to Tracy Later it was changed legallyLater it was changed legally

Developmental PsychologistDevelopmental Psychologist

►Researched development within a Researched development within a neobehavioristic then cognitive neobehavioristic then cognitive orientation orientation

►Researched and wrote many articles Researched and wrote many articles with her husband, Howard Kendlerwith her husband, Howard Kendler

►Howard was supportive of Tracy and Howard was supportive of Tracy and treated her as an equaltreated her as an equal The unfair treatment of her angered himThe unfair treatment of her angered him

Historical AntecedentsHistorical Antecedents

““To be born in interesting times is said To be born in interesting times is said to be a curse. Looking back now, I find to be a curse. Looking back now, I find the interest generated overshadowed the interest generated overshadowed the discord experienced.” the discord experienced.”

––Tracy Kendler in her autobiography “A Tracy Kendler in her autobiography “A Woman’s Struggle in Academic Woman’s Struggle in Academic Psychology (1936-2001)”Psychology (1936-2001)”

Historical Antecedents cont.Historical Antecedents cont.

►Anti-SemitismAnti-Semitism Parents emigrated to U.S. from Eastern Parents emigrated to U.S. from Eastern

Europe (Hungary and Russia) to escape Europe (Hungary and Russia) to escape anti-Semitismanti-Semitism

Especially prevalent throughout Kendler’s Especially prevalent throughout Kendler’s early years, adolescence, and college yearsearly years, adolescence, and college years

►WWI WWI Tracy born during the end of it in New York Tracy born during the end of it in New York

City in 1918 City in 1918


► The Great DepressionThe Great Depression She was 11 years old when stock market crashedShe was 11 years old when stock market crashed Italian Fascism and German Nazism on the riseItalian Fascism and German Nazism on the rise Communist ideology becoming prevalent in NY Communist ideology becoming prevalent in NY

intellectualsintellectuals Political and social interest in her neighborhood, Political and social interest in her neighborhood,

Coney Island (childhood), Brighton Beach Coney Island (childhood), Brighton Beach (adolescence)(adolescence)

Tracy became a student political activist in high Tracy became a student political activist in high schoolschool

Everyone had financial problems including Everyone had financial problems including Tracy’s familyTracy’s family


WWII (1939)WWII (1939)

Tracy was…Tracy was…► 18 yrs. old when Hitler came to power in 18 yrs. old when Hitler came to power in

GermanyGermany► 21 yrs. old when war started21 yrs. old when war started


►Status of Women in psychology Status of Women in psychology leading up to Tracy’s time:leading up to Tracy’s time: Very few compared to number of menVery few compared to number of men Difficult (sometimes impossible) to get Difficult (sometimes impossible) to get

into graduate school for psychologyinto graduate school for psychology No jobs in psychology for women (could No jobs in psychology for women (could

not be professors)not be professors) Most psychologists considered women Most psychologists considered women

inferior to meninferior to men


Developmental Psychology:Developmental Psychology:► Began from academic interest for the Began from academic interest for the

betterment of children betterment of children The use of scientific methods for social purposes The use of scientific methods for social purposes

► The Iowa Child Welfare Research StationThe Iowa Child Welfare Research Station In 1906 a woman who had lost some of her In 1906 a woman who had lost some of her

children worked with the University of Iowa and children worked with the University of Iowa and legislators to start it (began in 1917)legislators to start it (began in 1917)

Devoted to research in child development (their Devoted to research in child development (their physical and educational well-being) physical and educational well-being)

Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology cont.cont.

► The Iowa Child Welfare Research Station cont. The Iowa Child Welfare Research Station cont. Bird Baldwin started the Preschool Laboratories part Bird Baldwin started the Preschool Laboratories part

of it in 1925of it in 1925 Began doing research in naturalistic settings in Began doing research in naturalistic settings in

1930s (Stoddard, Skeels, Wellman,1930s (Stoddard, Skeels, Wellman, Updegraff) and Updegraff) and found unstimulating environments can cause a loss found unstimulating environments can cause a loss of IQ in childrenof IQ in children (1938) (1938)

► Experimental Child Psychology: 1950s and Experimental Child Psychology: 1950s and 1960s 1960s Using children as subjects to test general Using children as subjects to test general

psychological theories for the purpose of extending psychological theories for the purpose of extending scientific knowledgescientific knowledge

Charles Spiker established the first graduate Charles Spiker established the first graduate program program


Gestalt PsychologyGestalt Psychology► Founder considered to be Max Wertheimer (1880-Founder considered to be Max Wertheimer (1880-

1943) in Germany1943) in Germany► Other important influences: Koffka, Kohler Other important influences: Koffka, Kohler

(Wertheimer’s students), (Wertheimer’s students), LewinLewin, Perls (founded , Perls (founded Gestalt therapy)Gestalt therapy)

► Emphasis on the wholeEmphasis on the whole► Our consciousness and behavior occurs within a Our consciousness and behavior occurs within a

perceptual field perceptual field ► Phenomenology: A technique used by Gestaltists; is Phenomenology: A technique used by Gestaltists; is

the study of that which naturally appears in the study of that which naturally appears in consciousness consciousness


►Solomon Asch Solomon Asch Became a distinguished social psychologistBecame a distinguished social psychologist Taught Tracy’s experimental psychology Taught Tracy’s experimental psychology

course during her undergraduate studiescourse during her undergraduate studies Taught Gestalt theoryTaught Gestalt theory Convinced Tracy (and Howard Kendler, her Convinced Tracy (and Howard Kendler, her

future husband) to go to graduate school in future husband) to go to graduate school in psychology at the University of Iowa to psychology at the University of Iowa to study with Gestaltist Kurt Lewinstudy with Gestaltist Kurt Lewin


► NeobehaviorismNeobehaviorism Neobehaviorist that converted Tracy from Gestalt Neobehaviorist that converted Tracy from Gestalt

psychology to neobehaviorism: Kenneth psychology to neobehaviorism: Kenneth SpenceSpence Tested elaborate, associative theories about the Tested elaborate, associative theories about the

learning process learning process Mental processes can be inferred from behavior Mental processes can be inferred from behavior

but they are not publicly observablebut they are not publicly observable Focus on S-R and everything besides the S that Focus on S-R and everything besides the S that

impacted the Rimpacted the R Attempted to find lawful relationships to explain Attempted to find lawful relationships to explain

behaviorbehavior

ZeitgeistZeitgeist

► Thomas KuhnThomas Kuhn At the time, he was researching children’s At the time, he was researching children’s

discrimination learning and how it differed from discrimination learning and how it differed from animals.animals.

The Kendlers’ started researching behavior in The Kendlers’ started researching behavior in rats, but when they saw other experimenters rats, but when they saw other experimenters using children, they then veered more toward using children, they then veered more toward studying children’s behavior.studying children’s behavior.

► Science was moving toward a more concrete Science was moving toward a more concrete pragmatic approach and concentrating less pragmatic approach and concentrating less on theoryon theory

Zeitgeist cont.Zeitgeist cont.

► Role of women in scienceRole of women in science ““Most important social influence” Most important social influence” A Woman’s A Woman’s

Struggle in Academic PsychologyStruggle in Academic Psychology (257). (257). Called herself an antediluvian feminist—a Called herself an antediluvian feminist—a

feminist before the feminist movementfeminist before the feminist movement All of the male graduate students in psychology All of the male graduate students in psychology

had research or teaching assistantships. Tracy had research or teaching assistantships. Tracy never did.never did.

First woman Kenneth Spence sponsored.First woman Kenneth Spence sponsored.► Shortly after marrying Howard, Spence told her to Shortly after marrying Howard, Spence told her to

concentrate on being a “good wife.”concentrate on being a “good wife.”► Several years later, he changed his mind about women Several years later, he changed his mind about women

in science.in science.


►Kurt LewinKurt Lewin Sought to extend Gestalt theory to Sought to extend Gestalt theory to

the fields of personality and social the fields of personality and social behaviorbehavior

Member of the Child Welfare Research Member of the Child Welfare Research StationStation

Along with Spence, applied their Along with Spence, applied their theories (Gestalt and Neobehaviorism) theories (Gestalt and Neobehaviorism) in their research with children and this in their research with children and this started basic, as opposed to applied, started basic, as opposed to applied, experimental child psychology.experimental child psychology.


► Kurt LewinKurt Lewin His life space model: His life space model:

interacting forces interacting forces operate to determine the operate to determine the person’s behavior, the person’s behavior, the person-environment person-environment interaction is a “life interaction is a “life space”; this model did space”; this model did not survivenot survive

Much of his research was Much of his research was done on children, but the done on children, but the experiments were experiments were intended to test, intended to test, articulate, and extend a articulate, and extend a general theory of general theory of behavior.behavior.


► Kenneth SpenceKenneth Spence Neobehaviorist—sought to convert GestaltistsNeobehaviorist—sought to convert Gestaltists Early in career, produced an influential theory about Early in career, produced an influential theory about

discrimination learning in animals then tested it on discrimination learning in animals then tested it on children and found similar learning principles in children and found similar learning principles in children.children.

Opened the door to graduate school for Tracy, Opened the door to graduate school for Tracy, converted her to neobehaviorismconverted her to neobehaviorism

A step in achieving the goal of neobehaviorism was to A step in achieving the goal of neobehaviorism was to make “make “directly observable behaviordirectly observable behavior” the subject ” the subject matter instead of the intangible mind. Mental matter instead of the intangible mind. Mental processes can be inferred from behavior, but not processes can be inferred from behavior, but not publicly observable—publicly observable—A Woman’s Struggle in A Woman’s Struggle in Academic PsychologyAcademic Psychology (256). (256).

Zeitgeist cont.Zeitgeist cont.► Kenneth Spence cont.Kenneth Spence cont.

Tracy was so intrigued by Tracy was so intrigued by Spence that she chose to do Spence that she chose to do her PhD thesis with him. her PhD thesis with him. This thesis involved his This thesis involved his theory mentioned earlier.theory mentioned earlier.

Doctoral research focused Doctoral research focused on discrimination-learning on discrimination-learning with white rats. Thesis was with white rats. Thesis was designed to test a set of designed to test a set of predictions that would pit predictions that would pit Spence’s mathematical Spence’s mathematical model of discrimination-model of discrimination-learning against Gestalt learning against Gestalt theory.theory.

Howard and Tracy admired Howard and Tracy admired Spence so much, they Spence so much, they named their second child, named their second child, Kenneth, after him.Kenneth, after him.


► WWIIWWII Japan bombed Pearl Japan bombed Pearl

Harbor on December Harbor on December 7, 1941 when Tracy 7, 1941 when Tracy was in her second was in her second year of graduate year of graduate school—the US school—the US entered the war.entered the war.

Professional Professional struggles/obstaclesstruggles/obstacles

►Great DepressionGreat Depression Tracy did not have enough money to go to Tracy did not have enough money to go to

college immediately after graduating high college immediately after graduating high school because her family had financial school because her family had financial problems.problems.

►FamilyFamily Mother opposed to her going to college. Mother opposed to her going to college.

She thought she should find a “wealthy She thought she should find a “wealthy husband” instead—husband” instead—A Woman’s Struggle in A Woman’s Struggle in Academic PsychologyAcademic Psychology (256). (256).

Professional struggles/obstacles Professional struggles/obstacles cont.cont.

► Anti-SemitismAnti-Semitism When going to register When going to register

for classes, Tracy was for classes, Tracy was told that the courses she told that the courses she wanted to take were wanted to take were closed—partly because closed—partly because she was a woman and she was a woman and partly because she was a partly because she was a Jew. When Kurt Lewin (a Jew. When Kurt Lewin (a Jew himself) learned Jew himself) learned about the unfriendly about the unfriendly welcome Tracy and welcome Tracy and Howard received he was Howard received he was furious.furious.


► Lack of respect for women in educationLack of respect for women in education When being interviewed by the head of the When being interviewed by the head of the

psychology department at the University of Iowa, psychology department at the University of Iowa, John McGeoch, Tracy was told that there were no John McGeoch, Tracy was told that there were no jobs for women.jobs for women.

After obtaining her PhD, the only job Tracy could After obtaining her PhD, the only job Tracy could find was as a clinical psychologist at the Chicago find was as a clinical psychologist at the Chicago State Hospital—a hospital for the seriously State Hospital—a hospital for the seriously disturbed and “insane.”disturbed and “insane.”

Finally offered a graduate assistantship to teach Finally offered a graduate assistantship to teach experimental psychology at Barnard College 11 experimental psychology at Barnard College 11 years after obtaining her PhD.years after obtaining her PhD.


► Lack of respect for women in education cont.Lack of respect for women in education cont. Applied for a faculty position in Child and Applied for a faculty position in Child and

Adolescent Development at Barnard College, but Adolescent Development at Barnard College, but the Chairman of the Psychology Department told the Chairman of the Psychology Department told her that he “had an application from a male her that he “had an application from a male psychologist whom…would be hired, not because psychologist whom…would be hired, not because he had a superior record but because he would not he had a superior record but because he would not have the divided responsibilities of a married have the divided responsibilities of a married woman with children” as she would—woman with children” as she would—A Woman’s A Woman’s Struggle in Academic PsychologyStruggle in Academic Psychology (260). (260).

Tracy wanted to do graduate teaching at Columbia Tracy wanted to do graduate teaching at Columbia University, but at the time there were no women University, but at the time there were no women psychologists in the psychology department at psychologists in the psychology department at Columbia.Columbia.


► Lack of respect of women in education cont.Lack of respect of women in education cont. Finally obtained an assistant professor position at Finally obtained an assistant professor position at

Barnard College 12 years after receiving her PhD—Barnard College 12 years after receiving her PhD—the man declined the position in Child and the man declined the position in Child and Adolescent Development that she had also applied Adolescent Development that she had also applied for.for.

Always offered lower level job positions and less Always offered lower level job positions and less salary than Howard despite the fact that both had salary than Howard despite the fact that both had same qualifications and concentrated their research same qualifications and concentrated their research on the same subject matter.on the same subject matter.

The University Faculty Club at Columbia University The University Faculty Club at Columbia University (Barnard College is the partnering women’s college) (Barnard College is the partnering women’s college) even excluded women, unless they were granted even excluded women, unless they were granted with the honor of being a guest of a male to the with the honor of being a guest of a male to the restaurant on the top floor.restaurant on the top floor.

Kendler’s WorkKendler’s Work

►Discrimination learningDiscrimination learning Subject reinforced to respond to certain Subject reinforced to respond to certain

characteristics of stimuli (size, shape, characteristics of stimuli (size, shape, etc.)etc.)

ShiftsShifts►Reversal shiftReversal shift►Extradimensional shiftExtradimensional shift

Shift Behavior by Shift Behavior by Developmental LevelDevelopmental Level

►““An Ontogeny of Optional Shift An Ontogeny of Optional Shift Behavior” in the journal Behavior” in the journal Child Child Development Development in 1970in 1970 Studied differences in shift behavior among Studied differences in shift behavior among

kindergarteners, second graders, sixth kindergarteners, second graders, sixth graders, and college studentsgraders, and college students

Found that the ease of making a reversal Found that the ease of making a reversal shift increases with ageshift increases with age

But the ease of making an extradimensional But the ease of making an extradimensional shift declines with ageshift declines with age

CognitionCognition

►Mediation theoryMediation theory A way of defining what goes on internally A way of defining what goes on internally

between stimulus and responsebetween stimulus and response Early “cognitive revolution”Early “cognitive revolution” Originally an abstract Gestalt conceptOriginally an abstract Gestalt concept Through her work, Kendler tried to make it Through her work, Kendler tried to make it

something observable (neobehaviorist)something observable (neobehaviorist)

Strengths/WeaknessesStrengths/Weaknesses

►Beginning of cognitionBeginning of cognition►Mediation theory relied too much on Mediation theory relied too much on

external stimuli and didn’t explain the external stimuli and didn’t explain the consistency of cognitionconsistency of cognition Was supplanted by a more cognitive, Was supplanted by a more cognitive,

“interactionist” approach (Piaget)“interactionist” approach (Piaget)

Influence of Tracy Kendler Influence of Tracy Kendler

► Many accomplishments in psychology despite Many accomplishments in psychology despite being a minority and a woman and living being a minority and a woman and living through many strugglesthrough many struggles Published more than 60 articles and 1 book in the Published more than 60 articles and 1 book in the

areas of learning and developmental psychology areas of learning and developmental psychology Levels of Cognitive DevelopmentLevels of Cognitive Development (1995): Pointed (1995): Pointed

to cognitive psychology and neuroscience as the to cognitive psychology and neuroscience as the future for understanding developmental changes future for understanding developmental changes in cognitive functioningin cognitive functioning

Basic Psychology: Brief EditionBasic Psychology: Brief Edition: Textbook for : Textbook for general psychology classes she wrote with her general psychology classes she wrote with her husband husband

Influence of Tracy KendlerInfluence of Tracy Kendler

► Recipient of a Guggenheim FellowshipRecipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship► One of the 1st women members of the Society of One of the 1st women members of the Society of

Experimental PsychologistsExperimental Psychologists► 1st woman member of the Governing Board of the 1st woman member of the Governing Board of the

Psychonomic SocietyPsychonomic Society► President of the Western Psychological Association in President of the Western Psychological Association in

19771977► Consulting editor for Consulting editor for Child DevelopmentChild Development► Long-term member of the Society for Research in Long-term member of the Society for Research in

Child DevelopmentChild Development► Received several National Science Foundation grants Received several National Science Foundation grants

and a United States Public Health Service grant to and a United States Public Health Service grant to fund her researchfund her research


► Helped change the minds of male Helped change the minds of male psychologists to be more favorable toward psychologists to be more favorable toward having women in the field especially having women in the field especially Kenneth SpenceKenneth Spence PhD thesis judged to be excellentPhD thesis judged to be excellent Received PhD in 1943Received PhD in 1943 Successful in research and became a professor Successful in research and became a professor

despite obstaclesdespite obstacles Endured unfair treatment for being a Jew and Endured unfair treatment for being a Jew and

being a woman in psychologybeing a woman in psychology


► Worked against prejudice not only for those Worked against prejudice not only for those who were Jewish but also for African who were Jewish but also for African Americans Americans Worked for the Commission for Community Worked for the Commission for Community

Relations, a branch of the American Jewish Relations, a branch of the American Jewish Congress (AJC), which did research on social Congress (AJC), which did research on social prejudiceprejudice

Worked with AJC in combination with the NAACP Worked with AJC in combination with the NAACP to collect and interpret evidence relevant to the to collect and interpret evidence relevant to the problem of whether segregated schools can problem of whether segregated schools can provide equally effective educationprovide equally effective education


► Wrote “Contributions of the Psychologist to Wrote “Contributions of the Psychologist to Constitutional Law” (1950)Constitutional Law” (1950) A report against the “separate but equal” principle A report against the “separate but equal” principle

based on her research findingsbased on her research findings May have contributed to the principle being May have contributed to the principle being

overturned in overturned in Brown v. Board of Education of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, KansasTopeka, Kansas (1954) (1954)

► Made significant contributions to Made significant contributions to understanding learning and developmentunderstanding learning and development ““Vertical and horizontal processes in problem Vertical and horizontal processes in problem

solving” solving” Identified as a Citation Classic by Identified as a Citation Classic by Current ContentsCurrent Contents Was cited over 337 times between 1963 and 1976 Was cited over 337 times between 1963 and 1976


Applied a cognitive-behavioral approach to Applied a cognitive-behavioral approach to the study of learning and problem solving the study of learning and problem solving

Research on cognitive development helped Research on cognitive development helped progress developmental psychology progress developmental psychology

►Mentor to graduate studentsMentor to graduate students Very important to herVery important to her She called it a “peak experience” to have She called it a “peak experience” to have

graduate students help with her researchgraduate students help with her research


►Family and careerFamily and career Had a professional careerHad a professional career Still put her husband and children firstStill put her husband and children first Son, Kenneth Kendler, recently awarded Son, Kenneth Kendler, recently awarded

the distinguished Lieber Prize for the distinguished Lieber Prize for outstanding research in human genetics, outstanding research in human genetics, which he dedicated to his loving parentswhich he dedicated to his loving parents


Dedicated her book to her husband:Dedicated her book to her husband:

““To...my husband Howard Kendler, I am To...my husband Howard Kendler, I am indebted for putting up with me all these indebted for putting up with me all these years without losing his sense of humor. He years without losing his sense of humor. He encouraged me to begin this line of encouraged me to begin this line of research and we collaborated on all the research and we collaborated on all the early experiments as well as on the early early experiments as well as on the early theorizing. Although the scientific theorizing. Although the scientific collaboration eventually ended, he remains collaboration eventually ended, he remains my best friend and dearest companion, as my best friend and dearest companion, as well as my severest critic.”well as my severest critic.”

Tracy Kendler died of pulmonary Tracy Kendler died of pulmonary fibrosis on July 28, 2001 with fibrosis on July 28, 2001 with

Howard at her side Howard at her side

Summary: Who was Summary: Who was listening???listening???

1.1. What type of psychology did Tracy Kendler focus What type of psychology did Tracy Kendler focus on?on?

a.a. NeobehaviorismNeobehaviorism

2.2. Who were some of the well-known psychologists Who were some of the well-known psychologists who influenced Tracy?who influenced Tracy?

a.a. Solomon AschSolomon Aschb.b. Abraham MaslowAbraham Maslowc.c. Kurt LewinKurt Lewind.d. Kenneth SpenceKenneth Spence

3.3. What were some of Tracy’s main areas of What were some of Tracy’s main areas of experimentation and research?experimentation and research?

a.a. Discrimination learningDiscrimination learningb.b. Mediation theoryMediation theory

Summary cont.Summary cont.

5.5. What were some of the obstacles that Tracy had to What were some of the obstacles that Tracy had to overcome?overcome?

a.a. Being a female in a time that women were not well-Being a female in a time that women were not well-respectedrespected

b.b. Being a Jew during WWII and the aftermath of WWIIBeing a Jew during WWII and the aftermath of WWIIc.c. Mother not wanting her to go to college—instead look for a Mother not wanting her to go to college—instead look for a

nice husbandnice husbandd.d. Great Depression: did not have enough money to enter Great Depression: did not have enough money to enter

college upon graduation of high schoolcollege upon graduation of high school

6.6. Besides being an advocate for her own minority Besides being an advocate for her own minority group, what other minority group did she fight for group, what other minority group did she fight for the rights of?the rights of?

a.a. African AmericansAfrican Americans

ReferencesReferencesBasden, B. H. (2002). Tracy Seedman Kendler (1918-2001). Basden, B. H. (2002). Tracy Seedman Kendler (1918-2001). American PsychologistAmerican Psychologist, , 5757, 364., 364.Kendler, H. H. (2002). A personal encounter with psychology (1937-2002). Kendler, H. H. (2002). A personal encounter with psychology (1937-2002). History of History of

PsychologyPsychology, , 55, 52-84., 52-84.Kendler, H. H., & Kendler, T. S. (1962). Vertical and horizontal processes in problem solving. Kendler, H. H., & Kendler, T. S. (1962). Vertical and horizontal processes in problem solving.

Psychological ReviewPsychological Review, , 6969, 1-16., 1-16.Kendler, H. H., & Kendler, T. S. (1971). Basic psychology: Brief edition. East Norwalk, CT: Kendler, H. H., & Kendler, T. S. (1971). Basic psychology: Brief edition. East Norwalk, CT:

Appleton-Century-Crofts.Appleton-Century-Crofts.Kendler, T. S. (1950). Contributions of the psychologist to constitutional law. Kendler, T. S. (1950). Contributions of the psychologist to constitutional law. American American

PsychologistPsychologist, , 55, 505-510., 505-510.Kendler, T. S. (1991). The development of developmental psychology. In Joan H. (Ed.). Kendler, T. S. (1991). The development of developmental psychology. In Joan H. (Ed.).

Psychology at Iowa: Centennial essays. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates. Psychology at Iowa: Centennial essays. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates. Kendler, T. S. (1995). Levels of cognitive development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Kendler, T. S. (1995). Levels of cognitive development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates.Associates.Kendler, T. S., & Kendler, H. H. (2003). A woman’s struggle in academic psychology (1936-Kendler, T. S., & Kendler, H. H. (2003). A woman’s struggle in academic psychology (1936-

2001). 2001). History of PsychologyHistory of Psychology, , 66, 251-266., 251-266.Suppes, P. (1975). From behaviorism to neobehaviorism. Suppes, P. (1975). From behaviorism to neobehaviorism. Theory and DecisionTheory and Decision, , 66, 269-285., 269-285.Woldt, A. L., & Toman, S. M. (Eds.). (2005). GestaltWoldt, A. L., & Toman, S. M. (Eds.). (2005). Gestalt therapy: History, theory, and practice. therapy: History, theory, and practice.

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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