Labrador Polar Bear Traditional Ecological Knowledge  

Final Report 

 

York, J., Dale, A., Mitchell, J., Nash, T., Snook, J., Felt, L., Taylor, M. and M. Dowsley 

 

Torngat Wildlife, Plants and Fisheries Secretariat, 

217 Hamilton River Rd., P.O. Box 2050 Stn. B 

Happy Valley‐Goose Bay, NL A0P 1E0 

 

2015 

 

Torngat Wildlife, Plants & Fisheries Secretariat 2015/ 05 

i 

Torngat Wildlife, Plants and Fisheries Secretariat 

 

The primary responsibilities of the Torngat Wildlife and Plants Co‐management Board and the 

Torngat Joint Fisheries Board are to establish total allowable harvests for non‐migratory species 

of wildlife  and  for  plants,  recommend  conservation  and management measures  for wildlife, 

plants, and habitat in the Labrador Inuit Settlement Area (LISA) and to make recommendations 

in  relation  to  the  conservation  of  species,  stocks  of  fish,  aquatic plants,  fish habitat,  and  the 

management of fisheries in the Labrador Inuit Settlement Area.  

 

The Secretariat is the implementation agent of the Torngat Joint Fisheries Board and the Torngat 

Wildlife and Plants Co‐Management Board. The Secretariat is a team of professionals based in 

Happy Valley‐Goose Bay  that provide  financial management,  logistical, project management 

and analytical support to both boards. 

 

Torngat Omajunik, Piguttunik Oganniaganillu Suliangit 

 

Suliagigumajangit  Torngat Omajunik,  Piguttunillu AulatsiKatigengita AngajukKauKatigengit 

ammalu  Torngat  Ikajuttiget  Oganniatuligijingita  AngajukKauKatigengit  sakKititsigiamut 

pijaugunnatunik  katillugit  aullaigatsatagiamut  nokataKattangitunik  omajunik  ammalu 

piguttunik,  uKautjigiajut  asikKitailigiamut  ammalu  aulatsigiamut  omajunik,  piguttunik, 

ammalu  inigiKattajanginnik  Labradorimi  Inuit  Satusasimajanginni  Nunani  (LISA)  ammalu 

uKautjigiagutinik  ilingajunik  asikKitailigiamut  omajunik,  oganniaganik,  piguttunik,  oganik, 

ammalu aulatsigiamut oganniaganik Labradorimi Inuit Satusasimajanginni Nunani. 

 

SuliaKattet  atuliaKititsigumajut  kiggatuttinganik  Torngat  Ikajuttiget  Oganniatuligijingita 

AngajukKauKatigenginnik  ammalu  Torngat  Omajuligijinginnik  Piguttunillu  AulatsiKattajut 

AngajukKauKatigenginnik,  sunatuinnanik,  suliatsanik  aulatsigiamut  ammalu  ikajutsitaullutik 

tamâginnut angajukKauKatigenut. 

 

 

ii  

 

 

 

Torngat Wildlife, Plants & Fisheries Secretariat Series 

 

2015 

 

Labrador Polar Bear Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Final Report 

 

 

 

York, J1., Dale, A2., Mitchell, J2., Nash, T2., Snook, J2., Felt, L2., Taylor, M1. and Dowsley, M1. 

 

 

 

Department of Geography, Lakehead University1 

955 Oliver Road,  

Thunder Bay, ON, 

 P7B 5E1 

 

Torngat Wildlife Plants and Fisheries Secretariat2 

P.O. Box 2050 Station B 

Happy Valley‐Goose Bay, NL 

A0P 1E0 

 

 

 

iii  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Published by: 

Torngat Wildlife, Plants and Fisheries Secretariat 

217 Hamilton River Rd., P.O. Box 2050 Stn. B 

Happy Valley‐Goose bay, NL 

A0P 1E0 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Correct citation for this publication: 

York, J, Dale, A, Mitchell, J, Nash, T, Snook, J, Felt, L, Dowsley, M and Taylor, M. (2015). 

Labrador polar bear traditional ecological knowledge final report.  Torngat Wildlife Plants and 

Fisheries Secretariat Ser. 2015/03 + 118 + iv p. 

 

iv  

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................. iv 

LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................ v 

LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................vii 

Executive Summary ...................................................................................................... xii 

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 

Methods ............................................................................................................................ 6 

Results ............................................................................................................................... 9 Section 1: Polar Bear Health and Physical Condition  9 Section 2: Polar Bear Range, Distribution, and Abundance 28 Section 3: Polar Bear Denning 35 Section 4: Polar Bear Diet 39 Section 5: Physical Environment 46 Section 6: Hunting, Conservation, and Elder Hunting Knowledge 56 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 68 

Section 1: Polar Bear Health and Physical Condition 68 Section 2: Polar Bear Range, Distribution, and Abundance 69 Section 3: Polar Bear Denning 71 Section 4: Polar Bear Diet 72 Section 5: Physical Environment, Weather, and Climate 74 Section 6: Hunting, Conservation, and Elder Hunting Knowledge 76 Section 7: Interview as a Survey Method 80 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 83 

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... 85 

References ...................................................................................................................... 86 

Appendix A .................................................................................................................... 93 

Appendix B..................................................................................................................... 96 

Appendix C .................................................................................................................. 101 

Appendix D .................................................................................................................. 115  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

v  

LIST OF FIGURES 

 

Figure 1. The Davis Strait Polar Bear Subpopulation ........................................1 

Figure 2a. Single and family group polar bear sightings for all seasons  .......29 

Figure 2b. Seasonal polar bear sightings. ............................................................30 

Figure 3. Polar bear den sites. ...............................................................................30 

Figure 4. Polar bear hunting and feeding locations ...........................................40 

Figure 5. Polar bear kill sites from over the last 30 years..................................63 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

vi  

LIST OF TABLES 

 

Table 1. Responses to question 1 ‘Apart from hunting, how do polar bears die?’ 

....................................................................................................................................9 

Table 2. Responses to question 2, ‘Have the ways that polar bears die changed since you were 

young?’   ....................................................................................................................9 

Table 2a. Responses to question 2a, ‘How have the ways that polar bears die changed since 

you were young?’.......................................................................................................10 

Table 3. Responses to question 3, ‘Other than harvested bears, have you ever seen a dead 

bear?’ .........................................................................................................................10 

Table 3a. Responses to question 3a, ‘Why do you think the bear died?’ ..............11 

Table 3b. Responses to question 3b, ‘Did elders ever talk about dead bear sightings?’   

....................................................................................................................................11 

Table 3c. Responses to question 3c, ‘What did elders say about dead bear sightings?’   

....................................................................................................................................12 

Table 4. Responses to question 4, ‘Have you ever seen a sick bear?.....................12 

Table 4a. Responses to question 4a, ‘Why do you think the bear was sick?’ .......13 

Table 4b. Responses to question 4b, ‘Did elders ever talk about sick bears?’ ......13 

Table 4c. Responses to question 4c, ‘What did elders say about sick bears?’.......14 

Table 5. Responses to question 5, ‘Have you ever seen anything strange when you skinned or 

butchered a bear?’  .....................................................................................................14 

Table 5a. Responses to question 5a, ‘What was strange about it?’......................15 

Table 5b. Responses to question 5b, ‘Did elders ever talk about anything strange when 

skinning or butchering bears?’   ................................................................................15 

Table 5c. Responses to question 5c, ‘What did elders say about strange butchering or 

skinning of bears?’ .....................................................................................................16 

Table 6. Responses to question 6, ‘Have you ever seen a starving bear?’  ...........16 

Table 6a. Responses to question 6a, ‘How could you tell the bear was starving?’ 

....................................................................................................................................17 

Table 6b. Responses to question 6b, ‘When did you see the starving bear?’ .......17 

Table 6c. Responses to question 6c, ‘Did elders ever talk about starving bears?’ 

....................................................................................................................................17 

Table 6d. Responses to question 6d, ‘What did elders say about starving bears?’ 

vii  

....................................................................................................................................18 

Table 7. Responses to question 7, ‘Have you ever seen a drowning polar bear?’  

....................................................................................................................................18 

Table 7a. Responses to question 7a, ‘Did elders ever talk about drowning bears?’    

....................................................................................................................................19 

Table 8. Responses to question 8, ‘Describe a good‐looking polar bear.’ ..............19 

Table 8a. Frequencies of adjectives used in responses to question 8...............20 

Table 9. Responses to question 9, ‘Describe a good‐looking polar bear after it is harvested.’

....................................................................................................................................20 

Table 9a. Frequencies of adjectives used in responses to question 9...............21 

Table 9b. Frequencies of nouns used in responses to question 9.....................21 

Table 10a. Descriptions of polar bear body condition ‐ Condition diagram 1 

....................................................................................................................................22 

Table 10b. Descriptions of polar bear body condition ‐ Condition diagram 2 

....................................................................................................................................22 

Table 10c. Descriptions of polar bear body condition ‐ Condition diagram 3 

....................................................................................................................................23 

Table 10d. Descriptions of polar bear body condition ‐ Condition diagram 4 

....................................................................................................................................24 

Table 10e. Descriptions of polar bear body condition ‐ Condition diagram 5 

....................................................................................................................................24 

Table 11. Responses to question 11, ‘Have you seen any changes to the bears over your 

lifetime?’ ....................................................................................................................25 

Table 11a. Responses to question 11a, ‘What are the changes to polar bears that you’ve seen 

over your lifetime?’ ....................................................................................................26 

Table 12. Responses to question 12, ‘Would people older than you have noted other 

differences?’   .............................................................................................................26 

viii  

Table 12a. Responses to question 12a, ‘How would they describe the differences?’ 

....................................................................................................................................27 

Table 13. Responses to question 13, ‘What is the condition of the polar bear today?’ 

....................................................................................................................................27 

Table 14a. Responses to question 14a, ‘Do people go to these locations to see the bears?’ 

....................................................................................................................................31 

Table 14b. Responses to question 14b, ‘Are there as many, more, or less bears in these areas 

than in the past?’ .......................................................................................................31 

Table 15. Responses to question 15, ‘Have bears been coming into communities?’ 

....................................................................................................................................32 

Table 16. Responses to question 16, ‘Have the sightings of bears in communities changed 

since you were young?’  ............................................................................................32 

Table 16a. Responses to question 16a, ‘How have sightings of bears in communities 

changed?’  ..................................................................................................................32 

Table 17. Responses to question 17, ‘Have bears been coming into cabin areas?’ 

....................................................................................................................................33 

Table 18. Responses to question 18, ‘Have the sightings of bears near cabins changed since 

you were young?’ ......................................................................................................33 

Table 18a. Responses to question 18a, ‘How have sightings of bears in cabin areas changed?’

....................................................................................................................................34 

Table 19. Responses to question 19, ‘What types of places do polar bears den?’ 

....................................................................................................................................36 

Table 20. Responses to question 20, ‘What types of snow are needed for polar bear dens?’

....................................................................................................................................36 

Table 21. Responses to question 21, ‘Do bears den on ice?’   ...............................37 

Table 22. Responses to question 22, ‘Do all bears den?’   ....................................37 

Table 23. Responses to question 23, ‘Have you ever seen a dead bear in a den?..38 

ix  

Table 24. Responses to question 24, ‘Have there been any changes in polar bear denning?’ 

....................................................................................................................................38 

Table 25. Responses to question 25, ‘Do you travel in areas where there are dens?’  

....................................................................................................................................38 

Table 26. Responses to question 26, ‘What do bears eat?’....................................41 

Table 27. Responses to question 27, ‘Are there any differences between what males and 

females eat?’  ..............................................................................................................41 

Table 28. Responses to question 28, ‘Do bears with cubs eat different foods?’ ....42 

Table 29. Responses to question 29, ‘Have the places that bears find food changed since you 

were young?’ .............................................................................................................42 

Table 29a. Responses to question 29a, ‘How have the places where bears find food changed?’

....................................................................................................................................43 

Table 30. Responses to question 30, ‘Have polar bears changed the ways that they search for 

food?’ .........................................................................................................................43 

Table 30a. Responses to question 30a, ‘How have polar bears changed the ways that they 

search for food?’ .........................................................................................................44 

Table 31. Responses to question 31, ‘Do bears eat any foods other than seals?’ ..44 

Table 32. Responses to question 32, ‘Other than seals, what types of foods do bears eat?’ 

....................................................................................................................................45 

Table 33. Responses to question 33, ‘Have the bears changed their feeding habits since you 

were young?’ .............................................................................................................45 

Table 33a. Responses to question 33a, ‘How has polar bears diet changed?’ ......46 

Table 34. Responses to question 34, ‘What types of ice do bears use throughout the year?’

....................................................................................................................................46 

Table 34a. Frequencies of specific sea ice types indicated in responses to question 34

....................................................................................................................................46 

Table 34b. Responses to question 34b, ‘How does the types of sea ice that polar bears use 

x  

throughout the year change?’ ....................................................................................47 

Table 35. Responses to question 35, ‘Do bears with cubs use ice differently?’ ....47 

Table 35a.  Responses to question 35a, ‘How do bears with cubs use ice differently?’ 

....................................................................................................................................48 

Table 36. Responses to question 36, ‘Do young bears that have recently left their mother use 

ice differently?’  .........................................................................................................48 

Table 36a. Responses to question 36a, ‘Has the way that young bears that have recently left 

their mother use ice changed over time?’...................................................................49 

Table 36b.  Responses to question 36b, ‘How has the way that young bears use ice changed 

over time?’ .................................................................................................................49 

Table 37. Responses to question 37, ‘What have your elders told you about the sea ice?’

....................................................................................................................................50 

Table 38. Responses to question 38, ‘Have there been any changes in freeze and melt?’ 

....................................................................................................................................50 

Table 38a.  Responses to question 38a, ‘What changes has there been to freeze and melt?’

....................................................................................................................................51 

Table 39. Responses to question 39, ‘How does weather affect ice that bears use?’ 

....................................................................................................................................51 

Table 40. Responses to question 40, ‘What have your elders told you about the weather and its 

effects on sea ice in the past?’ ....................................................................................52 

Table 41. Responses to question 41, ‘Have weather changes affected the bears?’  

....................................................................................................................................52 

Table 41a. Responses to question 41a, ‘How have weather changes affected the bears?’  

....................................................................................................................................53 

Table 42. Responses to question 42, ‘Have the bears adapted to the changes in weather?’  

....................................................................................................................................53 

Table 42a.  Responses to question 42a, ‘How have bears adapted to the changes in weather?’

xi  

....................................................................................................................................54 

Table 43. Responses to question 43, ‘Have sea ice changes affected the bears?’...54 

Table 43a. Responses to question 43a, ‘How have sea ice changes affected bears?’ 

....................................................................................................................................55 

Table 44. Responses to question 44, ‘Have the bears adapted to the changes in sea ice?’ 

....................................................................................................................................55 

Table 44a. Responses to question 44a, ‘How have the bears adapted to the changes in sea ice?’

....................................................................................................................................56 

Table 45. Responses to question 45, ‘Describe a typical polar bear hunt 25 years ago.’   

....................................................................................................................................57 

Table 46. Responses to question 46, ‘Have there been any changes in how you hunt bears 

today?’ .......................................................................................................................58 

Table 46a. Responses to question 46a, ‘What are the changes in how you hunt bears today?’

....................................................................................................................................58 

Table 47. Responses to question 47, ‘Do you hunt bears more often today?’  .....59 

Table 47a.  Responses to question 46a, ‘What allows you to hunt more often?’ .59 

Table 47b.  Responses to question 47b, ‘What prevents you from hunting more often?’  

....................................................................................................................................60 

Table 48. Responses to question 47, ‘How do you keep track of changes in the bear population 

number?’ ....................................................................................................................60 

Table 48a. Responses to question 48a, ‘Do other hunters use the same methods to keep track 

of the changes in the bear population number?’  .......................................................61 

Table 49. Responses to question 49, ‘What needs to be done to protect the polar bear 

population?’ ...............................................................................................................61 

Table 50. Polar bear kill locations and the distance between the kill site and the 

community of the associated hunter ....................................................................62 

Table 51. Responses to question 50, ‘What polar bear hunting knowledge should be passed on 

xii  

to your children?’.......................................................................................................64 

Table 51a. Responses to question 50a, ‘Was this knowledge passed on to you by elders?’

....................................................................................................................................65 

Table 51b. Responses to question 50b, ‘If not from elders, how did you acquire this 

knowledge?’  ..............................................................................................................65 

Table 52. Responses to question 51, ‘Are there traditional ways to prevent taking too many 

bears?’  .......................................................................................................................65 

Table 52a. Responses to question 51a, ‘What are the traditional ways to prevent taking too 

many bears?’ ..............................................................................................................66 

Table 52b. Responses to question 51b, ‘Are these traditional harvest restrictions still being 

used since quotas came into effect?............................................................................66 

Table 53. Responses to question 52, ‘Do elders hunt polar bears with cubs?’ .....67 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

xiii  

Executive Summary 

Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) on Labrador polar bears was collected from Inuit inhabiting four coastal communities in Labrador. Contemporary hunters harvest polar bears for food and for the monetary value of the fur. Labrador polar bears are part of the Davis Strait (DS) subpopulation which has experienced a decline in body condition due to density effects and/or sea ice decline. Respondents confirmed that sea ice had declined, agreed that polar bears had increased in number; but indicated that Labrador polar bears had retained their body condition. TEK explanations for the apparent lack of effect from increased density or sea ice decline included a dramatic increase in harp seals (prey), continued seal hunting success in spite of sea ice decline, increased feeding on alternative (non-seal) food sources, and increased feeding during the open water season when most polar bears are onshore. Labrador Inuit hunters indicated a general satisfaction for the relatively new co-management system for polar bears, and did not identify economic constraints or loss of traditional lifestyles as a threat to cultural retention of polar bear harvesting. Both Labrador Inuit and Labrador polar bears appear to have adjusted to the changing conditions in this area in a manner that suggests a strong inherent capacity for adaptation.

This study was undertaken by the Torngat Secretariat; an institution created by the 2005 Labrador Inuit Land Claims Agreement to participate in and make recommendations on the management of wildlife, plants and habitat within the Labrador Inuit Settlement Area to the Minister of Environment and Conservation and the Nunatsiavut Government. The survey data was analyzed by Lakehead University’s Department of Geography. This report was written in collaboration between Lakehead University and the Torngat Secretariat. This report summarizes Inuit TEK relevant to polar bears for the study which was conducted in communities throughout Nunatsiavut in 2012. This was the first systematic effort to collect polar bear TEK in Labrador.

1 

 

Introduction 

Thirteen of the world’s 19 polar bear (Ursus maritimus) subpopulations are contained within or shared with Canada (Obbard et al., 2010). The Davis Strait (DS) polar bear subpopulation is shared between Newfoundland and Labrador, Nunavut, Quebec and Greenland (Denmark). The DS subpopulation contains the Labrador Sea, eastern Hudson Strait, Davis Strait south of Cape Dyer, and along the eastern edge of the Davis Strait-southern Baffin Bay pack ice (Taylor et al., 2001) (Figure 1). Currently ~2158 polar bears reside within the DS subpopulation area (Peacock et al., 2013). Polar bears are harvested by Inuit hunters from both Canada and Greenland (Taylor and Lee, 1995; Taylor et al., 2001). Greenland, Nunavut, and Labrador have an established harvest quota system, while Quebec does not restrict the number of bears that are harvested.

Figure 1. The Davis Strait Polar Bear Subpopulation

Source: (IUCN PBSG: http://pbsg.npolar.no/)

Most Canadian polar bears are inventoried every 15-years to determine subpopulation size, evaluate status, and estimate a sustainable yield. This is performed in an attempt to maintain relatively constant numbers in the various polar bear subpopulations (Aars et al., 2006). The DS subpopulation has been monitored since the 1970s through capture and harvest data. Initial studies covered only parts of the DS geographic range, but in 2007 it was surveyed as a demographic unit (entire range) for the first time (Peacock et al. 2013). Peacock et al. (2013) estimated the subpopulation to number 2,158 +/- 180 (SE), which was substantially larger than the extrapolated estimates from the 1970s. Peacock et al. observed low reproductive rates and deteriorating and variable ice conditions, but were unable to determine if low recruitment was due to density effects, sea ice decline, or both. The DS subpopulation currently sustains an annual harvest of approximately 80 bears per year (York et al., 2014).

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The Threat of Climate Change

Since the 1970s, hunting was considered to be the primary threat to the conservation of polar bears (ACPB, 1973; Taylor et al. 1987), but more recently concerns have been expressed over reduced sea ice due to climate warming (e.g., Stirling and Derocher, 1993; Stirling et al, 1999; Stirling and Parkinson, 2006). The Arctic is expected to warm more rapidly and to a greater extent than the rest of the globe (Manabe and Stouffer, 1980; Screen and Simmonds, 2010). Climate warming has been observed and predicted to affect higher latitudes first and most (IPCC, 2013), and Arctic sea ice during the open water season has been observed to be declining since satellite records began in 1978 (Parkinson et al., 1999; Comiso, 2006). There is legitimate concern for both immediate and long term impacts of sea ice reductions on polar bear subpopulations, especially those in the southern most areas of polar bear species range (Derocher et al., 2004; Thiemann et al., 2008; Stirling and Derocher, 2012).

Polar bears depend on sea ice for a hunting platform (Stirling and Archibald, 1977; Smith, 1980; Thiemann et al., 2006; 2008), for movements to feeding areas (Stirling and Derocher, 1993; Ferguson et al., 2000, 2001; Amstrup et al., 2003), for a summer retreat on thick multiyear ice (Stirling and Parkinson, 2006; Durner et al., 2009), and for locating mates during breeding season (Ramsay and Stirling, 1986; Stirling and Derocher, 1993). Several studies have reported observed declines in abundance, survival, nutritional, and recruitment rates which have been linked to sea ice reductions within polar bear subpopulation areas (Stirling et al., 1999; Obbard et al., 2006; Rode et al., 2007; Stirling et al., 2008; Rode et al., 2010, 2014). If the Arctic climate continues to warm, and consequently sea ice continues to decline, these effects are expected to be amplified and widespread throughout the Arctic (Stirling et al., 1999; Rode et al., 2007; Rode et al., 2010, 2014; Stirling and Derocher, 2012).

For subpopulations with an open water season, the most notable effect of reductions in Arctic sea ice has been an increased length of the summer–fall fasting period. During this period prey species such as seal are less accessible to polar bears (Molnar et al., 2010). Declines in polar bear body condition and survival rates have been correlated with sea ice decline in the Southern Beaufort Sea and Western Hudson Bay subpopulations (Stirling et al., 1999; Regehr et al., 2007, 2010; Rode et al., 2010). The DS and WH polar bear subpopulation have “seasonal” sea ice ecology (Amstrup et al., 2008; Thiemann et al., 2008) where the ice melts completely in the warmer months, then refreezes in the colder months. The open water period causes polar bears to come ashore except for occasional swimming, results in reduced access to prey species through the open-water months.

Traditional Ecological Knowledge

Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) is derived from a collected body of knowledge that has been transmitted over generations based on both personal and collective observations of the natural world (Berkes 2009; Dowsley 2005; Huntington et al., 2004; Freeman and Wenzel,

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2005). TEK incorporates new knowledge acquired by the current generation to maintain relevancy in an ever-changing world (Henri et al., 2010). TEK compiles traditional and local knowledge of species and environmental phenomena, anthropogenic usage of different species and the environment, and environmental values and beliefs. Each aspect of TEK can be useful for ecological studies and wildlife management (Dowsley and Wenzel, 2008; Henri et al., 2010). Over the last few decades, TEK has proven to be an accurate and reliable knowledge system. It has contributed information to the understanding of animal ecology and it has gained importance in wildlife management studies (Freeman and Wenzel, 2005; Metcalf and Robards, 2008; Dowsley, 2009; Henri et al., 2010). Recently, researchers have found TEK to be especially useful when combined with scientific methodologies for ecological studies examining Arctic climate-change issues (Hinzman et al. 2005; Laidler, 2006; Berkes et al. 2007). Land-claim agreements typically require aboriginal beneficiaries to be directly involved in wildlife management and Canada requires consideration of TEK for environmental assessment and resource management in northern regions (Usher, 2000).  Thus, effective utilization of both knowledge systems (science and TEK) is important for wildlife management in Canada. 

The Labrador Inuit

The modern-day Inuit are the descendants of the Thule people. The Thule migrated south to Labrador from the Canadian Arctic around 1500 AD (Fitzhugh, 1972). The Thule culture had an almost complete reliance on maritime resources; especially whales (McCartney, 1980). A decrease in temperature and an increase in sea ice occurred during 1200 – 1800 AD (Little Ice Age), resulting in rapid changes to their culture and subsistence lifestyle (Fitzhugh, 1972). The Little Ice Age caused the Canadian Thule people to modify their hunting technologies and focus on other species to accommodate the change in climate. The new cultures and lifestyles that emerged have been termed ‘Inuit’. The Labrador Inuit adapted to their distinctive northern boreal-maritime environment and thrived by hunting a combination of marine and land animals (Fitzhugh, 1972).

The Labrador Inuit have been identified as distinct from other Canadian Inuit groups, particularly by geographic and social factors. They settled farther south than most other Inuit groups (Fitzhugh, 1972; Brice-Bennet, 1977; Taylor, 1979). The primary Inuit settlements on the north coast of Labrador are Nain, Hopedale, Postville, Makkovik and Rigolet; the most southern of which (Rigolet) is located at 54.1667° N, 58.4333° W. The Labrador Inuit also came into regular contact and established trade relations with Europeans much earlier also established than other Inuit groups (Taylor, 1979; Rollmann, 2011). The Labrador Inuit came in contact with European explorers, fishermen and whalers as early as the early 1600s and they had established intermittent trade relations by the mid-1700s (Brice-Bennet, 1977). European settlers have traded or sold firearms to the Labrador Inuit since as early as the late 1770s; however, the extent of this trade was limited through government trade restrictions and Moravian Missionary attempts to preserve Inuit subsistence and lifestyle (Rollmann, 2011). By the 1790s firearms

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were made widely available to the Labrador Inuit as the Europeans were unable to control the sales of firearms to the Inuit from neighbouring groups (Rollmann, 2011). In contrast, most other Inuit groups did not come into regular contact with Europeans until the 1800s as the fur trade expanded into the Canadian North. Modern firearms did not become prominent in the northern fur trade and widely available to most other Inuit groups until the 1900s (Wenzel, 2004).

Increasing participation in the European cash economy caused transition from subsistence to a traditional economy lifestyle based in settlements (Brice-Bennet 1977). Moravian missionaries and the Newfoundland and Labrador government encouraged Labrador Inuit to harvest species that produced the greatest cash return, increasing their dependence on the fur economy. As the traditional economy declined, increased wage-labour opportunities and the establishment of health care and educational services encouraged the Labrador Inuit to remain in settlements (Proctor 2012). Currently ~ 2,300 Inuit reside in the Labrador Inuit Settlement Area (Nunatsiavut) in northern Labrador (Statistics Canada 2011). Current Labrador Inuit have adapted to modernized lifestyles and technologies; however, the cultural and traditional value of hunting remains as important as ever (Dombrowski et al., 2013).

Polar bears and polar bear hunting are an integral part of Labrador Inuit culture and traditional economy. Archaeological records indicate that polar bears have been harvested in the eastern Canadian Arctic by Dorset, Thule, and Inuit people for approximately 6,000 years (McGhee, 1990). Labrador Inuit have utilized polar bears as a source of subsistence and traditional economy since European contact Labrador Inuit (Wenzel, 2011). According to the 2005 Labrador Inuit Land Claims Agreement (Section 12.3), the Inuit living in Labrador retain the right to harvest wildlife as long as the harvest is within conservation limits.

In Newfoundland and Labrador, the Provincial Wildlife Act and the Labrador Inuit Land Claims Agreement provides the legislative framework for wildlife management. The Government of Newfoundland and Labrador is responsible for the management of wildlife within the Province. Within the Labrador Inuit Settlement Area the Torngat Wildlife and Plants Co-management Board (TWPCB), in consultation with the Nunatsiavut Government, regulates wildlife harvest. Within the Labrador Inuit Settlement Area, Inuit have the exclusive right to harvest some species of wildlife, such as the polar bear. Currently, the Labrador Inuit can harvest up to 12 polar bears annually.

The Purpose of this Study

This study was undertaken by the Torngat Secretariat; an institution created by the 2005 Labrador Inuit Land Claims Agreement to participate in and make recommendations on the management of wildlife, plants and habitat within the Labrador Inuit Settlement Area to the Minister of Environment and Conservation and the Nunatsiavut Government. This report summarizes Inuit TEK relevant to polar bears for the study which was conducted in communities

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throughout Nunatsiavut in 2012. This was the first study conducted to collect polar bear TEK in Labrador.

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Methods 

The Aim of the Study

This report examines TEK for the Labrador Inuit hunters and polar bears based on contemporary and past observations of Labrador coastal Inuit. The TEK collected provides insight on polar bear hunting practices, management perspectives, polar bear condition, behaviour, abundance and distribution, and changes to climate and sea ice in Labrador from both short-term (recent decades) and long-term (elder knowledge) perspectives. This study was reviewed and approved by the Nunatsiavut Research Review Board and the Memorial University’s Interdisciplinary Committee on Ethics in Human Research.

Data Collection

Interviews were conducted by a small team of Torngat Secretariat staff members and an interviewer and videographer from the OKâlaKatiget Society Radio in Nain. Data were collected using a semi-directed interview format. The interview questions were developed by the Torngat Secretariat in consultation with Dr. Larry Felt of Memorial University of Newfoundland and later modified based on the initial interviews. Questions that were considered to be too complex were either eliminated or reworded. Questions that were found to be irrelevant to the aims of the study were also eliminated.

Selection of Participants

Potential survey participants were chosen from a list of hunters who had successfully harvested bears in Labrador. Elders, Nunatsiavut Government wildlife managers, and community leaders were then consulted to determine which of the potential participants would be most knowledgeable and most likely to participate in the study. Potential participants were contacted by phone prior to the study teams’ arrival to the community. The participant was given a brief description of the study and told that the information they could provide would help to improve the management of the polar bear. Compensation for the 1-2 hour interview was $150.00.

Interviews with 15 Labrador Inuit hunters were conducted from July to November of 2012 in the communities of Nain, Postville, and Hopedale. Participants were guaranteed anonymity. Each participant was asked to read an information sheet that was provided to inform the participants of the scope and intentions of the study prior to their interview (Appendix A).  Before the interviewing process began, participants were also required to sign an informed consent form (Appendix B). (Appendix B). The hunters were interviewed at three locations; eight interviews were conducted at OKâlaKatiget Society Radio in Nain; five interviews were conducted at a private bed and breakfast in Postville, and two interviews were conducted at the Amaguk Inn in Hopedale. One hunter from Rigolet, Labrador was flown to Postville to participate in the study.

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14 of the 15 interview participants were men who have been, or are currently, engaged in harvesting activities (93.3%). One of the participants was a woman who was also active in hunting and other traditional activities. The average age of participants was 51, with ages ranging from as young as 25 to as old as 72 years of age.

Interview Process and Content

Interview participants were asked a total of 60 questions over 12 interview sections (Appendix C). The interview followed a semi-structured format consisting primarily of open-ended questions. All interview sections required oral responses to the questions being asked; however, some sections also relied on visual materials. One section involved the comparison of visual images to real-world observations, while two of the interview sections required participants to identify features on a physical map. When a participant was able to provide information on a given topic, they were also asked supplementary questions to elaborate on their answer or to provide additional relevant information. The interviewers generally avoided prompting explanations for participants’ observations. Interviews lasted approximately one hour. Participant responses were recorded in either audio and/or video format, according the to method specified on the participant’s consent form (Appendix B). The transcripts were archived with the Torngat Secretariat. A list of the interview questions may be found in Appendix C.

Data Analysis

Interviews were translated and transcribed using the interview audio and video recordings. Physical maps used during the interviews were scanned and saved as PDF documents. This data was transferred to Lakehead University for analysis via an information sharing agreement between the Torngat Secretariat and the Lakehead University Department of Geography. NVivo version 10 software was used to catalogue the interview transcripts. A database was created using this software to cross reference question responses from interview participants.

A second database was created using ESRI ArcGIS software (ESRI, 2012) to catalogue the spatial features identified by interview participants. ESRI ArcGIS software was utilized to produce geo-referenced summaries of the participant-identified features and maps associated with each feature type. Each feature that had been marked on physical maps during the interview process, such as kill locations, hunting areas, polar bear sightings, and denning areas, was digitized and sorted thematically. Where participants identified general areas rather than specific points for features such as a polar bear kill or denning site, a point was created at the center of the area to represent it. A point shapefile was also created containing the communities in which the hunters lived. Using the point data, the linear distance between each hunter’s community and the location of their polar bear kills were examined using ESRI ArcGIS software. A Near proximity tool was used to calculate the distance between the points for each

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kill site and the associated hunter’s community. The NVivo and ESRI ArcGIS project files were archived with the Torngat Secretariat.

Only responses that provided relevant information on key topics of the study were included in the analysis process. If relevant, participant responses to individual questions were coded thematically using NVivo version 10 software (QSR International, 2012). Follow-up questions were often phrased as compound questions. Compound questions were divided into individual questions and paraphrased to ensure consistency between participant responses. The paraphrased questions are located throughout the results section. The specific phrasing and structure of the original interview questions may be found in Appendix C.

Where appropriate, comments offered by participants were included below the results to best represent the participants’ perspectives on a given topic. The comments have remained unaltered with regards to language and grammar in order to preserve the message that has been communicated. Any names of interview participants or community members that appeared in the comments have been removed. Where participant perspectives appeared to be divided, the convention was to list up to three representative comments to reflect the various perspectives. The frequencies of the responses to each question were summarized both in the text and table format. Thematic classification was also employed to identify response categories and facilitate summaries of the responses. Response frequencies to each question were recorded and presented by community and as total. While these results are organized by community, they should be viewed as strictly descriptive as no statistical comparison between communities was conducted. Thematic responses were presented as a summarized list of general themes and the frequency of their occurrence. Responses often covered several themes, resulting in individual responses being tallied for more than one thematic category.

The relationship between the responses and the age, gender, or community of the interview participants was not examined. While responses between these categories may differ, this study makes no claims to community, age, or sex differences due to an insufficient sample size. Thus, the benefits of this TEK study are mainly qualitative and descriptive.

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Results 

Section 1: Polar Bear Health and Physical Condition 15 participants were asked question 1, ‘Apart from hunting, how do polar bears die?’

(NTotal = 15). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided

more than one example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into eight themed categories. The distribution of thematic responses to question 1 is summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 1 ‘Apart from hunting, how do polar bears die?’

Response Frequency Injury 9 (60.0%) Starvation 8 (53.3%) Old age 7 (46.7%) Disease 3 (20.0%) Drowning 1 (6.7%) Predation 1 (6.7%) Capture-related mortality 1 (6.7%) Problem bear/Self defense 1 (6.7%) Representative comments:

“Nanuk (polar bear) can die from natural death. They get old. They get diseased. They are really aggressive toward each other in particular the males. They fight a real lot and they can have many injuries. They can get injuries from on the land too... Their natural environment is a hazard to them as much as it is to us. Starvation; if they can’t hunt for whatever reason they will starve.”

15 respondents were asked question 2, ‘Have the ways that polar bears die changed since you were young?’ Of the 15 respondents, three answered “Yes”, six answered “No”, and six provided “No opinion” (NTotal

= 15). The distribution of responses to question 2 is summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 2, ‘Have the ways that polar bears die changed since you were young?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 3 0 0 3 (20.0%)

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No 2 1 3 6 (40.0%) No opinion 0 1 5 6 (40.0%) Representative comments:

“It didn’t change. Nothing has changed since I’ve been hunting bears. Still ice and still seals. It’s pretty same as 20 years ago so nothing’s changed that way.”

The three respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 2a, How have the ways that polar bears die changed since you were young?’ The responses provided by the participants varied. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into three thematic categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses to question 2a are summarized in Table 2a.

Table 2a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 2a, ‘How have the ways that polar bears die changed since you were young?’

Response Frequency Bears live longer due to abundant prey species 1 (33.3%) More defense kills due to more bears near communities 1 (33.3%) No opinion 1 (33.3%) Representative comments:

“I think it’s because of the increase in seals, I think nanuk has an easier chance now to survive because seals are their main food, and we see more different species of seal. We see natsik (jar seal), Kaigulik (harp seal), Ottuk (basking seal), Kasigiak (ranger seal), we see all these species of seals are increasing because of the restrictions that we have on us now as Inuit. In the Nunatsiavut territory, people used to make good money one time when they would harvest seals for their skin, and would sell their Kisiks (skins) to the stores. There’s not even nowhere in Nunatsiavut anymore where you can sell Kisik (skin), so peoples’ activity toward seals has dropped down, and the seal population is going up, so I think that’s in favour. I think nanuk (polar bear) has an easier time to catch puijik (seal), for the reason that there are more puijik (seal).”

14 respondents were asked question 3, ‘Other than harvested bears, have you ever seen a dead bear?’ (NTotal

= 14). Of the 14 participants, five answered “Yes” and nine answered “No”. The distribution of responses to question 3 is summarized in Table 3.

Table 3. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 3, ‘Other than harvested bears, have you ever seen a dead bear?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total

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Yes 1 0 4 5 (35.7%) No 4 2 3 9 (64.3%) Representative comments:

“Yeah I've seen a couple.”

“No, I’ve never seen dead bears other than ones that has been shot by rifle.”

The five respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 3a, ‘Why do you think the bear died?’ (NTotal

= 5). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into four thematic categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses to question 3a are summarized in Table 3a.

Table 3a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 3a, ‘Why do you think the bear died?’

Response Frequency Injury 3 (60%) Killed by wolves 1 (20%) Old age 1 (20%) Disease 1 (20%) Representative comments:

“The one I saw actually had a bullet wound in it. I don’t know if it went off crippled and died later point or someone killed it and left it.”

“I’ve seen a female bear that I think was at the end of its life cycle. It was just old. I’ve seen bears that have died where their teeth are all gone and they are really old. It’s just a natural part of their life cycle. When they can’t hunt anymore, they don’t die quick. They die a slow death because of the fact they can’t hunt and they starve, or other bears will kill them and eat them.”

Eight of the respondents were asked question 3b, ‘Did elders ever talk about dead bear sightings?’ (NTotal

= 8). Of the eight participants, two answered “Yes” and six answered “No”. The distribution of responses to question 3b is summarized in Table 3b.

Table 3b. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 3b, ‘Did elders ever talk about dead bear sightings?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 1 0 1 2 (25.0%) No 1 0 5 6 (75.0%)

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The two participants who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 3c, ‘What did the elders say about dead bear sightings?’ (NTotal

= 2) The responses provided by the participants varied. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into two themed categories. The distribution of thematic responses to question 3c is summarized in Table 3c.

Table 3c. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 3c, ‘What did elders say about dead bear sightings?’

Response Frequency Sightings occurred while travelling 1 (50.0%) Consumed something harmful 1 (50.0%) Representative comments:

“No I can't remember any elders talking about finding dead bears.”

“Yes, I heard elders talk about how they would find a dead nanuk by dog team or by Kimutsik (dog team).”

15 respondents were asked question 4, ‘Have you ever seen a sick bear?’ (NTotal = 15).

Of the 15 participants, six answered “Yes”, five answered “No”, and four provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 4 is summarized in Table 4.

Table 4. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 4, ‘Have you ever seen a sick bear?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 2 1 3 6 (40.0%) No 2 0 3 5 (33.3%) No opinion 1 1 2 4 (26.7%) Representative comments:

“That bear I killed off of Nain might have been sick because he was really skinny. He was just skinny from I don’t know what. He looks kind of sick but he might have been an old bear too.”

“I’ve seen bears that didn’t look very healthy. Physically their bodies were kind of skinny or they were fighting or they were torn up. But the majority to the bears I see are healthy bears; healthy population.”

“I don’t know if the bear was sick or not. There was polar bear caught one time, it was very skinny, like it was sick or something. Even the coloring was not good looking; it was more head than anything else. I don’t know if the was hungry or sick.”

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The six respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 4a, ‘Why do you think the bear was sick?’ (NTotal

= 6). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one difference in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into four themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses to question 4a are summarized in Table 4a.

Table 4a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 4a, ‘Why do you think the bear was sick?’

Response Frequency Poor body condition 4 (66.7%) Infected wounds 1 (16.7%) Consumption of diseased prey 1 (16.7%) Discolouration of coat 1 (16.7%) Representative comments:

“I thought it might be sick because there was trouble with seals last year; a lot of dead seals were washed up on the shore. It’s possible the polar bears might have eaten those seals or picked up the same chemical more directly. I think it had something to do with those seals.”

“Just by the observation that you can see their fur is not very nice. Their fur is not shiny, it’s not white, they can be dirty, they can be skinny, there’s no body fat onto them, they look sick. They’re like a person. When you understand nanuk (polar bear), you understand their body, and their language, and you can look at them and say, the same as if you look at a human, that this nanuk (polar bear), or this person, is not well. We can see that as Inuit. We can see that these are not healthy bears just by the fact that they may be lying down, they might not be moving a lot, they may not be out on the ice, they may not be doing what a normal bear does. And their body structure, their fat content, you can see when an animal has low body fat. You can see their bone structure through; their ribs are through their skin.”

10 respondents were asked question 4b, ‘Did elders ever talk about sick bears?’ (NTotal =

10). Of the 10 participants, three answered “Yes”, six answered “No”, and one provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 4b is summarized in Table 4b.

Table 4b. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 4b, ‘Did elders ever talk about sick bears?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 1 0 2 3 (30.0%) No 2 2 2 6 (60.0%) No opinion 0 0 1 1 (10.0%)

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The three participants who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 4c, ‘What did the elders say about sick bears?’ (NTotal

= 3) The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into three themed categories. The distribution of thematic responses to question 4c is summarized in Table 4c.

Table 4c. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 4c, ‘What did elders say about sick bears?’

Response Frequency Sightings occurred while travelling 1 (33.3%) Tranquilizers cause sickness 1 (33.3%) To check the liver and lungs when cleaning a bear 1 (33.3%) Representative comments:

“The ones I talked to, they talk about how to hunt them and other things but when they gave me advice, I never heard them talking about sick bears.”

“Only that, today they are using tranquilizing darts on polar bear, they use helicopters and tranquilize Polar Bear in the Saglek area. They did tranquilize a polar bear and killed it, just trying to put it to sleep and killed it. So maybe sometimes they’re affected by tranquilizing darts. They put tags on them after tranquilizing them and that affects them. I have seen more than one wolf with a collar. After being tranquilized they get sick. Their lives are affected to the point they can’t hunt no more, they aren’t the same anymore so they go hungry, they put too much in their tranquilizing darts.”

13 respondents were asked question 5, ‘Have you ever seen anything strange when you skinned or butchered a bear? (NTotal

= 15). Of the 13 participants, two answered “Yes”, 11 answered “No”. The distribution of responses to question 5 is summarized in Table 5.

Table 5. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 5, ‘Have you ever seen anything strange when you skinned or butchered a bear?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 1 0 1 2 (15.4%) No 4 2 5 11 (84.6%) Representative comments:

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“No. Other than the tags on the ears but that’s what they do, put tags on the ears and tattoo on the lip.”

The two respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 5a ‘What was strange about it?’ (NTotal

= 2). The responses provided by the participants varied. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into two themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses to question 5a are summarized below (Table 5a).

Table 5a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 5a, ‘What was strange about it?’

Response Frequency Gunshot wounds/bullets 1 (50.0%) Battle scars 1 (50.0%) Representative comments:

“That was man-made I guess. I’ve never seen any disease in bears that I take that look to be a natural occurrence other than I did witness two bears in my lifetime other people had shot. We found evidence that they were shot at one time either through shot pellet or a bullet that was lodged inside of them.”

“Just battle scars. There was bits of fur were missing and you can see it have been fighting with other bears or whatever.”

Four respondents were asked question 5b, ‘Did elders ever talk about anything strange when skinning or butchering bears?’ (NTotal

= 4). Of the four participants, two answered “Yes” and two answered “No”. The distribution of responses to question 5b is summarized in Table 5b.

Table 5b. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 5b, ‘Did elders ever talk about anything strange when skinning or butchering bears?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 1 0 1 2 (50%) No 0 1 1 2 (50%)

The two participants who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 5c, ‘What did elders say about strange butchering or skinning of bears?’ (NTotal

= 2) The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one example in their

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response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into two themed categories. The distribution of thematic responses to question 5c is summarized in Table 5c.

Table 5c. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 5c, ‘What did elders say about strange butchering or skinning of bears?’

Response Frequency Encountered tainted meat 1 (50.0%) Battle scars and wounds 1 (50.0%) Representative comments:

“Inside the skin is the meat and it’s not clean. I’ve heard and been told about this.”

“Yes, well, the older people talked about bears fighting and bears getting wounded, I guess.”

14 respondents were asked question 6, ‘Have you ever seen a starving bear? (NTotal =

12). Of the 14 participants, five answered “Yes” and nine answered “No”. The distribution of responses to question 6 is summarized in Table 6.

Table 6. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 6, ‘Have you ever seen a starving bear?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 1 0 4 5 (35.7%) No 4 1 4 9 (64.3%) Representative comments:

“No, other than the one I explained just now. He may have been starving because he was sick or old age or something. I don’t know, he was a very big bear”

“No. Every bear I saw was pretty fat.”

“Not sure if that one that I killed was starving but he kind of looked like it. He wasn’t starving he wasn’t bones but he was skinny. He was probably sick bear I say.”

The five respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 6a, ‘How could you tell the bear was starving?’ (NTotal

= 5). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one difference in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into three themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses to question 6a are summarized below (Table 6a).

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Table 6a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 6a, ‘How could you tell the bear was starving?’

Response Frequency Skinny 2 (66.7%) Unhealthy appearance 2 (66.7%) Slow movements 1 (33.3%) Representative comments:

“Just very thin, moving very slow, it was weak; you could tell there was something wrong with it.”

The five respondents who answered “Yes” were asked question 6b, ‘When did you see the starving bear?’ (NTotal

= 5) The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into three themed categories. The distribution of thematic responses to question 6b is summarized in Table 6b.

Table 6b. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 6b, ‘When did you see the starving bear?’

Response Frequency Summer 3 (60.0%) Spring 1 (20.0%) Winter 1 (20.0%) Unknown season 2 (40.0%) Representative comments:

“Only in summer time, not in winter time I never ever seen one.”

“In the summer time and in the winter.”

Eight respondents were asked question 6c, ‘Did elders ever talk about starving bears?’ (NTotal

= 8). Of the eight participants, two answered “Yes” and five answered “No”, and one provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 6c is summarized in Table 6c.

Table 6c. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 6c, ‘Did elders ever talk about starving bears?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 1 0 1 2 (25.0%)

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No 1 0 4 5 (62.5%) No Opinion 0 0 1 1 (12.5%)

The two participants who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 6d, ‘What did elders say about starving bears?’ (NTotal

= 2). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into two themed categories. The distribution of thematic responses to question 6d is summarized in Table 6d.

Table 6d. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 6d, ‘What did elders say about starving bears?’

Response Frequency They cause mischief and are dangerous 1 (50.0%) Skinny dead bears encountered are assumed to have starved 1 (50.0%) Representative comments:

“Elders would tell me stories that once in a while they would find a dead nanuk (polar bear) on the land, or on the ice. As to the reason why, I don’t really know, they didn’t really know, and again if it was suitable they would take the nanuk (polar bear) back for dog food or if the skin was good they would use it for clothing or bedding. They didn’t waste it. They would retrieve it and try to use it as much as they could.”

“Yes, we see them once in a long while. If we notice a bear that is doing mischief and coming at you, I have heard them say, “This bear is hungry, it is dangerous.” You could see how hungry the bear was. I have seen that sort of thing.”

15 respondents were asked question 7, ‘Have you ever seen a drowning polar bear? (NTotal

= 15). Of the 15 participants, 13 answered “No”, and two provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 7 is summarized in Table 7.

Table 7. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 7, ‘Have you ever seen a drowning polar bear?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total No 5 2 6 13 (86.7%) No Opinion 0 0 2 2 (13.3%) Representative comments:

“Do they drown? Never heard of it.”

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One respondent was asked question 7a, ‘Did elders ever talk about drowning bears?’ (NTotal

= 1). The one participant answered “No”. The distribution of responses to question 7b is summarized in Table 7a.

Table 7a. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 7a, ‘Did elders ever talk about drowning bears?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total No 0 0 1 1 (100%) Representative comments:

“No.”

13 respondents were asked question 8, ‘Describe a good-looking polar bear’ (NTotal =

13). The responses provided by the participants varied and focused on different aspects of the polar bear. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into 18 themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses to question 8 are summarized in Table 8.

Table 8. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 8, ‘Describe a good-looking polar bear.’

Response Frequency Fat 6 (46.2%) Nice coat 4 (30.8%) Clean 3 (23.1%) White appearance 3 (23.1%) No scars 2 (15.4%) Round 2 (15.4%) Shiny hairs 1 (7.7%) Alert 1 (7.7%) Fast moving 1 (7.7%) Strong 1 (7.7%) Has all teeth 1 (7.7%) Wide rump 1 (7.7%) Long neck 1 (7.7%) Heavy 1 (7.7%) Large stomach 1 (7.7%) Big 1 (7.7%) Powerful 1 (7.7%) No comment 1 (7.7%) Representative comments:

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“A healthy bear is that they have a real nice coat. Their hair, their Kisik (skin), is very shiny, very healthy. They’re very alert, they move fast, they look comfortable, and they look at home. They’re very alert, nanuk (polar bear) is very smart. And when they’re on the ice or on the land they’re very, it’s really hard to describe to anybody who’s never seen a bear in their natural environment but they’re very comfortable and they look so much at home. Their fur is clean and they look healthy. Their body is filled out and they look very strong, very powerful looking.”

The adjectives used to describe “good-looking polar bears” from the participants’ responses have been summarized below based on the frequency of their occurrence (Table 8a).

Table 8a. Frequencies of adjectives used in responses to question 8, ‘Describe a good-looking polar bear.’

Word Count Weight % Rank Context fat 9 3.56 1 “looks as fat and round” healthy 9 3.56 1 “healthy looking bear” good 8 3.16 2 “good looking bear” nice 6 2.37 3 “real nice coat” white 6 2.37 3 “nice white fur” clean 4 1.58 4 “good fur, smooth, clean” big 3 1.19 5 “big and fat” round 3 1.19 5 “fat and round” alert 2 0.79 6 “they’re very alert” beautiful 2 0.79 6 “last one I had was beautiful” sagging 1 0.40 7 “stomach sagging out”

13 respondents were asked question 9, ‘Describe a good-looking polar bear after it is harvested’ (NTotal

= 13). The responses provided by the participants varied and focused on different aspects of the polar bear. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into nine themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses to question 9 are summarized in Table 9.

Table 9. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 9, ‘Describe a good-looking polar bear after it is harvested.’

Response Frequency Fat 7 (53.8%) Fur (thick, smooth, and shiny) 5 (38.5%) White appearance 3 (23.1%) Healthy organs 2 (15.4%) Intact teeth 2 (15.4%)

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Red meat 1 (7.7%) Intact claws 1 (7.7%) Round 1 (7.7%) No comment 1 (7.7%) Representative comments:

“Same thing it just round and fat and if you cut a few skins there’s lots of fat on their hide- almost like a seal; that amount of fat.”

“I guess when you're skinning it you'll notice that there's a lot of fat on it. Really thick fat and the fur is good. They've got really good teeth. Some of the older ones they'll have teeth broken off but usually just by looking at them you can tell that they're fairly healthy.”

The nouns and adjectives used to describe a “good-looking polar bear after it is harvested” from the participant responses have been summarized below based on the frequency of their occurrence (Tables 9a and 9b).

Table 9a. Frequencies of adjectives used in responses to question 9.

Word Count Weight % Rank Context fat 15 5.43 1 “a lot of fat on it” good 11 3.99 2 “has a really good shine” nice 7 2.54 3 “nice fur, not greasy” thick 3 1.09 4 “really thick fat” white 3 1.09 4 “nice white furred bear”

Table 9b. Frequencies of nouns used in responses to question 9.

Word Count Weight % Rank Context fat 15 5.43 1 “round and fat” fur 5 1.81 2 “see the fur is actually shining” meat 3 1.09 3 “meat is very rich, very fat” seal 3 1.09 3 “lots of fat on it, like a seal” skin 3 1.09 3 “not unusual about the skin” teeth 3 1.09 3 “got really good teeth” body 2 0.72 4 “not unusual about the body” hide 2 0.72 4 “lots of fat on their hide”

Interview participants were asked to describe bears in different conditions based on a series of photographs and diagrams. The photos and diagrams used for this section of the interview are included in Appendix D.

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13 respondents were asked to describe Condition 1 of Appendix D (NTotal = 13). The

responses provided by the participants varied and focused on different aspects of the polar bear. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into 11 themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 10a.

Table 10a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for the participants descriptions of Condition 1 (Appendix D).

Response Frequency Hungry/Starving 7 (53.8%) Skinny/Thin 5 (38.5%) Sick 4 (30.8%) Unhealthy 4 (30.8%) Bones are apparent (ribs and tailbone) 3 (23.1%) Deceased (or soon to be) 2 (15.4%) Never seen a bear like this 2 (15.4%) Unusual to see bears like this 1 (7.7%) Scarred 1 (7.7%) Weak 1 (7.7%) Medium sized 1 (7.7%) Representative comments:

“This nanuk (polar bear) looks sick. This one looks skinny, it doesn’t look right. This is what I mean. You can see the bones. You can see it doesn’t look healthy looking. It’s scarred up. It has marks onto it. It looks like it’s dead actually.”

“The next bear is thin, this bear is scary. I’ve never seen a bear like that. That bear has had a hard life. It’s not too big, maybe medium size. If I were to lie on that, I could touch it from nose to tail.”

13 respondents were asked to describe Condition 2 of Appendix D (NTotal = 13). The

responses provided by the participants varied and focused on different aspects of the polar bear. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into nine themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 10b.

Table 10b. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for the participants descriptions of Condition 2 (Appendix D).

Response Frequency Hungry/Starving 6 (46.2%) Skinny/Thin 5 (38.5%)

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Bones are apparent (ribs and tailbone) 3 (23.1%) Dirty/Spoiled fur 3 (23.1%) Sick 3 (23.1%) Usual to see bears like this in summer 2 (15.4%) Unhealthy 2 (15.4%) Medium sized 1 (7.7%) Weak 1 (7.7%) Representative comments:

“This one here is not like the bear in the last photo where the ribs are sticking out that much; it’s not sagging. It looks slim but it looks like it could be hungry.”

“Again, that is the usual condition of the polar bear in the summer. I noticed that the same in the summer. As I described in the story earlier. In fact, I seen that this summer at St. John’s Harbour Saglek Bay. That is not a surprise to me.”

13 respondents were asked to describe Condition 3 of Appendix D (NTotal = 13). The

responses provided by the participants varied and focused on different aspects of the polar bear. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into 11 themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 10c.

Table 10c. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for the participants descriptions of Condition 3 (Appendix D).

Response Frequency Good body condition 4 (30.8%) Drugged/Sleepy 4 (30.8%) Healthy 3 (23.1%) Average bear 3 (23.1%) Clean fur 2 (15.4%) Fat 2 (15.4%) Sick 2 (15.4%) Usual to see bears like this 2 (15.4%) Starving 1 (7.7%) Unhealthy 1 (7.7%) Representative comments:

“Yah, in winter that is average. I think that’s growing. Into the fall and winter that is average they start gaining their fat, I suspect that’s average. That’s the normal winter is coming.”

“There’s and average bear there. I think he is like the one I seen to the cabin he’s a nice healthy bear; he’s not too fat and not to skinny.”

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13 respondents were asked to describe Condition 4 of Appendix D (NTotal = 13). The

responses provided by the participants varied and focused on different aspects of the polar bear. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into 11 themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 10d.

Table 10d. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for the participants descriptions of Condition 4 (Appendix D).

Response Frequency Fat 6 (46.2%) Healthy 4 (30.8%) Good hunter 3 (23.1%) Big 2 (15.4%) Male 1 (7.7%) Usual to see bears like this 1 (7.7%) Usual to see bears like this in winter 1 (7.7%) Full of parasites 1 (7.7%) Tranquilized 1 (7.7%) Fed on berries 1 (7.7%) Never seen a bear like this 1 (7.7%) Representative comments:

“This bear been living well. Like the body structure of it….this is a very good hunter. It had a good year. It caught many puijik (seal), this one did. It’s a big bear, you can see. It’s probably a male. Like it’s healthy.”

“Fat. Again fat, I describe again as in winter. They gain seals quickly, and that is how they gain their fat. Starting to look like they turn into winter.”

13 respondents were asked to describe Condition 5 of Appendix D (NTotal = 13). The

responses provided by the participants varied and focused on different aspects of the polar bear. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into X themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 10e.

Table 10e. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for the participants descriptions of Condition 5 (Appendix D).

Response Frequency Fat 7 (53.8%) Never seen a bear like this 5 (38.5%) Unusual shape 3 (23.1%) Big 2 (15.4%) Healthy 2 (15.4%)

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Good hunter 1 (7.7%) Powerful 1 (7.7%) Usual to see bears like this in Northern Labrador 1 (7.7%) Male 1 (7.7%) Pregnant 1 (7.7%) Representative comments:

“Your next bear is a really fat bear; I’ve never ever seen a bear that fat. It looks pretty big but they can be bigger than that, at least taller and wider.”

“That one's really healthy. It even looks funny, abnormal. The belly shows you too, a lot. When you see them on the ice the belly will be hanging down and he don't have any sign of any bones sticking out. It's nice and healthy”

“That is the kind of bears we get up northern Labrador in the summertime. Whereas in the southern zone, say off of here or even further south, they are more like the skinner and thin ones. Like that one. But it seems the further north you go, the food seems to be more plentiful and this is the type of bear you get the further north you go. On the Labrador coast anyway.”

15 respondents were asked question 11, ‘Have you seen any changes to the bears over your lifetime?’ (NTotal

= 15). Of the 15 participants, nine answered “Yes”, five answered “No”, and one provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 11 is summarized in Table 11.

Table 11. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 11, ‘Have you seen any changes to the bears over your lifetime?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 3 1 5 9 (60.0%) No 2 1 2 5 (33.3%) No Opinion 0 0 1 1 (6.7%)

The nine respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 11a, ’What are the changes to polar bears that you’ve seen over your lifetime?’ (NTotal

= 9). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one change in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into 10 themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 11a.

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Table 11a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 11a, ‘What are the changes to polar bears that you’ve seen over your lifetime?’

Response Frequency More bears 6 (66.7%) More aggressive 1 (11.1%) Destroying property 1 (11.1%) Tranquilized more often 1 (11.1%) Expanding range inland 1 (11.1%) Less afraid of humans 1 (11.1%) Behaving like grizzly bears 1 (11.1%) Adapting hunting techniques to new sea ice conditions 1 (11.1%) Bigger bears 1 (11.1%) Stable population demographic 1 (11.1%) Representative comments:

“They’re increasing and getting very bold and going in to cabins and stuff like that. I don’t know if they’re hungry or what, they just beats up the cabins and goes on.”

“The most noticeable change that I’ve seen with nanuk (polar bear) is that there’s more. There’s more big bears, there’s more female bears, there’s more juvenile bears, there’s more bears with cubs. We’re seeing a very healthy combination; it looks to be a very stable and very balanced nanuk (polar bear) population.”

14 respondents were asked question 12, ‘Would people older than you have noted other differences?’ Of the 14 participants, five answered “Yes”, three answered “No”, and six provided “No opinion” (NTotal

= 14). The distribution of responses to question 12 is summarized in Table 12.

Table 12. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 12, ‘Would people older than you have noted other differences?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 3 0 2 5 (35.7%) No 2 0 1 3 (21.4%) No Opinion 0 2 4 6 (42.9%)

The five respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 12a,’How would the older people describe the differences?’ (NTotal

= 5). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one difference in their response.

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The responses provided by participants have been summarized into 10 themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 12a.

Table 12a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 12a, ‘How would they describe the differences?’

Response Frequency More bears 2 (40.0%) Expanded range inland 2 (40.0%) Tranquilized more often 1 (20.0%) Worse body condition 1 (20.0%) Fewer seals 1 (20.0%) Representative comments:

“Older people didn’t use to talk about as many nanuks (polar bears) as there are now. They didn’t use to see so many.”

“They would describe the differences in bears as you know maybe one time when they use to see bears. When they were pretty few and far between, way back then in this area out here, it was pretty unusual to see a bear. For the most part the stories I heard come out of elders, they did come across a bear years ago. The bear always seemed to be in good shape. Whether it was due to the feed, not grow, or relaxed, or whatever. Now, in the last 10/15/20 years, just like I hear stories of more stories of bears not in such good shape. More thinner looks to be strung right out. The amount of fat on the animal in particular.”

12 participants were asked question 13, ‘What is the condition of the polar bear today?’ (NTotal

= 12). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one description in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into two themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 13.

Table 13. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 13, ‘What is the condition of the polar bear today?’

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total More bears 3 0 7 10 (83.3%) Healthy 3 0 1 4 (33.3%) No opinion 0 1 0 1 (8.3%) Representative comments:

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“Yes, there is a lot more polar bear now. There is a lot of them. Like if I was travelling, travelling northwards, I would sight more than one polar bear if I left here today. Before when I was a child, there were no polar bear around; they would sight probably one or two. But now there is polar bear everywhere. There is too many now.”

“I would say the conditions are healthy. In the more recent years, in the past 5-6 years we’ve seen a lot more polar bears in this part of Labrador and you hear of a lot more sighting down in Newfoundland and the polar bears that we’ve seen are healthy.”

Section 2: Polar Bear Range, Distribution, and Abundance 15 interview participants were instructed to identify locations of polar bear sightings over

the last 30 years (NTotal = 15). The participants identified 152 locations where they had seen polar

bears which occurred in various locations along the coast of Labrador (Figure 2a). For 30 of the locations, participants reported to have seen a minimum of one female and one cub. Six of the interview participants identified the season for 39 polar of their bear sightings, which occurred over spring, summer, and winter seasons (Figure 2b).

29  

Figure 2a. Locations of 152 polar bear sightings for all seasons that were reported by 15 Labrador polar bear hunters. Sightings that included cubs or family groups were also identified.

30  

Figure 2b. Locations of 39 polar bear sightings that occurred over the last 30 years and the seasons (spring, summer, and/or winter) that they occurred in were identified by six Labrador polar bear hunters.

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12 participants were followed up with question 14a, ‘Do people go to these locations to see the bears?’ (NTotal

= 12). Of the 12 participants, four answered “Yes”, seven answered “No”, and one provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 14a is summarized in Table 14a.

Table 14a. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 14a, ‘Do people go to these locations to see the bears?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 0 1 3 4 (33.3%) No 4 1 2 7 (58.3%) No opinion 0 0 1 1 (83.3%) Representative comments:

“Most people are scared of them. They won’t go near them. We want to go shoot them. Hunters will go look for them.”

“When I go out with my brothers or siblings, when our children are on Easter break, we take them over. We sometimes go there with our children.”

15 respondents were followed up with question 14b, ‘Are there as many, more, or less bears in these areas than in the past?’ (NTotal

= 15). The responses provided by the participants varied. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into three themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 14b.

Table 14b. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 14b, ‘Are there as many, more, or less bears in these areas than in the past?’

Response Frequency More bears 11 (73.3%) No changes 3 (20.0%) No comment 1 (6.7%) Representative comments:

“No. The numbers of nanuk (polar bear) is definitely increasing from what we see and what we know. We’re seeing nanuk (polar bear) now in the summertime - piujuk (seal) - that we didn’t see before and we didn’t see them around as much as we did now. There’s more and more now, without a doubt.”

“Pretty well the same I think, according to my observations. I’m still perceived as a young man, the older people say that there is a lot more bears than when they were younger.”

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14 respondents were asked question 15, ‘Have bears been coming into communities?’ (NTotal

= 14). Of the 14 participants, 11 answered “Yes” and three answered “No”. The distribution of responses to question 15 is summarized in Table 15.

Table 15. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 15, ‘Have bears been coming into communities?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 4 2 5 11 (78.6%) No 1 0 2 3 (21.4%) Representative comments:

14 respondents were asked question 16, ‘Have the sightings of bears in communities changed since you were young?’ (NTotal

= 14). Of the 14 participants, five answered “Yes” and nine provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 16 is summarized in Table 16.

Table 16. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 16, ‘Have the sightings of bears in communities changed since you were young?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 3 0 2 5 (35.7%) No opinion 2 2 5 9 (64.3%)

The five respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 16a, ’How have the sightings of bears in communities changed?’ (NTotal

= 5). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one difference in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into four themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 16a.

Table 16a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 16a, ‘How have sightings of bears in communities changed?

Response Frequency Increased amount of garbage and dumpsites 3 (60.0%) Bears are hungrier 1 (20.0%)

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Bears are less afraid of humans 1 (20.0%) Less sea ice 1 (20.0%) Representative comments:

“That has changed, they do get after Inuit property now, they do get after Inuit that has changed; it’s not like before. Before when I was a child polar bears were wilder. They used to run away as soon as you sighted them. Today they come after Inuit property. They come and wreck Inuit property even when they aren’t further outside, they wreck property anywhere.”

14 respondents were asked question 17, ‘Have bears been coming into cabin areas?’ (NTotal

= 15). Of the 14 participants, 13 answered “Yes” and one answered “No”. The distribution of responses to question 17 is summarized in Table 17.

Table 17. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 17, ‘Have bears been coming into cabin areas?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 4 2 6 13 (92.9%) No 0 0 1 1 (7.1%) Representative comments:

“Yes they are more, and I really believe the reason why the bear population has gone up. You have to be very, very careful in everything that we do and everything we live on the land and I told my children and my inoKatiks (fellow Inuit) now that it doesn’t make any difference. You always have to respect nanuk (polar bear) for their abilities and their strength. We’re starting to find that many of our cabins are being broke into; many of our tents are being destroyed. I even had nanuk (polar bear) try to come inside of my boat and I believe it’s a result that the population of nanuks (polar bears) are going up. There’s more now than what we’ve seen before.”

13 respondents were asked question 18, ‘Have the sightings of bears near cabins changed since you were young?’ (NTotal

= 13). Of the 13 participants, 10 answered “Yes”, two answered “No”, and one provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 18 is summarized in Table 18.

Table 18. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 18, ‘Have the sightings of bears near cabins changed since you were young?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total

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Yes 3 2 5 10 (76.9%) No 0 0 2 2 (15.4%) No opinion 1 0 0 1 (7.7%) Representative comments:

“We heard stories when we were young about bears coming to certain places where people lived, where they spent their winters. It seems to be more these years though; it’s happening more often and different time of the year.”

The 10 respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 18a, ’How have the sightings of bears in cabin areas changed?’ (NTotal

= 10). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one difference in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into eight themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 18a.

Table 18a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 18a, ‘How have sightings of bears in cabin areas changed?

Response Frequency There are more bears 3 (30.0%) More cabins exist than in the past 2 (20.0%) Bears have changed their travel routes 2 (20.0%) Bears are hungrier 2 (20.0%) Bears are attracted by noises 1 (10.0%) Bears are not scared of people 1 (10.0%) Bears search inland for alternative food sources 1 (10.0%) There is less sea ice habitat 1 (10.0%) Representative comments:

“I’ve had my windows broke out in my cabin 3 or 4 times, so have a lot of the other cabins there in Black Island. Mine is not the only cabin there. But why, again I guess because of the lack of the sea ice on the outside and the availability of food.”

“I guess there is more cabins and people go out in more less for weekends they’re not out to places now like they used to be years ago like living there. They come along moving north and just resident out here and there cabins are there and they seem to be attracted to the cabins and that’s right in their route anyway along the cabins where they’ve always travelled.”

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Section 3: Polar Bear Denning 14 interview participants were instructed to identify locations of polar bear dens (NTotal

= 14). Six participants were unable to identify any polar bear den sites. The remaining eight participants identified 14 locations where they had seen dens occurring in various locations along the coast of Labrador (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Locations of 14 polar bear den sites that were identified by eight Labrador polar bear hunters.

14 respondents were asked question 19, ‘What types of places do polar bears den?’ (NTotal

= 14). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into five themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 19.

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Table 19. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 19, ‘What types of places do polar bears den?’

Response Frequency Areas of Snow Accumulation 6 (42.9%) Highland/Hills 5 (35.7%) Capes/Cliffs 3 (21.4%) Secluded Areas 2 (14.3%) Windy Landscapes 1 (7.1%) No opinion 4 (30.8%) Representative comments:

“In the hills, where there are cliffs, where there had been an avalanche. They would dig a hole in the snow where they will sleep then they would be sliding back and forth on their bellies and their backs by their dens to prepare their fur. They would go back to their dens after they’ve finishing sliding to clean their fur. I have seen their dens in the snow. It is said that it’s not safe to be near them. If someone was near their dens, they would just come out go like this with their jaws and attack someone even if they tried to run away.”

14 respondents were asked question 20, ‘What types of snow are needed for polar bear dens?’ (NTotal

= 14). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into three themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 20.

Table 20. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 20, ‘What types of snow are needed for polar bear dens?’

Response Frequency Drift Snow/Snow Bank 6 (42.9%) Packed/Hard/Compact 5 (35.7%) No opinion 5 (35.7%) Representative comments:

“They need hard packed snow, nice cold snow, no melting snow, no mild's or getting mild in between, nice hard, packed, drift bank snow. You see it out here on the outside. Before its getting towards spring, the kind of snow I’ve seen dens out there. I haven't ever seen where they've had cubs but I've seen where they'd come in and den, you know, spent a day or two in a blizzard and storm and stuff and then they would always put nice hard, packed, drift snow.”

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Seven respondents were asked question 21, ‘Do bears den on ice?’ (NTotal = 7). Of the 13

participants, six answered “No” and one provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 21 is summarized in Table 21.

Table 21. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 21, ‘Do bears den on ice?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total No 2 0 4 6 (85.7%) No opinion 1 0 0 1 (14.3%) Representative comments:

“No. I've never seen dens on the ice, no. It was always in the back of the islands, under cliffs, back in under where the big drifts are where they can just crawl in for the night. Probably on every big island out here.”

10 respondents were asked question 22, ‘Do all bears den?’ (NTotal = 10). Of the 10

participants, six answered “Yes”, three answered “No”, and one provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 22 is summarized in Table 22.

Table 22. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 22, ‘Do all bears den?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 3 0 3 6 (60.0%) No 0 0 3 3 (30.0%) No opinion 1 0 0 1 (10.0%) Representative comments:

“They'll all den, yes. Well, of course when the mother would den before she would have her cubs and every other bear after that, male or female, big or small would dig through any blizzard if it’s bad enough for the bear. It would crawl in where ever he can where ever there's is nice drift bank they will dig out. It only makes a minute to do it. You know, they would just dig out a hole, go in a curl up and all bears would do that, especially in the winter months when there's big storms and that.”

10 respondents were asked question 23, ‘Have you ever seen a dead bear in a den?’ (NTotal

= 10). All of the 10 participants answered “No”. The distribution of responses to question 23 is summarized in Table 23.

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Table 23. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 23, ‘Have you ever seen a dead bear in a den?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total No 4 0 6 10 (100.0%) Representative comments:

“I have never heard of one.”

Nine respondents were asked question 24, ‘Have there been any changes in polar bear denning?’ (NTotal

= 9). Of the nine participants, seven answered “No” and two provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 24 is summarized in Table 24.

Table 24. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 24, ‘Have there been any changes in polar bear denning?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total No 4 0 3 7 (77.8%) No opinion 0 0 2 2 (22.2%) Representative comments:

“I never seen no changes in the den itself. I probably seen the dens at different times of the year. You'd see them a little later because we wouldn’t get out there later because the spring was always later when we started hunting out there first, it's just that we're going out earlier.”

Nine respondents were asked question 25, ‘Do you travel in areas where there are dens?’ (NTotal

= 6). Of the six participants, four answered “No” and two provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 25 is summarized in Table 25.

Table 25. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 25, ‘Do you travel in areas where there are dens?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total No 4 0 0 4 (66.7%) No opinion 0 0 2 2 (33.3%) Representative comments:

“You know really not – when you’re hunting you’re, there’s no … there’s really no area that you’re in the land. You can be in the land anywhere, you’re not specifically looking for a den,

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it’s just that you might be looking for a tuttuk (caribou) and you would see – see where there’s a den, but you’re not specifically direct towards dens it’s just an occasional time you will come across to see their tumiks (paw tracks) or you will see the hole where they came out, but we’re not specifically looking for it. Sometimes we may be looking for nanuk (polar bear), if we saw a nanuk (polar bear) with cubs we don’t have them anyway because we don’t kill females with small cubs.”

Section 4: Polar Bear Diet 15 interview participants were instructed to identify polar bear hunting and feeding areas

(NTotal = 15). The participants identified 29 locations where they had seen polar bears hunting and

feeding along the coast of Labrador (Figure 4). These feeding areas have been identified for areas where polar bears have consumed seals and/or alternative food sources.

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Figure 4. 29 polar bear hunting and feeding locations were identified by 15 Labrador polar bear hunters. The season in which they were used by the polar bears was identified for 22 of the 29 locations.

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15 respondents were asked question 26, ‘What do bears eat?’ (NTotal = 15). The

responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one food item in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into 14 themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 26.

Table 26. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 26, ‘What do bears eat?’

Response Frequency Seals (ring, harp) 14 (93.3%) Bird eggs (duck, puffin) 4 (26.7%) Berries 3 (20.0%) Whales (minke, beluga) 2 (13.3%) Anything the encounter that is edible 2 (13.3%) Ducks 1 (6.7%) Char 1 (6.7%) Sculpin 1 (6.7%) Kelp 1 (6.7%) Porpoise 1 (6.7%) Humans 1 (6.7%) Walrus 1 (6.7%) Garbage 1 (6.7%) Young birds (unspecified) 1 (6.7%) Representative comments:

“Seal, #1. It could be a surprise sometimes of what they might eat. When they come ashore on those certain outside islands in the spring of the year, they could eat eggs, there’s a lot of ducks and certain kind of birds lays eggs on the outside islands, even well up north, puffins and that, I’m sure they gets a little diet of that in the summer but seal is their primary food for sure.”

15 respondents were asked question 27, ‘Are there any differences between what males and females eat?’ (NTotal =15). Of the 15 participants, nine answered “No” and six provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 27 is summarized in Table 27.

Table 27. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 27, ‘Are there any differences between what males and females eat?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total No 0 4 5 9 (60.0%) No opinion 2 1 3 6 (40.0%) Representative comments:

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“I think they eat pretty much all the same diet, they’re all male or female, they will kill seals; that’s their main food. It doesn’t distinguish between genders, they’re still male or female, and they are still capable of catching puijik.”

14 respondents were asked question 28, ‘Do bears with cubs eat different foods?’ (NTotal =14). Of the 14 participants, 10 answered “No” and four provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 28 is summarized in Table 28.

Table 28. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 28, ‘Do bears with cubs eat different foods?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total No 4 1 5 10 (71.4%) No opinion 1 1 2 4 (28.6%) Representative comments:

“Again, puijik is their main source because of the richness of and nutritional value of puijik and utsuk their fat. They eat a lot of greasy foods. Not like junky foods but rich in protein and fat content. In particular with females with nursing cubs it builds up amâmaks- their milk source. In return their young ones can have it. They can have a feed off the mother even for three years old nanuks can.”

14 respondents were asked question 29, ‘Have the places that polar bears find food changed since you were young?’ (NTotal =14). Of the 14 participants, four answered “Yes”, seven answered “No”, and three provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 29 is summarized in Table 29.

Table 29. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 29, ‘Have the places that bears find food changed since you were young?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 1 0 3 4 (28.6%) No 3 1 3 7 (50.0%) No opinion 0 1 2 3 (21.4%) Representative comments:

“No. They’re still there. They’re pretty much the same thing. My father and grandfather hunted seals the same way as what I hunt them in the same areas. Inuk’s from Makkovik one day came from north. Shibwalik is a very popular area for seal hunting, even today. You have lots of

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people in Nunavik and Nunatsiavut who fondly remember going into these areas hunting between Makkovik and Rigolet. Lots and lots of seals.”

Four of the respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 29a, ‘How have the places where bears find food changed?’ (NTotal

= 4). The responses provided by the participants varied. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into two themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 29a.

Table 29a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 29a,‘How have the places where bears find food changed?’

Response Frequency Bears spend more time on or close to land due to limited sea ice availability

2 (50.0%)

No comment 2 (50.0%) Representative comments:

“I wouldn’t say the foods changed other than getting scarcer, definitely different locations because of the ice, the melting of the ice and stuff, they've been forced to hunt in different places now in places where they've never really been. They might've been there before but never so populated. My belief is there’s no more bears then there was even though they rose the quota there couple of years ago. I was surprised that they did that. I think the reason why we're seeing more bears is because the change of the ice, the melting of the ice has changed their routes and is handier to us and we just see it more because it’s coming to where we live almost. I've seen bear tracks up inside in the winter, 30 miles in from Postville. Nothing but a heavy timber in there, what in the world is a polar bear doing in there, right? Because of the spring ice, everything's changed.”

Six respondents were asked question 30, ‘How have polar bears changed the ways that they search for food?’ (NTotal =6). Of the six participants, four answered “Yes”, seven answered “No”, and three provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 30 is summarized in Table 30.

Table 30. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 30, ‘Have polar bears changed the ways that they search for food?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 1 0 1 2 (33.3%) No 0 1 2 3 (50.0%)

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No opinion 0 0 0 1 (16.7%) Representative comments:

“I don’t think so. They got the same food and same locations, far as I could see.”

The two respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 30a, ‘How have polar bears changed the ways that they search for food?’ (NTotal

= 2). The responses provided by the participants varied. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into two themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 30a.

Table 30a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 30a, ‘How have polar bears changed the ways that they search for food?’

Response Frequency Longer ice-free season forces bears to swim to feeding areas 1 (50.0%) Bears are now known to consume garbage at dump sites 1 (50.0%) Representative comments:

“Where the polar bear look for food melts quicker. So the polar bear are more aggressive because they get hungry. The seals where they look for food, they can look for food only by swimming now.”

14 respondents were asked question 31, ‘Do bears eat any foods other than seals?’ (NTotal =14). Of the 14 participants, 10 answered “Yes” and four answered “No”. The distribution of responses to question 31 is summarized in Table 31.

Table 31. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 31, ‘Do bears eat any foods other than seals?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 2 1 7 10 (71.4%) No 3 1 0 4 (28.6%) Representative comments:

“I never seen them eat anything besides seals.”

The 10 respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 32, ‘Other than seals, what types of foods do bears eat?’ (NTotal

= 10). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than one food item in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into 12 themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 32.

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Table 32. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 32, ‘Other than seals, what types of foods do bears eat?’

Response Frequency Scavenge on carcasses that they encounter (especially caribou) 4 (40.0%) Berries 4 (40.0%) Grass 2 (20.0%) Whales 2 (20.0%) Char 1 (10.0%) Seaweed 1 (10.0%) Mussels 1 (10.0%) Kelp 1 (10.0%) Moose 1 (10.0%) Sculpin 1 (10.0%) Mice 1 (10.0%) Eggs 1 (10.0%) Representative comments:

“Nanuk (polar bear) can adapt. If they find dead puijik (seal) or pamuiligaks (whales) or anything dead they’ll eat them. They’ll eat grass or berries or fish. They’ll eat that. IKaluk (char) I’ve seen them having iKaluk (char) before. They’re very adaptable.”

“I’ve never seen one caribou meat but they do travel through the country/tundra through the caribou trails. They may eat one that was killed by wolves. Wolves do kill caribou everywhere. I have never heard of one eating char, only things like sculpin – sculpin from the beach. They are known to eat sculpin when it’s low tide.”

12 respondents were asked question 33, ‘Have the bears changed their feeding habits since you were young?’ (NTotal =12). Of the 12 participants, two answered “Yes”, nine answered “No”, and one provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 33 is summarized in Table 33.

Table 33. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 33, ‘Have the bears changed their feeding habits since you were young?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 2 0 0 2 (16.7%) No 3 1 5 9 (75.0%) No opinion 0 1 0 1 (8.3%)

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The two respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 33a, ‘How has polar bears diet changed?’ (NTotal

= 2). The responses provided by the participants varied. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into two themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 33a.

Table 33a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 33a, ‘How has polar bears diet changed?’

Response Frequency Cod fish are no longer a part of bears diets 1 (50.0%) Unlike the past, bear consume garbage 1 (50.0%) Representative comments:

“Not that I know myself, first hand and stuff, but I know just from watching the news sometimes you see polar bears on the south coast, going through along the dumps and stuff like that. That's not typical; it never use to be like that. It all changed because of the weather but I haven’t seen nothing other than stories I've heard and just these stories, no older stories, on what bears do and that.”

Section 5: Physical Environment 14 respondents were asked question 34, ‘What types of ice do bears use throughout the

year?’ (NTotal = 14). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants

provided more than one example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into three themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 34. The specific types of sea ice listed in the responses to question 33 are summarized in Table 34a.

Table 34. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 34, ‘What types of ice do bears use throughout the year?’

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total All types 2 1 3 6 (42.9%) Specific Ice Types 3 0 3 6 (42.9%) No opinion 0 1 1 2 (14.3%)

Table 34a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses for specific types of sea ice and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 34, ‘What types of ice do bears use throughout the year?’

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Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Rough 2 1 5 8 (57.1%) Thin 3 1 1 5 (35.7%) Loose/Pan 3 0 1 4 (28.6%) Landfast 1 0 1 2 (14.3%) Thick 0 1 0 1 (7.1%) Representative comments:

“Just as long as it is thick enough for them to walk on, I think they will use it. A lot of times, you will see them on the edge of what we call land-fast ice, the bay ice and the outside part is rough ice. You always see them using that. What I think is that the seals don’t like to be on the rough ice. They like to be on the edge where the ice is moving all the time.”

14 respondents were asked question 34b, ‘How does the types of sea ice that polar bears use throughout the year change?’ (NTotal

= 14). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example item in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into three themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 34b.

Table 34b. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 34b, ‘How does the types of sea ice that polar bears use throughout the year change?’

Response Frequency Utilize whatever ice is available 9 (64.3%) Prefer rough ice for hunting 4 (28.6%) Prefer landfast ice for hunting 3 (21.4%) Prefer loose/pan ice for hunting 2 (14.3%) No comment 2 (14.3%) Representative comments:

“I find that bears use good ice, lots of times. I’ve seen them in rough ice, like on the very outside where there’s a lot of ice drifted in and built up. Later on in the spring usually where there’s a lot of seals, where there’s ice pans stuck to the shore.”

15 respondents were asked question 35, ‘Do bears with cubs use ice differently?’ (NTotal =

15). Of the 15 participants, four answered “Yes”, three answered “No”, and eight provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 35 is summarized in Table 35.

Table 35. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 35, ‘Do bears with cubs use ice differently?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

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Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 2 0 2 4 (26.7%) No 1 0 2 3 (20.0%) No opinion 2 2 4 8 (53.3%) Representative comments:

“Yes. They have to learn when they are very small, they’re very weak and they are not very good at travelling.”

“I guess it's same as the other ones…”

The four respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 35a, ‘How do bears with cubs use ice differently?’ (NTotal

= 4). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into four themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 35a.

Table 35a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 35a, ‘How do bears with cubs use ice differently?’

Response Frequency Avoid travelling in areas that could endanger the cubs 2 (50.0%) Uses less ice habitat; cannot travel as far with cubs 2 (50.0%) Start on landfast ice and progresses to other types 1 (25.0%) Use ice less often than other bears; frequently uses land 1 (25.0%) Representative comments:

“I think they are not as far out. Polar bears with cubs, I think they stick more to cliffs; more inland. Not so far out to the edge, that’s the main difference I can think of.”

“Anâna (Mother) takes them so far each day, each trip, so they get accustomed to it and they starts to get stronger. Normally they will be on the land fast ice from the sea so far out and they will have a certain area in the day for just out on the head lands where the ice extends so far out. And when they are small, they will start to hunt in that area in the spring time when the puijik (seal) is having their babies and they will keep them there for a while until they builds their strength up. Then they will start to migrate further and use different ice.”

11 respondents were asked question 36, ‘Do young bears that have recently left their mother use ice differently?’ (NTotal

= 11). Of the 11 participants, five answered “No” and six provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 36 is summarized in Table 36.

Table 36. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 36, ‘Do young bears that have recently

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left their mother use ice differently?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total No 3 0 2 5 (45.4%) No opinion 1 2 3 6 (54.6%) Representative comments:

“I guess the time they leaves their mothers, they know what to go on. That’s the way nature is. Whatever they knows, they lives by their selves, they leaves their mother so whatever their mother taught them, I guess.”

Eight respondents were asked question 36a, ‘Has the way that young bears that have recently left their mother use ice changed over time?’ (NTotal

= 8). Of the eight participants, one answered “Yes”, five answered “No”, and two provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 36a is summarized in Table 36a.

Table 36a. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 36a, ‘Has the way that young bears that have recently left their mother use ice changed over time?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 1 0 0 1 (12.5%) No 1 1 3 5 (62.5%) No opinion 0 0 2 2 (25.0%)

The one respondent who answered “Yes” was followed up with question 36b, ‘How has the way that young bears use ice changed over time?’ (NTotal

= 1). The response provided by the participant has been summarized in Table 36b.

Table 36b. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 36b, ‘How has the way that young bears use ice changed over time?’

Response Frequency Changes in weather and climate effects the availability of sea ice (for all bears)

1 (100.0%)

Representative comments:

“Like I said, because of the weather” referring to previous response:

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“Global warming, all the melting of the arctic ice, the ice is their life, that their house, that’s their home. Bears are creature of habit, where they goes one year, they'll do the same thing the next year, they'll go to the same places, they'll follow the same routes and all that. They’re getting forces to change their routes and migration and all this stuff because they’re losing all this ice and typically where they can walk, they can swim there. Yes, big changes because of the weather.”

15 respondents were asked question 37, ‘What have your elders told you about the sea ice?’ (NTotal

= 15). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into four themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 37.

Table 37. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 37, ‘What have your elders told you about the sea ice?’

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Sea ice travel precautions 2 1 2 5 (33.3%) Changes in sea ice conditions (thickness, colour, duration, etc.)

1 1 1 3 (20.0%)

Hazardous areas to avoid 1 0 3 4 (26.7%) No opinion 0 0 3 3 (20.0%) Representative comments:

“They told us to avoid the rough ice because the rough ice is just bumped up against the main ice. You got to watch it. You got to listen. If there’s a sea on, if you see a grinding of ice, don’t camp out on rough ice.”

15 respondents were asked question 38, ‘Have there been any changes in freeze and melt?’ (NTotal

= 15). Of the 15 participants, 14 answered “Yes” and one provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 38 is summarized in Table 38.

Table 38. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 38, ‘Have there been any changes in freeze and melt?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 5 1 8 14 (93.3%) No opinion 0 1 0 1 (6.7%)

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The 14 respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 38a, ‘What changes has there been to freeze and melt?’ (NTotal

= 14). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into three themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 38a.

Table 38a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 38a, ‘What changes has there been to freeze and melt?’

Response Frequency Later freezeup and earlier melt 12 (85.7%) The timing of freeze and melt are unpredictable 2 (16.7%) No comment 1 (7.1%) Representative comments:

“We are starting to see some changes, yes. We could be on skidoo and on the sea ice tagiuk (salt)? Probably in October and November. Sometimes it seems…some years it seems like it’s later in December or January even before we can use sikuk (ice) in Labrador imak (water)…tagiuk (salt). Tasiks (rivers) they freeze fairly fast. Inland water freezes fairly quick. At the end of the seasons, sometimes we can be on skidoo even in June, even in July in some areas. Sometimes in these later years we have to put up our skidoo by the end of April because our ice is melting.”

14 respondents were asked question 39, ‘How does weather affect ice that bears use?’ (NTotal

= 14). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into six themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 39.

Table 39. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 39, ‘How does weather affect ice that bears use?’

Response Frequency Warmer temperatures reduce the amount sea ice 6 (42.9%) Warmer temperatures reduce the season duration of sea ice 3 (21.4%) Warmer temperatures reduce the thickness of sea ice 2 (14.3%) Strong winds break up sea ice 2 (14.3%) Strong winds cause newly formed ice to be rough 2 (14.3%) No opinion 4 (28.6%) Representative comments:

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“We don’t get the cold temperatures like we used to normally get, so that means that the ice is not getting thicker and freezing as long as it used to and you get a shorter winter and you'd have to watch the conditions and for bears I think it just makes it harder for them to get at the seals, get at their food.”

14 respondents were asked question 40, ‘What have your elders told you about the weather and its effects on sea ice in the past?’ (NTotal

= 14). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into six themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 40.

Table 40. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 40, ‘What have your elders told you about the weather and its effects on sea ice in the past?’

Response Frequency Earlier freeze/later melt 4 (28.6%) Colder temperatures 3 (21.4%) Safer Ice conditions for travel 2 (14.3%) Stable weather conditions 1 (7.1%) Higher water levels 1 (7.1%) No opinion 4 (28.6%) Representative comments:

“Before I used to hear them talk about this, it is noticeable today. Ice conditions in some areas which never used to be dangerous, cannot not be used today. Some travel routes we used to take before cannot be used today. What was scary for me one time was, the ice was so thick (shows with his hands) when I went on it, after a couple of days I went back on dog-team and the ice couldn’t take the weight of my Kamutik (sled) already. There was one time I had to travel on bad ice where my Kamutik (sled) kept falling through for about one mile. Even some of my dogs almost perished because of the cold water.”

13 respondents were asked question 41, ‘Have weather changes affected the bears?’ (NTotal

= 13). Of the 13 participants, 10 answered “Yes”, two answered “No”, and one provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 41 is summarized in Table 41.

Table 41. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 41, ‘Have weather changes affected the bears?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 3 1 6 10 (76.9%) No 2 0 0 2 (15.4%)

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No opinion 0 1 0 1 (7.7%)

The 10 respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 41a, ‘How have weather changes affected the bears?’ (NTotal

= 14). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into three themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 41a.

Table 41a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 41a, ‘How have weather changes affected the bears?’

Response Frequency Less sea ice habitat available; forces bears on land 5 (35.7%) Longer periods without sea ice available (extended ice-free season) 4 (28.6%) Migration of prey species 2 (14.3%) No comment 1 (7.1%) Representative comments:

“Yes weather has effected bears in ways such as, if there is longer periods of time for the ice to form earlier for the ice to thaw out, which means there is less ice. What does that mean for the bear? That means for the bear, he is going to come closer to the land obviously looking for food. He is going to be spending more time on the land, than say we were living in the 1960’s or 1970’s. He would probably be 50 miles offshore. When the ice is gone they don’t have much choice but to swim around out in the ocean or head for land and look for food.”

10 respondents were asked question 42, ‘Have the bears adapted to the changes in weather?’ (NTotal

= 10). Of the 10 participants, seven answered “Yes”, one answered “No”, and two provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 42 is summarized in Table 42.

Table 42. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 42, ‘Have the bears adapted to the changes in weather?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 4 0 3 7 (70.0%) No 1 0 0 1 (10.0%) No opinion 0 1 1 2 (20.0%) Representative comments:

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“With what I see, I see a healthy population of nanuk (polar bear). I have not seen any evidence that nanuk (polar bear) is….there’s not on the land and the sea…we’re not seeing sick or hungry nanuk (polar bear) no more than what we normally would see so they’re still able to adapt. They’re very adaptable. Nanuk (polar bear) is very isumak (smart). They can change.”

“I don’t think they have completely adapted to the weather changes. I think they are going through the process of trying to adapt to it. There are times when I watch all sorts of different other channels on TV and news in particular. If you look at areas like Manitoba, Churchill, and them areas. You hear more and more about increase in number of bears. The bottom line is, the real reason they will give us is due to the lack of ice. It’s certainly got a negative impact on bears for sure.”

The seven respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 42a, ‘How have bears adapted to the changes in weather?’ (NTotal

= 7). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into three themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 42a.

Table 42a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 42a, ‘How have bears adapted to the changes in weather?’

Response Frequency Expanding their range inland 2 (28.6%) Consuming alternative food sources (e.g., berries) 2 (28.6%) Catching seals on land and in water 1 (14.3%) Expanding their range to follow seal migrations to new suitable areas 1 (14.3%) No comment 4 (57.1%) Representative comments:

“There was a polar bear I seen outside of Hopedale about 2 years ago in the summer time. They said it was eating berries and that, so I guess they must’ve adapted and they said it was a fat bear.”

13 respondents were asked question 43, ‘Have sea ice changes affected the bears?’ (NTotal

= 13). Of the 13 participants, 11 answered “Yes” and two answered “No”. The distribution of responses to question 43 is summarized in Table 43.

Table 43. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 43, ‘Have sea ice changes affected the bears?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total

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Yes 3 1 7 11 (84.6%) No 2 0 0 2 (15.4%) Representative comments:

“Ice changes have affect polar bears, yes. The only other thing the polar bear got to depend on to walk on other than ice is land, and certainly they spend more time on land…”

The 11 respondents who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 43a, ‘How have sea ice changes affected bears?’ (NTotal

= 11). The responses provided by the participants varied. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into three themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 43a.

Table 43a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 43a, ‘How have sea ice changes affected bears?’

Response Frequency Spend less time on sea ice hunting seals; less food 6 (54.5%) Forced to swim or travel further due to the lack of sea ice 3 (27.2%) Increased range inland; increased interactions with humans 2 (18.2%) Representative comments

“I guess it means they have a harder time getting from point A to Point B because it’s either they swim across a big body of water or they walk right inside the bays and come out, to get to where they are going north or going south. It seems like in the spring, when the rough ice moves off the land, it gets in the strongest part of the Labrador Current and it goes south. I don’t know if that would be why there are so many sightings of bears around southern Labrador and Newfoundland now. Once it gets down there, it melts two or three times faster than it do up here. I don’t know if that’s why they are starting to see a lot more down south.”

“I guess they be coming on the land more. There moving from island to island like I said before. They are coming into contact with people more. If the ice is not there they are going to be on the land more.”

Five participants were asked question 44, ‘Have the bears adapted to the changes in sea ice?’ (NTotal

= 5). Of the five participants, one answered “Yes”, one answered “No”, and three provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 44 is summarized in Table 44.

Table 44. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 44, ‘Have the bears adapted to the changes in sea ice?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency

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Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 1 0 0 1 (20.0%) No 1 0 0 1 (20.0%) No opinion 1 1 1 3 (60.0%) Representative comments:

“I don’t know. If they never I guess they will. I don’t know how long it will take.”

“I don’t think they have adapted. I think that they’re just doing what they always done is hunt seals and like they always did. I don’t think the ice had any bearing on their habitats or movements or anything like that.”

The one respondent who answered “Yes” was followed up with question 44a, ‘How have the bears adapted to the changes in sea ice?’ (NTotal

= 1). The response provided by the participant is summarized in Table 44a.

Table 44a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 44a, ‘How have the bears adapted to the changes in sea ice?’

Response Frequency Catch more seals in the summer months 1 (100.0%) Adjust to the changes of their prey species 1 (100.0%) Representative comments:

“I think they have if there are changes. They’ve learned that seals may be born earlier, they may be born in a different area they may have to move, they may have to adapt to catching seals more in the summer, which they have done, because I’ve seen it with my own eyes. I’ve seen bears in the summer that are by no means starving. These are very healthy bears. I’ve also seen them catch many puijik (seal) in the summertime. They’re very adaptable. Have we witnessed? Some years that the ice did break up earlier to the headlands it seemed that the nanuks (polar bears) were still able…there was still enough ice in the bottom of the bays or further in that they could just move in and they adapted.”

Section 6: Hunting, Conservation, and Elder Hunting Knowledge 15 participants were asked question 45, ‘Describe a typical polar bear hunt 25 years ago’

(NTotal = 15). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided

descriptions of multiple aspects of the hunt in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into 21 themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 45.

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Table 45. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 45, ‘Describe a typical polar bear hunt 25 years ago.’

Response Frequency Travel by dog sled 7 (46.7%) Travel by snowmobile 5 (33.3%) Long periods of travel (days to weeks) 4 (26.7%) Hunted in a group 3 (20.0%) Travelled long distances 3 (20.0%) Searched for and/or followed tracks to find bears 3 (20.0%) Licenses were required 2 (13.3%) Hunting was opportunistic 2 (13.3%) Licenses were not required 2 (13.3%) Dogs used for distraction while shooting 2 (13.3%) Travelled with lots of supplies (e.g., food) 2 (13.3%) Short periods of travel (day trips) 1 (6.7%) Hunted as a social activity 1 (6.7%) Hunted to spend time out on the land 1 (6.7%) Hunted during the day 1 (6.7%) Hunted along the coastline 1 (6.7%) Travel along regular trails 1 (6.7%) Dogs used for tracking bears 1 (6.7%) Hunting was more dangerous 1 (6.7%) Better sea ice conditions than present day 1 (6.7%) No comment 1 (6.7%) Representative comments:

“Not much more than 25 years ago, you'd have to be on a dog team down here, ski-doo's wasn’t down here for many years… My grandfather had a dog team and I got a memory of that and that's all he used but there were ski-doo's around then. I seen it like that but it's a big difference. If they wanted to go now on a hunt they could be gone for a month sometimes and I can go in a day or a day and a half where it use to take them weeks. I sits on a ski-doo and I can drive a 140km an hour if I wanted to on this machine and travel fast if the going is good verses them with 6 and 7 dogs, a month’s supply of food and most typically it used to be grandfather and his brothers, just 2 people on the Kamutik (sled) and all this gear plus your dogs food. You could almost walk faster than they can go, you know what I mean? But they had to go with dogs and carry all of these things, so it use to take them a long time verses us, we can almost do it in overnight, big difference in the way we travel.”

“Like I said earlier, char fishing and being out in the cabin, if a polar bear came into our camp, we used to kill it; only if it came into our area. We didn’t look for them, they came by themselves. My father only got bears when they came to our camp. I don’t remember him going out to look

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for the polar bears. It was only when the bear came into our camp. These days you need a licence to hunt bears. That is the only thing that has seemed to change.”

“They’d go out by dog team, that’s before ski-doos then they have their dogs and let the leader doggo first so he could stop the polar bear and then they’d release the other ones so they can make a circle around the bear so the hunter could go up a shoot it.”

13 participants were asked question 46, ‘Have there been any changes in how you hunt bears today?’ (NTotal

= 13). Of the five participants, seven answered “Yes”, five answered “No”, and one provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 46 is summarized in Table 46.

Table 46. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 46, ‘Have there been any changes in how you hunt bears today?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 3 0 4 7 (53.8%) No 2 2 1 5 (38.5%) No opinion 0 0 1 1 (7.7%) Representative comments:

“Very much so.”

“No it hasn’t changed. In my generation anyway.”

The seven participants who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 46a, ‘How have sea ice changes affected bears?’ (NTotal

= 7). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into four themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 46a.

Table 46a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 46a, ‘What are the changes in how you hunt bears today?’

Response Frequency Transportation (ski-doos) 4 (57.1%) Hunting Regulations 3 (42.9%) Ice conditions 2 (28.6%) Hunting Gear 1 (14.3%) Representative comments:

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“What’s changed now is our method of transportation, I guess. Most people hunt bears now by ski-doo. Basically you come across a new polar bear track and within a half an hour you can probably catch up with it, you know, if you don’t see it right away because with the snowmobiles now they’re dependable and fast and you can go long distances, without costing any amount of money really.”

Nine participants were asked question 47, ‘Do you hunt bears more often today?’ (NTotal

= 9). Of the nine participants, two answered “Yes” and seven answered “No”. The distribution of responses to question 47 is summarized in Table 47.

Table 47. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 47, ‘Do you hunt bears more often today?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 1 1 0 2 (22.2%) No 2 1 4 7 (77.8%)

The two participants who answered “Yes” were followed up with question 47a, ‘What allows you to hunt more often?’ (NTotal

= 2). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into two themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 47a.

Table 47a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 46a, ‘What allows you to hunt more often?’

Response Frequency Larger quotas allow more hunters to participate 1 (50.0%) New regulations allowing hunters to get a license more often 1 (50.0%) Representative comments:

“When the polar bear license came out there first year, if you killed a bear on the first year, we weren’t allowed to hunt them for another 5 years but now I think they got the regulations changed to 2 years. I’m not sure but that’s what I heard, so if I can hunt in 2 years’ time, I’d like to hunt again.”

The seven participants who answered “No” were followed up with question 47b, ‘What prevents you from hunting more often?’ (NTotal

= 7). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example in their response. The responses

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provided by participants have been summarized into five themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 47b.

Table 47b. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 47b, ‘What prevents you from hunting more often?’

Response Frequency Restrained by hunting regulations 3 (42.9%) Employment 1 (14.3%) Costs of hunting/Access to gear 1 (14.3%) Lack of interest 1 (14.3%) No opinion 2 (28.6%) Representative comments:

“That depends on a licence. The licence run by the government. Yes, sometimes some people might be busy just to go polar bear hunting, some people might be working, some people can’t afford it and some people don’t have skidoos but some people are very lucky that they can afford to go polar bear hunting. Gas costs a lot to go polar bear hunting and a long distance cost more, but not very many people do that.”

“Back then before we had polar bear licenses we were able to kill as many as want, so that was good. Today with having to have a license to kill polar bear, we can’t kill a polar bear even if we saw one. If it was an aggressive one I would kill it. Like I said, I was almost attacked by a polar bear once. I was in my boat and looked over and there was this polar bear very close to me so I killed it. That was after trying to swing at it and hit it with my gun. That was the only time I was scared because I was shaking for a while afterwards.”

14 participants were asked question 48, ‘How do you keep track of changes in the bear population number?’ (NTotal

= 14). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into four themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 48.

Table 48. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 47, ‘How do you keep track of changes in the bear population number?’

Response Frequency Word-of-mouth 7 (50.0%) Personal observations 6 (42.9%) Online social networks 1 (7.1%) No opinion 3 (21.4%) Representative comments:

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“Just through stories, I guess, talking to each other. If they seen something different, they would talk to other guys about it, or Facebook.”

14 participants were followed up with question 48a, ‘Do other hunters use the same methods to keep track of the changes in the bear population number?’ (NTotal

= 14). Of the 14 participants, seven answered “Yes” and seven provided “No opinion”. The distribution of responses to question 4ya is summarized in Table 48a.

Table 48a. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 48a, ‘Do other hunters use the same methods to keep track of the changes in the bear population number?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 4 1 2 7 (50.0%) No opinion 1 1 5 7 (50.0%) Representative comments:

“We share knowledge, Inuit of anywhere. If I wanted to know an answer to a question, Inuit in Nunavik, Nunavut or Nunatsiavut are willing to share their knowledge. We share. We share with each other. We share what we are seeing, what we’re taking. We’re sharing the respect. We’re sharing the knowledge of how many nanuk (polar bear) that we’re seeing. We’re sharing the importance of utilizing the whole nanuk (polar bear) if we do have one and to be respectful for it. Inuit, very willingly, share this knowledge with each other. It’s been that way as long as I can remember and I think that is still continuing.”

11 participants were asked question 49, ‘What needs to be done to protect the polar bear population?’ (NTotal

= 11). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into four themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 49.

Table 49. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 49, ‘What needs to be done to protect the polar bear population?’

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Continue to utilize the quota system 2 1 3 5 Strict enforcement of harvest policies 1 0 2 3 Environmental protection for polar bear habitat

0 0 1 2

Use local/tradition knowledge for 1 0 1 2

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management decisions Utilize adaptive management strategies 1 1 0 2 Survey the population more frequently 0 1 0 1 Use scientific knowledge for management decisions

1 0 0 1

No opinion 0 1 0 1 Representative comments:

“I guess work with the local governments to figure out what is an acceptable quota, and just use the quota system for everywhere. Talking to everybody. I think northern Labrador’s way of getting polar bears is probably the best one. The way that it works around here, you got the licence for 3 days; you put your name down on a piece of paper and just say that you had your name down before me, they’ll call you up and if you don’t want to go, it will go to the next person. Then I can go and I will have the licence for 72 hours. But your name gets taken off, it keeps going down the list and it goes back up to you again. But you got 72 hours to get one.”

12 interview participants were instructed to identify locations of their polar bear kills over the last 30 years (NTotal

= 12). The participants identified 26 polar bear kill sites along the coast of Labrador (Figure 5). The distances travelled by interview participants from their home communities to the locations of their polar bear kills ranged from 18.89 kilometers to 528.13 kilometres. The average distance between the communities and kill sites was 189.98 kilometres. The number of kill sites and the minimum, maximum, and average distance between a hunter’s community and their associated kill sites are summarized in Table 50.

Table 50. The number of polar bear kills identified for each community and the minimum, maximum, and average distance (kilometres) between the kill site and the community of the associated hunter are summarized below.

Community Number of Kill Sites

Minimum Maximum Average

Hopedale 6 31.38 65.18 46.015 Nain 7 38.78 417.95 145.52 Postville 8 18.89 357.22 100.96 Rigolet 5 415.81 528.13 467.42

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Figure 5. Locations of 26 polar bear kill sites were identified by 12 Labrador polar bear hunters based on their hunting activities over the last 30 years.

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15 participants were asked question 50, ‘What polar bear hunting knowledge should be passed on to your children?’ (NTotal

= 15). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into 22 themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 51.

Table 51. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 50, ‘What polar bear hunting knowledge should be passed on to your children?’

Response Frequency Respect the bears 6 (40.0%) Be careful and/or safe 6 (40.0%) Share with the community 6 (40.0%) Kill quickly and humanely 6 (40.0%) How to clean a bear 5 (33.3%) How to prepare a hide 5 (33.3%) Polar bears are dangerous 4 (26.7%) Take only what is needed 3 (20.0%) To respect traditional practices 3 (20.0%) Gun knowledge and safety 3 (20.0%) Follow hunting regulations 2 (13.3%) Spend time on the land 2 (13.3%) To hunt in groups 2 (13.3%) Respect the land 2 (13.3%) Use every usable part of the bear 2 (13.3%) Not to kill females 2 (13.3%) Bears can be on both land and sea ice 1 (6.7%) Bears follow travel routes 1 (6.7%) Bring dogs hunting for safety 1 (6.7%) Hunt easier animals first 1 (6.7%) Be aware of ice and weather conditions 1 (6.7%) What gear to bring on a hunt 1 (6.7%) Representative comments:

“Every bear I killed or my Dad and I killed, we'd always come back and there's certain people or certain elders in the town that you'll call. There's always someone that wants a meal, like [name removed] and the old man would have a meal. I'll take a fry. We'd take a few meals each. That's always something we'd do. You still try to make it a traditional thing because it's the way it should be. It’s was always the way I grew up and I'm taught and I'd teach my children the way we were taught just to respect it. Respect the land and that out there where the bear is frequent, don’t leave no garbage around when you’re out hunting. Out shooting and making a big noise and racket for nothing, like you see some people doing out there, young fellers starting to hunt out there, they will shoot whatever moves and anything they can kill. I got 3 girls and 1 of my

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girls experienced a lot out there in regards of hunting and stuff like that and did just as much as any boy would and I taught her that way like the way I was taught, you know. Don’t go leaving garbage around. There's different ways to show respect to the bears and that out there and it affects the bears if there's garbage around.”

12 participants were followed up with question 50a, ‘Was this knowledge passed on to you by elders?’ (NTotal

= 12). Of the 12 participants, eight answered “Yes” and three answered “No”. The distribution of responses to question 50a is summarized in Table 51a.

Table 51a. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 50a, ‘Was this knowledge passed on to you by elders?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 2 0 6 8 (66.7%) No 1 1 1 3 (25.0%) Representative comments:

“Yes, they taught me some of it. I learned through experience but most of it I learned from people who have been around bears for years and years.”

The three participants who answered “No” were followed up with question 50b, ‘If not from elders, how did you acquire this knowledge?’ (NTotal

= 3). The responses provided by participants have been summarized in Table 51b.

Table 51b. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 50b, ‘If not from elders, how did you acquire this knowledge?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Response Frequency Learned through experience 2 (66.7%) No comment 1 (33.3%) Representative comments:

“It’s just something that I’ve done and seen other people do.”

15 participants were followed up with question 51, ‘Are there traditional ways to prevent taking too many bears?’ (NTotal

= 15). Of the 15 participants, seven answered “Yes” and eight provided “No comment”. The distribution of responses to question 51 is summarized in Table 52.

Table 52. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 51, ‘Are there traditional ways to

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prevent taking too many bears?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Response Frequency Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 3 2 2 7 (46.7%) No opinion 2 0 6 8 (53.3%)

The seven participants who answered yes were followed up with question 51a, ‘What are the traditional ways to prevent taking too many bears?’ (NTotal

= 7). The responses provided by the participants varied, and some participants provided more than example in their response. The responses provided by participants have been summarized into five themed categories. These categories and the frequency of their occurrence in the responses are summarized in Table 52a.

Table 52a. The frequency of the occurrence of thematic responses and the percentage of occurrence for the entire sample are provided for question 51a, ‘What are the traditional ways to prevent taking too many bears?’

Response Frequency Prohibiting hunting during certain seasons 1 (14.3%) Prohibiting the hunting of mothers and cubs 1 (14.3%) Harvesting only what was needed 1 (14.3%) Only kill bears if necessary 1 (14.3%) No opinion 5 (71.4%) Representative comments:

“People had ways of doing it. It was almost like Inuit customary law, Inuit knowledge that people had, that they wouldn’t hunt nanuk (polar bear) at a certain time of the year. They wouldn’t take baby ones, they wouldn’t take females with cubs. If they didn’t need it, they didn’t have it…”

15 participants were followed up with question 51b, ‘Are these traditional harvest restrictions still being used since quotas came into effect?’ (NTotal

= 15). Of the 15 participants, seven answered “Yes” and eight provided “No comment”. The distribution of responses to question 51b is summarized in Table 52b.

Table 52b. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 51b, ‘Are these traditional harvest restrictions still being used since quotas came into effect?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total

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Yes 1 1 3 5 (33.3%) No opinion 4 1 5 10 (66.7%) Representative comments:

“Yes, they’re still be used.”

14 participants were asked question 52, ‘Did elders hunt polar bears with cubs?’ (NTotal =

14). Of the 14 participants, two answered “Yes” and 12 answered “No”. The distribution of responses to question 52 is summarized in Table 53.

Table 53. The frequency of specific responses by community and the summed response frequency for the entire sample are provided for question 52, ‘Do elders hunt polar bears with cubs?’ The percentage of total responses is also included for the entire sample.

Frequency Response Postville Hopedale Nain Total Yes 0 0 2 2 (14.3%) No 4 2 6 12 (85.7%) Representative comments:

“No, bears with cubs are to be left alone. That’s what they used to say because if a mother bear is killed you’d have to kill the cub too, because the cub will starve. They used to say to leave them alone; that was for hunters.”

“My elders never hunted bears with cubs. It’s not what they did. I’ve heard it happening but it’s not normal practice.”

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Discussion 

Section 1: Polar Bear Health and Physical Condition The polar bears in Labrador are currently in good condition. During the interview,

participants were asked to discuss photographs and condition diagrams of bears ranging in condition from skinny to very fat (Appendix D). They noted that both extremely skinny and extremely fat bears were uncommon in the area (Tables 10a and 10e). They also suggested that the bears ranged from a thin to fat (Appendix D) body condition based on the seasonal differences of food availability (Tables 10b-10c). Several bears that were considered skinny or starving had been reported by interview participants; however, none of the participants considered a lack of food to be the cause of the poor body condition (Table 6a). The causes for skinny or starving bears were considered to be a result of old age, injury or disease, as opposed to the inability to feed on a sufficient number of seals (Tables 4a and 6a).

Disease was acknowledged as a possible cause of poor body condition and mortality of bears; however, few interview participants reported seeing sick or diseased bears. The terms sick and starving were used interchangeably by interview participants. Skinny polar bears that were identified to be starving were assumed to be sick or diseased due to their poor body condition (Table 4a). All reports of polar bears that were sick or diseased were attributed to injuries except for report of a polar bear getting sick from the consumption of a diseased harp seal (Table 4a). Both natural (e.g., from fights with other bears or other animals) and human (e.g., bullet wounds or remnant bullets) inflicted injuries were considered to be the main causes of sickness and poor body condition. For example, wounds were reported to get infected and some injuries were reported to hinder some polar bear’s ability to hunt or consume food. No interview participants reported changes in climate or sea ice conditions as a cause of starvation (Table 6a). The participants generally agreed that polar bears were able to obtain a sufficient amount of food to maintain a seasonally acceptable body condition (thin in the spring and fat in the winter). However, several participants expressed concern over the availability of seals along the coast of Labrador. These concerns appeared to be influenced by a recent seal mass mortality (See Diet).

Interview participants did not report any changes in body condition despite recent changes to sea ice, climate, or the availability of prey species. However, recent studies have suggested that the DS polar bears have experienced a decline in body condition (Rode et al., 2012; Peacock et al., 2013). Rode et al. (2012) reported that the decline in the annual DS sea ice concentration since the 1990s may have contributed to a decline in the annual body condition of the DS polar bears. The Labrador interview participants did not observe the declines reported by Rode et al. (2012) for the DS subpopulation. One possible explanation for this inconsistency is that the declines in body condition were not apparent for polar bears with a fidelity to the southern area of the DS subpopulation (e.g., Labrador). Harp seals have been progressively increasing along the coast of Labrador since the 2000s (Stirling and Parkinson 2006; Peacock et al., 2013). It is possible that a superabundance of harp seals exclusive to the southern area of the

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DS subpopulation may have sustained the body condition of the Labrador polar bears while declines were experienced elsewhere.

Section 2: Polar Bear Range, Distribution, and Abundance Polar bear sightings were limited to areas travelled by Labrador Inuit and areas inhabited

by Labrador polar bears. Interview participants reported bear sightings that occurred over decades of participating in common activities such as travel, hunting, and employment. The data collected included the location and date (if possible) of any single or group of bears that had been seen and/or harvested by the participants. Polar bears were reported by interview participants in locations spanning the majority of the Labrador coastline (Figure 2a). The geographic range of the polar bear sightings identified by interview participants was consistent with the geographic extent of the species’ range defined for the southern extent of the DS subpopulation (Taylor et al., 2001). The density of polar bear sightings in northern areas of Labrador was also consistent with scientific literature. Several interview participants associated the northern areas of Labrador with higher densities of polar bears. Some participants referred to the Torngat Mountains National Park area as “bear country”. This relationship between northern areas and greater bear density is similar to that reported in recent mark-recapture studies (Peacock et al., 2013).

The distribution of polar bear sightings did not demonstrate a seasonal pattern as polar bears were seen in similar locations regardless of the season (Figure 2b). Several participants noted that polar bears are known to follow the seals and sea ice as they move south during the winter and north during the summer. Seasonal migrations have been also been reported in scientific literature, stating that most DS bears inhabit the northern Labrador coast and the windward shores of Baffin Island during the summer season (Harington, 1994; Taylor et al. 2001). The polar bear observations provided by interview participants did not reflect seasonal migrations consistent with those reported in scientific literature (e.g., polar bears were seen as far south as the most northern section of Lake Melville in the spring and Hamilton Inlet in the summer). However, the season of the polar bear sightings was reported for only 39 of 152 (25.6%) of the total bear sightings provided by interview participants. Observations were also provided for a 30 year time-span. The limited sample size of seasonal sightings and the large time-interval in which the sightings had occurred were insufficient for meaningful comparisons seasonal migrations and seasonal distribution of Labrador polar bears.

Interview participants were required to identify sightings of bear family groups. Participants reported family groups consisting of a mother and one or two cubs. Participants who reported several family groups stated that the ratio of cubs in the family groups was even between one or two cubs. The number of family group sightings reported in this study was insufficient to make meaningful conclusions about the litter size of Labrador polar bears; however, the observed ratio is consistent with the estimated average litter size of 1.49 (SE = 0.14) by Peacock et al. (2013). The spatial distribution of family group sightings did not appear to differ from that of other bears. Family groups in other polar bear subpopulations have been

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reported to be found further inland than individual subadult or adult polar bears (Regehr et al., 2007). In the DS subpopulation, physical barriers of steep terrain along the coastline restrict movement inland, forcing family groups to remain within closer proximity to non-family group bears (Peacock et al., 2013). Thus, the overlapping locations of family groups and non-family group polar bear sightings is consistent with the scientific literature (Figure 2a).

Labrador hunters recently observed changes in the range and distribution of Labrador polar bears. Polar bears were reported to enter human-inhabited areas more frequently (Table 15), and polar bears have been observed farther inland (Table 18a). Eleven of 14 (78.6%) interview participants observed polar bears in community areas. Five of 14 (35.7%) of respondents indicated that there has been an increase in bear sightings in communities in recent years. The reasons provided for this increase in polar bear-community interactions were bears being hungrier, an attraction to dumps as a food source, a reduction in sea ice, a polar bear population increase, and the bears becoming more accustomed to a human presence (Table 15). Increased human-bear interactions was more apparent in cabin areas. 13 of 14 (92.9%) of interview participants reported that bears had been observed in cabin areas (Table 17). 10 of 13 (76.9%) of interview participants reported that there had been an increase in polar bear sightings in cabin areas in recent years, as well as an increase in the frequency of bear-related damage being dealt to cabins (Table 18a). Many of the participants attributed the increase in bear-related damage to an increase in the abundance of polar bears. Other participants stated that the recent decline in sea ice contributed to the increase in human-bear interactions. Polar bears become closer in proximity to communities and cabin areas when they are on shore as opposed to on the sea ice. Some participants also stated that polar bears seek out alternative food sources as they are forced on shore for longer periods of time (Table 41a).

Recent scientific studies have also reported an increase in human-bear interactions in other subpopulations (Stirling and Parkinson, 2006; Stirling and Derocher, 2012). These studies suggest that in areas where the availability of sea ice has been reduced as a result of changes in climate, an increase in polar bear sightings near human settlements occurs because the polar bears seek out alternative food sources due to nutritional stress. Nutritional stress was reported to result in an increase of human-bear encounters, thus compromising the peoples’ ability to detect subpopulation trends. However, the interview participants for this survey were all polar bear hunters who spent time both in and outside of communities, and provided information regarding observations at locations 100’s of kilometres from their homes (Figure 2a). The majority of interview participants also reported that Labrador Inuit monitor changes in polar bear abundance through personal observations and through word of mouth from those who spend time on the land (Table 47). Labrador hunters also reported that most of the bears were in good condition, thus not nutritionally stressed (Tables 10a-10e). Therefore, the Labrador Inuit’s ability to detect change in polar bear abundance was not compromised by polar bears concentrating around communities. An increase in polar bear abundance is a more likely explanation for the increased human-bear encounters.

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Interview participants generally agreed that the number of polar bears had increased in Labrador. 10 of 12 (83.3%) of interview participants reported that the number of bears in Labrador have increased in recent years (Table 13). Eleven of 15 (73.3%) of interview participants indicated that they had been seeing more bears than in the past (Table 14b). Participants also noted an increase in general signs of polar bears everywhere; not only near communities. Participant recollections of hunting activates during pre-1970s often suggested that bear sightings were a rare occurrence and that there were noticeably fewer bears. More recent recollections of hunting activities indicated an increase in the number of bear sightings since the 1990s. An increase in abundance is also consistent with recent mark-recapture studies that found a likely increase in the 2000s due to the greater availability of harp seals in the southern range of the DS subpopulation (Peacock et al., 2013).

Section 3: Polar Bear Denning Few dens were observed and reported by the interview participants and only a slight

majority of participants had ever seen a polar bear den. However, interview participants appeared to be knowledgeable of polar bear dens and aware of the general location of denning areas in Labrador. Participants reported that denning was restricted to land and often occurred in areas of high snow accumulation such as hills and cliffs occurring on islands or capes along the coastline. Specific denning areas were mentioned near Hebron and Cape Mugford. Participants also associated northern Labrador as a general denning area. The focus on northern Labrador for polar bear dens is consistent with known and protected denning habitat within the Torngat Mountains National Park (Obbard et al., 2010). Eight Labrador polar bear hunters were able to identify the locations of 14 polar bear dens (Figure 3).

The majority of participants interpreted dens as both burrows built as temporary shelters and maternity dens. The type of dens that were identified was not specified by the interview participants or inquired about by the interviewer. Interview participants identified northern Labrador specifically as a maternity denning area; however, some reports suggest that few females choose to den there (Harrington, 1994). Alternatively, several dens have been reported in northern Labrador, north of Saglek Fiord (Brice-Bennett 1977). Currently, the specific range and extent of polar bear denning in Labrador is uncertain (Brazil and Goudie, 2006). 

The participants’ limited first-hand knowledge of polar bear dens may be explained by the location of denning areas in Labrador and Labrador’s sex-selective harvest of polar bears. Denning areas are suspected to be concentrated northern Labrador, north of Saglek Fiord (Brice-Bennet, 1977). Travelling through this area is limited to leisure and occupational and hunting activities as no Labrador communities are located within this area. Interview participants also reported that they do not often travel near denning areas. Sex-selective harvest likely impacts the areas travelled by Labrador Inuit polar bear hunters as females with cubs are not harvested. All participants displayed a negative stigma associated with hunting females with cubs (Tables 52a and 53). Denning areas were described by interview participants as secluded and located away from typical polar bear travel routes in an attempt to protect the cubs from adult males. Thus, it

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is unlikely that hunters would choose to travel in areas particular to an unwanted polar bear demographic, unless hunting for species other than polar bears. However, in other subpopulations, it is not uncommon for denning areas to be located on land; away from where adult male bears typically hunt and travel (Stirling and Andriashek 1992; Messier et al., 1994). Alternatively, the steep terrain along the coastline of Labrador prevents denning females from moving as far inland to avoid males as observed in other subpopulations (Peacock et al., 2013), thus, denning areas may still be encountered by Inuit polar bear hunters in search of a male.

Changes in temperature and precipitation due to a progressively warming climate have been viewed as a threat to polar bear dens (Clarkson and Irish, 1991). Reductions in snow accumulation, increased rain, and early thawing are expected to reduce the available denning habitat and make existing dens unusable (Clarkson and Irish, 1991; Stirling and Smith, 2004). Participants of this study also did not report any changes to denning locations or behaviour. Although not a focus of this study, participants did not note any particular changes in precipitation in the area. No conclusions about climate effects on dens can be made from this study as interview participants appeared to have limited experience with polar bear dens and were not asked about precipitation changes in Labrador.

Section 4: Polar Bear Diet 14 of 15 (93.3%) of interview participants identified seal as the primary food source for

Labrador polar bears. The only participant stated that did not specify seal as the primary food source simply stated that bears will eat anything. Few participants specified the types of seals that the polar bears were eating; however, participants who listed specific types stated that the bears will eat all seals if given the opportunity. The most common types of seals that were identified by participants were harp seals and ringed seals. These types of seal are consistent with reports of the diet of polar bears within the DS subpopulation. According to Thiemann et al. (2008) harp seals and ringed seals are the most common types of seals consumed by the DS polar bears, making >80% of their total diet.

Over recent decades, the primary prey for the DS subpopulation has varied between ringed seal and harp seal depending on their relative abundance for a given time. For the Labrador portion of the DS subpopulation, harp seals have been known to make a larger contribution to polar bears diets, as opposed to ringed seal which makes larger contributions to the diet of polar bears in the northern regions of the subpopulation (Iverson et al., 2006). Recently harp seal has been reported to contribute up to 90% of the polar bears diet in southern portions of the DS subpopulation area (Iverson et al., 2006). The trend towards an increase of harp seal consumption has been related to an increase in harp seal availability along coasts of Labrador since the early 2000s (Stirling and Parkinson 2006; Peacock et al., 2013). The diet of all polar bear age classes and both sexes were reported to be the same; all primarily focusing on the consumption of seals.

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The overall condition of the Labrador seal population (particularly harp seals) appeared to be in conflict between interview participants. Three of 15 (20.0%) participants reported that the number of seals had declined in recent years, while four of 15 (26.7%) participants reported that there were just as many or more seals available. The conflicting views appeared to be influenced by an event that occurred during 2010 and 2011 where a large number of harp seals had died and were washing up on the shores of Newfoundland and Labrador. The winters of 2010 and 2011 had the poorest ice cover on record for the Atlantic, which coincided with high levels of pup abandonment and mortality and unexplained high levels of mortality in adult seals (Stenson and Hammill, 2011). This event was noted by six of 15 (40.0%) interview participants. Three of the six (50.0%) participants who mentioned this event remained concerned over the condition of the seal population at the time of the interview. However, the other three particpants (50.0%) reported that the seals had already recovered at that time (mid-late 2012). The perception that the harp seal population was not threatened by the mortality event was reinforced as in 2013 the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans stated that the Northwest Atlantic harp seals are near the highest levels observed since monitoring began (Hammill et al., 2013). While the current outlook for the Labrador seal populations appears to be positive, climate effects may potentially reduce the productivity of some seals in the future. Similar to ringed seals, harp seals are dependent on sea ice for the construction of birthing lairs and to wean their pups (Stirling, 2005). Reductions in sea ice have been predicted to reduce their survival and abundance (Johnston et al., 2005). Further sea ice decline may become problematic for Labrador polar bears as their diet is extremely reliant on the consumption of harp seals (Iverson et al., 2006). If the climate in Labrador continues to warm and sea ice continues to decline, increased monitoring of seal populations may be warranted to ensure that Labrador polar bear will be able to obtain sufficient nutrition.

Polar bears have been known to incorporate a number of alternate foods into their diet (Dyck and Kebreab, 2009). Labrador polar bears were reported to be consuming a wide range of flora and fauna, as well as anthropogenic waste (Tables 26 and 32). Interview participants reported that the only changes that they had noticed in the polar bears diet were the absence of cod and the utilization of garbage from human settlements and dump sites, which has grown in recent decades (Tables 30a and 33a). Participants did not report any other dietary changes for Labrador polar bears.It could be assumed that Labrador polar bears have always utilized these alternative food sources as they have been reported to consume a large variety of food items opportunistically for decades (Dyck and Kebreab, 2009); however, the extent that alternative food sources were consumed is unknown. The utilization of alternative food sources has sometimes been interpreted as a coping mechanism for poor nutrition as a result of declining sea ice conditions (Stirling and Parkinson, 2006). However, Labrador polar bearare currently in good condition and are reported to be consuming alternative food sources.

The mapping exercise for identifying polar bear feeding areas did not suggest any fidelity to specific locations as feeding areas were identified along the majority of the Labrador coastline

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(Figure 4). The areas that interview participants considered to be polar bear feeding areas included both where the bears hunted seals and/or consumed alternative food sources. Some alternative food sources that were identified (Tables 26 and 32) likely would have been limited to specific seasons due to the seasonal availability of the food (e.g., berries), or prey species becoming vulnerable during specific times in their life cycles (e.g., geese and ducks moulting in the summer season).

The majority (62.1%) of feeding areas were identified for summer season, while a few spring (10.3%) and winter (17.2%) locations had also been identified (Figure 4). Summer feeding areas were distributed all along the coast, but noticeably included inlets and bays that were not identified for other seasons. Polar bears enter a state of hyperphagia during late spring and early summer periods where they feed intensively on seals (Thiemann et al., 2008; Pilfold et al., 2012) and rapidly increase their mass prior to the onset of the open water season (Stirling, 2011). Thus, expectedly feeding areas for the summer season were the majority of those identified by interview participants. Most winter areas were distributed along the coast of Labrador and overlapped with the summer feeding areas. Only three spring feeding areas were identified, all occurring in the southern range of the Labrador coast. These few feeding areas may reflect the seasonal migrations of the bears that have been previously reported (Harington, 1994; Taylor et al. 2001); however, it is difficult to make conclusions from so few locations.

Section 5: Physical Environment, Weather, and Climate All of the DS subpopulation has seasonal sea ice, which melts completely in the warmer

months and re-freezes during the colder months. The annual ice cover for DS is highly variable and rarely reaches above 50% (Stirling and Parkinson 2006). Sea ice has been breaking up progressively earlier since 1991 (Stirling and Parkinson, 2006), and significant declines in the total annual ice cover have been reported for some areas in the eastern and western extent of the DS subpopulation (Born, 2005). Labrador has experienced similar conditions to the rest of the DS subpopulation..

Interview participants reported changes in climate, weather, and sea ice for Labrador. Weather was reported to have affected Labrador polar bears by reducing the amount and duration of sea ice that is available and influencing changes in the location of prey species (Tables 36b, 39, and 41). The reductions in sea ice extent and availability were reported to have been caused by consistently warmer temperatures and strong winds (Table 39). Interview participants generally agreed that changes have been occurring due to consistently warmer temperatures occurring over the last few decades (Table 39). Participants reported reductions in sea ice extent, thickness, and the duration of its availability throughout year (Tables 37, 38a, and 41a). Sea ice was reported to be breaking up earlier in the year and freezing later in the year, thus extending the length of the open water season; a time at which polar bears fast and have the least access to seals (Table 38a). Such changes have been predicted to result in declines in body condition (Rode et al., 2013) and possibly mortality if the duration of the open water season extends to a critical threshold (Molnar et al., 2010; Robbins et al., 2012). However, Stirling and Derocher

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(1993) predicted that the first negative impacts of longer ice-free periods would appear in the southern subpopulations around Hudson and James Bay first, as they have the longest open water season. Both the Western Hudson Bay (WH) and Southern Hudson Bay (SH) subpopulations have not declined and continue to withstand an annual harvest of 22 (WH) and 57 (SH) polar bears (York et al., 2014).

Several participants reported that strong winds have been affecting polar bears by breaking up newly formed and thin sea ice. Kotierk (2009) reported similar findings for the DS subpopulation suggesting that changes in wind patterns and stronger winds were responsible for breaking up sea ice in the DS subpopulation. Derocher et al. (2004) has predicted that polar bears near the edge of the pack ice may lose contact with the main body of ice and drift further away from their preferred habitat. Additional travel by ice or sea (swimming) has been reported to increase the nutritional stress of polar bear migrations as they attempt to maintain position against the direction of sea ice drift (Mauritzen et al., 2003).

There were no differences in how polar bears used sea ice with regards to weather. Interview participants were in a general agreement that polar bears can and will use all available types of sea ice; however, some types of sea ice were reported to be preferred (Tables 34 and 34a). Thin ice was always considered to be the least desirable, but participants often boasted about the polar bears ability to travel across it with ease. The most desirable types of ice were rough, landfast, and loose/pan ice. Polar bears had been reported using each of these sea ice types often for activities such as hunting seal or travel. With the exception of mothers with cubs, polar bears were not reported to use sea ice differently based on their sex or age (Tables 35-36b). Mothers with cubs were reported to use the ice differently only for a short period of time at the beginning of the cubs development cycle when they would be least experienced and physically abled. The ice that mothers and cubs used wasreported to be limited to landfast ice by several respondents. Mothers with cubs typically inhabit areas farther inland to avoid males, thus they were expected to encounter landfast ice first and foremost. By the time the bears are old enough to leave their mothers they were reported to use sea ice the same as all other bears (Table 35a).

The majority of participants reported that the bears have been adapting to the recent changes in weather (Tables 42 and 42a). The extent and duration of sea ice available to the polar bears as hunting habitat has declined in recent years (Born, 2005; Stirling and Parkinson 2006); however, the majority of interview participants did not consider the reduction in sea ice to affect their body condition (Table 13). Several participants considered the number of seals being consumed by Labrador polar bears to be sufficient for long-term viability (Tables 2a and 44a), especially as there has been a recent increase in harp seal abundance. Several participants also reported that polar bears were also able to consume alternative food sources or catch seals on land or in the water to make up for the shorter hunting season (Table 42a). Dyck and Kebreab (2009) reported that it is possible for polar bears to maintain their body mass during the open water season by feeding on arctic charr and seal blubber; however, the utilization of these food sources would depend on the availability of the seals and charr during the summer period, as

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well as the skill of the bear to catch them (Dyck and Kebreab, 2009). Several scientific studies have suggested that consuming alternative food sources should not be considered positive. Stirling and Parkinson (2006) reported that the appearance of more bears near coastal communities and hunting camps was likely due to a search for alternative food sources during periods of nutritional stress. Stirling and Derocher (2012) reported that the utilization of alternative food sources should not be considered as adaptation, but rather an indicator of ecosystem change and a loss of primary habitat.

Several interview participants reported that Labrador polar bears were adapting to periods of reduced sea ice by catching seals on land and in the water (Table 42a). Participants praised the polar bear’s abilities to catch seals regardless of the environment. Some participants stated that the polar bears would make up for any less seals consumed on the ice during the summer time using these hunting methods, especially while seals are abundant. The general majority of participants stated that the Labrador polar bears have been changing their travel routes as a result of recent changes in sea ice conditions (Tables 18a and 29a). Recent studies have predicted that activities such as stalking behaviour and changes in travel routes to preferable habitat due to a lack of available sea ice will require greater amounts of energy (Derocher et al., 2004). Additional energy use is expected to put addition nutritional stress on the bears, making it more difficult to endure the open water fasting period, which appears to be progressively increasing in duration as the climate warms (Stirling and Parkinson, 2006; Rode et al., 2012).

What science considers as a sign of stress for Labrador polar bears, local Inuit hunters consider attempts to adapt to changes in their physical environment. Declines in body condition have been reported for the DS subpopulation over several decades (Rode et al., 2012); however, the subpopulation has continued to increase in abundance over the last two decades (Peacock et al., 2013). Local people have reported seeing more bears, but have not reported any declines in body condition. Similar conflicts between the scientific community and the Inuit have been reported by several studies focusing on polar bear abundance and their ability to adapt to a changing environment for other subpopulations (Tyrrell, 2006; Dowsley and Wenzel, 2008). Without concurrence between scientific knowledge and TEK it is difficult to resolve this conflict with absolute certainty; however, this study has provided two possible explanations in support of the TEK perspective (See Diet).

Section 6: Hunting, Conservation, and Elder Hunting Knowledge Traditionally, the Inuit used the polar bear as an occasional food source that was hunted

opportunistically or when other wildlife was unavailable. The harvest of a polar bear could provide several hundred kilograms of food, but polar bear hunting activities were limited as the bears were considered to be dangerous (Brice-Bennett 1977; Wenzel, 2011). Currently, the Labrador Inuit continue to hunt the polar bears as a part of their cultural traditions and a subsidence lifestyle. However, polar bear hunting has become a very specialized activity in which very few individuals participate. The number of Labrador Inuit involved in subsistence hunting activities has been declining in recent years (Dombrowski et al., 2013). Reports of

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Labrador Inuit becoming less involved in hunting activities (more specifically polar bear hunting) were also apparent in this study. Several interview participants noted that the number of active polar bear hunters is limited. These limitations have been so apparent that some years the polar bear hunt quotas have not been filled. One participant suggested that the lack of polar bear hunters was due to a disinterest from the newest generation of Labrador Inuit. Young Inuit males, in particular, were reported to have lost interest in subsistence hunting in other Inuit groups due to a lack of incentives and the considerable investment of money and time required for participation (Wenzel, 2005). Alternatively, current Labrador Inuit polar bear hunters showed a strong interest in sharing their hunting knowledge with Inuit youth and relatives (Tables 49 and 51). Common themes among the knowledge that was desired most to be shared was how to respect wildlife, to hunt safely, how to clean their kill, and to share with the community (Table 51).

Seven of nine (77.8%) interview participants stated that they hunt less often than in the past (Table 48). Interview participants stated that their hunting activities are limited due to several factors. The participants attributed the restrictions on hunting to employment, the costs of hunting (e.g., gear, gas, access to equipment), hunting regulations, and a lack of interest. Studies have reported that employment may hinder an individual’s ability to participate in subsistence activities, especially during optimal opportunities such as when animals are near or during favourable weather conditions (Wenzel, 2000; Dombrowski, 2007). Alternatively, Inuit employment may also provide the means from which hunters are able to accomplish and facilitate harvest of wildlife (Wenzel, 2009). Dombrowski et al. (2013) reported that most resource use in and around Nain involves modern equipment, all of which must be purchased in the cash economy. The majority of Inuit adults in Nain are employed (54%); each facing time constraints while attempting to participate in subsistence hunting activities (Dombrowski et al., 2013). Interview participants reported harvest restrictions to be the largest limiting factor for polar bear hunting, regardless of the recent quota increase (Table 47b). The quota set for the harvest of polar bears along the coast of Labrador was limited to six bears annually until 2011 when the Torngat Wildlife and Plants Co-Management Board (TWPCB) increased the total allowable harvest to 12 polar bears. Several respondents noted that this increase alleviated their concerns with the quota system, which were that the quota was unnecessarily conservative (too low) which limited their participation in the hunt.

Other criticisms of the management system that were offered concerned implementation of the licence system. Two respondents noted that the 72-hour time limits allotted to polar bear licences was too restrictive, especially during periods of poor weather that would restrict their ability to hunt. Some respondents expressed concerns over having to wait five years or more to obtain a license to hunt polar bear again; but these concerns appear to have been addressed with the recent quota increase and reduced license wait period. One respondent stated that they were having difficulty fully utilizing their quota. This issue was too few active polar bear hunters in smaller communities (Rigolet, Makkovik, and Postville). If active polar bear hunters are

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restricted from obtaining a license for a set period of time; a portion of the quota may go unused. The respondent suggested removing the waiting period, or to allow unused licenses to be transferrable to larger communities where they can be used. However, these criticisms were limited to few respondents. As the interviews were conducted shortly after the quota change occurred, and because not every one of the participants is continuously active in hunting activities (Table 47), there is a possibility that the participants were unaware of the recent regulation changes. Another explanation could be that interview participants were referring to the restrictions that they faced when they were last active hunting polar bears.

Recent changes in sea ice were reported to have affected the activities of the hunters and local residents of Labrador. Several participants remarked that travel along the coast had sometimes become difficult and unsafe due to the recent changes to sea ice (Table 46a). Familiar and historic trails are sometimes unsafe or impassable, resulting in a search for new routes. Several participants reported that elders often shared knowledge about sea ice conditions (Table 37). The knowledge that they shared focused on the changes in climate and sea ice that they had witnessed (warmer temperatures and sea ice declines), taking travel precautions and noting areas that are no longer traversable due to the changes. Kotierk (2009) also noted similar sea ice changes and its effect on travel for other parts of the DS subpopulation. As sea ice continues to decline travel along the coast may become increasingly difficult for hunters, requiring more time and more energy (e.g., fuel).

Recent studies have reported that Labrador subsistence hunters may travel as far as 100 kilometres in groups of two to five hunters on a given hunting trip (Dombrowski et al., 2013). 15 of 26 (57.6%) hunting trips were less than 100 kilometres from the kill site. The remaining 11 (32.4%) trips averaged distances of 335.97 kilometres to the kill site (Table 50; Figure 5). Polar bears appear to be available near most communities during the hunting season (February-June) (Figure 2a), thus hunters are not forced to travel long distances to acquire a polar bear. It is apparent that some hunters choose to travel longer distances regardless of the availability of bears (e.g., the hunter from Rigolet: Figure 5). Interview participants have expressed that the goal of hunting trips are not solely focused on obtaining a polar bear to harvest, but also serve a wider social and cultural role (Table 45). Alternatively, as some hunters face economic and or social restraints that limit their time availability for hunting, they reported opting for shorter trips only to obtain a bear from the most convenient nearby locations. One participant discussed taking short “day trips” when the opportunity became available. Several interview participants also stated that hunting is often conducted in groups for social and safety reasons (Table 45). Coordinating hunting activities between several hunters may also be difficult given that each individual will has their own schedules and social and economic constraints.

The majority of interview participants expressed support for current management strategies such as the quota system, and even stated that restrictions should be better enforced (Table 49). However, for some participants there appeared to be a negative stigma associated with the use of scientific methodologies for the research and management of the bears, including

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the quota system and tranquilization. Several participants noted that the Inuit had managed the harvest of polar bears in the past and that the quota system was unnecessary (Table 47b). Participants also noted that the bears were being immobilized more often than in the past and that tranquilizing bears causes sickness, impairs the bears’ ability to hunt, and can sometimes cause death (Tables 4c and 12a). The immobilization of polar bears has been a controversial issue with the Inuit in other areas, particularly as they not only care for the wellbeing of the bears but also they are weary of consuming meat from an animal that has been drugged (Kotierk, 2009).

Most interview participants stated that they have taught (or would like to teach) their children to respect the land, the bears, and traditional practices. The importance of sharing harvested bears with the community was expressed in the interviews. 6 of 15 (40%) of the respondents felt that it was important for hunters to share their spoils with the community. The sharing of country foods has always been a traditional practice of the Inuit; however, today it may even have more cultural importance (Dombrowski, 2013). Not as many Inuit are engaged in activities to gather country foods. Thus, many Labrador Inuit continue to utilize traditional food sources, but rely on those who invest time in the activities to provide them. The sharing of these traditional foods and traditional knowledge is becoming increasingly important for the maintenance of the Inuit traditional culture (Dombrowski, 2013). Traditional values have often been passed down orally in Inuit culture, specifically through elders. The establishment of elders as an important source of information was apparent. Eight of 11 (72.7%) of interview participants stated that elders taught them the knowledge that they wished to pass down to the next generation of Labrador Inuit.

Some traditional harvest practices have similarities to the harvest policies enforced today. 12 of 14 (85.7%) interview participants stated that elders never hunt a female with cubs (Tables 52a and 53). The majority of these participants noted the elders were not willing to hunt them because it would jeopardize the survival of the cubs. This restriction was also noted when asked what was a traditional way to prevent taking too many bears (Table 52a). Similarly, the Newfoundland and Labrador’s Wild life Act and Regulations prohibits the hunting and disturbance of females with cubs and denning areas. Traditional harvest restrictions also included the limitation of hunting during certain seasons, only taking what is needed, and to only kill bears if necessary (Table 52a).

 

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Section 7: Interview as a Survey Method This study focused on collecting information about a variety of polar bear related topics,

such as polar bear ecology, hunting, and climate change. TEK obtained from this interview could be described as falling within three categories: “factual/rational knowledge about the environment”, “factual knowledge about past and current”, and “culturally based value statements” (Categories 1-3 from Usher, 2000). The “semi-directed” approach allowed a structured and consistent progression through the material that had been identified a highest priority for management without limiting responses unduly. Those interviewed were responsive to the questions, but also often provided additional information and sometimes suggested or insinuated that that the questions could have been improved. This demonstrated a good rapport between the researcher, interpreters and respondents; and provided opportunity for the interviewers to improve their questionnaire, which they did several times. The following comments provide some suggestions on ways a subsequent survey could be improved.

Sample size

While there is no standardized minimum response rate for surveys (DePaulo, 2000), the more responses received, the more likely that statistically substantiated conclusions can be identified about the target population. This survey focused on15 participants from four Labrador communities. The sample size was insufficient for meaningful comparisons between gender, age, or location (community). Comparisons between respondents by factor would add dimensions to our understanding of Labrador polar bear TEK, and an expanded sample size should be considered for any future work. Larger samples allow greater resolution of factor differences (increased power of statistical tests), but the minimum number per category should be no less than 30 for most statistical comparisons (DePaulo, 2000).

Interview Design

The interview structure included a series of compound questions addressing various aspects of a specific topic (Appendix C). Interview participants would often provide answers that addressed a single part of the question rather than addressing each of the question’s multiple components. For example, one question from section G of the interview (Appendix C) asks: “Have the places where bears find their food changed since you were young? Has their food changed? For example, different foods, different feeding locations?” Few interview participants who commented on changes referred to both differences in foods and location in their answers. King (1994) advises to keep questions simple and to avoid asking multiple questions at the same time. If additional information is required beyond the extent of the answer that was provided by the interview participant, an interviewer should consider using verbal prompts (e.g., “Could you tell me more about this?”) to stimulate a participant to expand on their answer and address the targeted information (Bernard, 2006).

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Answers provided for individual questions did not always reflect what the questions were targeting. This may have been partly due to the style and wording of the interview questions (Fowler, 1992). Interview questions need to be direct and unambiguous so that both the interviewer and interview participants all come to a mutual understanding of what is being asked (Bernard, 2006). If interview participants can interpret a question to have a different meaning, it jeopardizes the value and utility of the response, particularly if responses are subjected to factor analysis (e.g., gender, age, location). For example, one question from section D of the interview (Appendix C) asks: “Would people older than you have noted other differences? How would they describe them?” Interview participants ranged from 25 to 72 years of age. The term “older” was used in an attempt to target elder knowledge. Without including a specific age group in the question, the participants’ answers may have referred to a wide range of ages depending on their perception of the term “older”. Rephrasing the question to reflect the target population (e.g., elders) would have increased the likelihood of producing consistently meaningful answers.

Some interview questions led interview participants to discuss specific elements within their answers. For example, a question from section G of the interview (Appendix C) asks: “Do bears eat any other foods that you have seen? For example, grass, waterfowl, caribou or berries? Can you point on the map where you have seen this?” The examples of foods provided led the interview participants to discuss the examples particularly, rather than allowing them to form and express a list of foods from their own knowledge. This limited the amount of information that participants would provide through their answers. Both the survey designers and interviewers should avoid imposing their own perceptions on the interviewee through how questions are phrased or how they are asked (King, 1998).

Although the survey instrument is sometimes modified during initial testing, it is not usually a good idea to change the instrument or the protocol during the actual survey. A changing survey makes it difficult to evaluate the effect of any factor considered, and also makes it difficult for the analyst to determine if the variety of responses is due to a plurality of opinion or knowledge, or if apparent differences are simply due to changes in the interview.

Field Testing

Many of the issues discussed above might have been discovered and addressed through an initial field test of the survey instrument and the interview protocol. A field test would have assisted with the refinement of the survey instrument and also the interviewer(s) better prepared for the formal study (Turner, 2010). Turner (2010) advises that a field test should be conducted using interview participants with similar interests to the targeted sample for the study.  This will allow the interviewer to interact with individuals who are likely able to provide answers to the interview questions; simulating an interview with a member of the targeted sample. Interviewer training is necessary as their actions during the interview can directly influence the quality of the responses. However, Bernard (2006) cautions using possible interview participants in a field

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test, especially when a targeted sample for the survey is limited, as test participants should not be later used for the main survey.

In this study some questions were asked in the first surveys that were omitted from each of the subsequent interviews. The order of the interview sections was also changed in the interview instrument. The researchers who conducted the survey demonstrated increasing awareness of the issues and limitations of the survey instrument but the only response possible was to revise the survey as it was conducted. Performing a field test in future studies would enhance the interview process and improve the quality and consistency of the information collected.

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Conclusion 

The polar bear TEK survey provided detailed historical, ecological, nutritional, demographic, and hunting practices information based on the knowledge of Labrador Inuit hunters. The seal population around the Labrador coast appears to remain abundant, although hunters were very much aware of a recent mass mortality event. Information on denning areas along the Labrador coast was limited to the general area where most denning occurs, while the specific concentration areas and approximate density of dens remained unknown. Declining sea ice conditions were reported to hinder movements of both the hunters and polar bears. However, the sea ice conditions were not suspected to have any negative demographic effects on the Labrador polar bears. The majority of participants reported that recently and over the long term, the number of bears and their range is increasing in Labrador. Although several participants expressed concerns over the long term viability of the bears in the due to continued climate warming, the majority of participants have stated that the bears will adapt to changes in their environment.

The interview participants were well aware that climate warming had increased the duration of the open water season locally. However, participants did not report that changes in climate, sea ice, or seal abundance had resulted in reduced hunting success or a decline in polar bear body condition. Declines in body condition were not observed by most hunters in Labrador, and most polar bears were reported to be generally healthy (in good condition), except for infrequent sightings of old, injured, or possibly sick bears. We speculate that retention of body condition may be attributed to an increase in harp seal numbers or the exploitation of alternative food sources.

Interview participants continue to value the practice of hunting polar bears. However, restrictive harvest regulations and social and/or economic obligations have hindered individuals abilities to participate in hunting activities (Dombrowski, 2013). The harvest regulations are likely to be viewed as less restrictive because of the recent quota increase from six to 12 bears per year, allowing active hunters to participate in polar bear hunts more often. Recent management changes appear to have addressed the concerns of the resource users.

Our summary of Labrador Inuit polar bear TEK should be regarded as descriptive rather than definitive. A larger sample of Labrador Inuit, including women, and better representation from the two southern Labrador coastal communities could have added additional dimensions and facilitated quantitative comparisons between communities, gender, and age of category of respondents. However, this survey was the first comprehensive TEK study conducted on polar bears in Labrador. While it suffered from several methodological issues and limitations, it should be viewed as a successful first step towards better co-management. While the polar bears in Labrador appear stable at the present time, concerns over the long term persistence of the subpopulation may be warranted as the climate continues to warm and as sea ice continues to

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decline. TEK offers a real-time monitoring method that can detect changes over shorter time-frames than the infrequent scientific surveys that most management is based on. Increased consideration should be given to adaptive management based on TEK with scientific studies triggered by the advance warning that local hunters can provide.

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Acknowledgements 

We thank the Torngat Secretariat and Lakehead University for their collaboration towards the development of this report. Thank you also to the Torngat Wildlife Management Board, for their hard work and dedication at each stage of this project, from design, through implementation, to translation and final editing. We thank Dr. Larry Felt of Memorial University for his contribution to the design of this study. We thank the hunters who participated in this study for the generosity that they showed by sharing their knowledge and allowing it to be included in this paper. The senior author was supported by a Lakehead University graduate fellowship and a SSHRC scholarship.

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Appendix A 

Inuit Polar Bear Traditional Knowledge Study: Information Sheet

The Torngat Secretariat is conducting a study on polar bears. The Secretariat provides technical and administrative support to the Torngat Wildlife and Plants Co-Management Board that was created by the signing of the Labrador Inuit Land Claims Agreement. Our work is about the future management of wildlife, plants, and fisheries. Our work aims to provide the continued use and benefit of these natural resources to the Inuit people. This study is like other studies that have been done in Nunavut and Alaska.

We know that Inuit people have much knowledge about polar bears and how they live. We would like you to tell us all you know about the bears in Labrador. We are interested in learning about the polar bear and how changes in the environment affect their lives. Your knowledge can help better manage the polar bear in the future.

Given the importance of the polar bear to the Inuit people, we hope to gather clear and complete knowledge about them from you. What you tell us will help manage the polar bear in the best way possible. Your name has been provided to us as someone who has held a license and hunted polar bear with success in the past.

We know that Inuit knowledge about the polar bear is often passed on through stories and traditions. We are interested in hearing about what you have seen, heard, and learned yourself. We want to gather your knowledge to help improve how polar bears are managed.

We would first like to hear everything you have to say about polar bears in Labrador. In addition, the interviewer will ask you to describe: a. Polar bears b. Aspects of a polar bear’s world c. Seals d. The weather and sea ice e. Changes to sea-ice f. Changes in the locations of polar bears g. Changes in size of polar bears, and other changes in their body condition such as their pelt

or fat h. Changes in denning i. Changes in the amount, types, and location of prey j. Changes in the number of polar bears

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k. Changes in the weather that might affect polar bears l. Changes in how other animals interact with polar bears m. How the Inuit people manage their use of polar bears n. Past hunting patterns o. Current hunting patterns p. Past occupation and land-use patterns q. Changes in the way people use the polar bear’s habitat If you agree, we would like to have two people talk to you about your knowledge when it is a good time for you. The interview will last around 1 hour. In respect for sharing your knowledge, we will pay you $150. You can keep the money even if you do not want us to use the information you have given us or if you want to stop talking to us at any point during our visit.

It is up to you if you wish to talk to us. It is up to you if you want to answer all of the questions or just some of them. We will destroy all information you give us if you decide that you do not want us to use it.

Other than seeing your name on the government list, your name will not be connected with any information you give us. We will do everything we can to make sure that only the researchers are aware of what you have told us. The information you give us will be kept in a secure place at our office.

Only a few people will use the data we have gathered after your name has been removed from all files. These people will help us study the data. A copy of all materials will also be given to the Nunatsiavut Government Research Advisory Committee. The committee is always given any information gathered about Inuit land and people in Labrador. Both the researchers and committee members are required to: � Store the information in a secure location � Not share the data with anyone outside of the research team/board � Not talk about the content of the interviews with people outside of the research team/board The Torngat Secretariat is required under the Land Claims Agreement to provide research support to all parties of the agreement. All data that are gathered and any reports that are written will be kept as long as needed. These data will be protected using the security measures outlined above. It is also possible that the reports and data may be used in future research. Researchers given access to the data will be required to follow the same confidentiality rules.

The Proposal for this research has been approved by the Nunatsiavut Research Review Board. Should you have any questions about the research and Nunatsiavut approval you should contact Ms. Carla Pamak, Inuit Research Advisor, Nunatsiavut Government Research Advisory Committee (telephone 709-922-2380 or electronically at carla_pamak@nunatsiavut.com). Should you have any questions about the research you may contact Jennifer Mitchell Foley at the Torngat Secretariat.

This study has also been reviewed by the Interdisciplinary Committee on Ethics in Human

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Research at Memorial University of Newfoundland and found to be in compliance with Memorial University ’s ethics policy. If you have ethical concerns about the research (such as the way you have been treated or your rights as a participant), you may contact the Chairperson of the ICEHR at icehr@mun.ca or by telephone at 709-864-2861.

Contacts: Patricia Nash Director, Inuit Knowledge Polar Bear Study Torngat Secretariat patricia.nash@torngatsecretariat.ca Telephone 709-896-6782

Lawrence Felt Memorial University Research Co-investigator lfelt@mun.ca Telephone 709-754-0401

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Appendix B 

Informed Consent Form

You are asked to take part in a study about polar bears in Labrador. Title: Inuit Polar Bear Traditional Knowledge Study Researcher(s)

Ms. Patricia Nash, Torngat Secretariat (709-896-6782, patricia.nash@torngatsecretariat.ca)

Dr. Lawrence Felt, Memorial University

(709-699-4560, lfelt@mun.ca). This form is part of the process of informed consent. It should give you the basic idea of what the research is about and what your participation will involve. It also describes your right to withdraw from the study at any time. In order to decide whether you wish to participate in this research study, you should understand enough about its risks and benefits to be able to make an informed decision. Take time to read this form. Also take the time to understand any other information that is given to you. Please talk to the researcher if you have any questions about the study or for more information not included here before you agree to participate. It is up to you to if you want take part in this research. If you choose not to take part in this research or if you decide to stop your participation once it has started, there will be no negative consequences for you now or in the future. For example, you will still receive your payment if you choose to withdraw and we will not discuss your decision not to participate with anyone. Introduction The Torngat Secretariat is conducting a study on polar bears. The Secretariat provides technical and administrative support to the Torngat Wildlife and Plants Co-Management Board that was created by the signing of the Labrador Inuit Land Claims Agreement. Its work is about the future management of wildlife, plants, and fisheries. The work will also help provide the continued use and benefit of these natural resources to the Inuit people. This study is like other studies that have been done in Nunavut and Alaska. Inuit people know a lot about the polar bear and how it lives. Given the importance of the polar bear to the Inuit people, we hope to gather clear and complete knowledge about them from you. We hope to use the information we gather from all of our interviews to help manage the polar

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bear in the best way possible. Purpose of study The purpose of this study is to interview Inuit people about their knowledge of polar bears in Labrador. What you will do in this study We would first like you to tell us about everything you know about the Polar bear in Labrador and how changes in the environment affect their lives. We then have around 10 main topics that we would like to ask you about, such as hunting, where they live, denning, food, and their behaviors. We will also do mapping exercises to identify the locations that are being discussed. Length of time This study should take approximately 1 hour. Please note that the interview may take longer as the time will depend on how much information you have to tell us. Withdrawal from the study You are free to stop your participation in the study at any point you choose. You also do not have to answer any questions that you do not wish to answer. You may also ask us to stop recording or interviewing at any point. If you choose to withdraw from the study, all of your data will be destroyed. Anonymity vs. Confidentiality Anonymity means that any information about you such your name, the name of your community, or a description of you is not associated with the information you tell us. Confidentiality means that the names of the participants and communities are known only to the researchers associated with this project. Despite all attempts to ensure anonymity and confidentiality, neither can be guaranteed. Confidentiality and Storage of Data a. To make sure there is anonymity and confidentiality, there will be no connection between

your information (such as your name) and the interview data you provide. Any and all reference to specific hunters (names, nicknames, and descriptions) will be removed from the information gathered.

b. The data will be used only by researchers associated with this project for the purpose of

doing research, writing reports, and giving presentations. The participants’ interviews that are typed up will be stored on a password-protected computer as long as the data are needed. All consent forms and copies of the interviews will be stored in a locked filing cabinet at the Torngat Secretariat offices.

c. It is also possible that reports and data may be used in future research. Researchers given

access to the anonymous data will be required to follow confidentiality and data storage rules listed in “a” and “b” above.

Anonymity

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The data collected are coded with a number that is not associated with a name and therefore all data are anonymous. For instance, each participant will be given a number such as “Participant 1”. Each community will be given a letter such as “Community A”. In addition, we will not ask you to provide information about specific hunts or bear kills. We will also not record any information about specific hunts or bear kills that may be mentioned. Benefits Your participation in this study will contribute toward the continued use and benefit of wildlife, plant, and fishery resources to the Inuit people. Specifically, your knowledge about the polar bear will help manage them better in the future. What you tell us will also help us gain a clear and complete understanding of the polar bear in Labrador. In respect for your knowledge, you will receive $150 for your participation. You will still receive the $150 if you choose to withdraw from the study at any time. Risks There are no obvious physical or psychological risks in this study. Despite the data being anonymous and confidential, it may be possible for individuals in your community or individuals knowledgeable about polar bear hunting in Nunatsiavut to identify you because the number of licensed polar bear hunters is small. Reporting of Results The data will be used only by researchers associated with this project for the purpose of doing research, writing reports, and giving presentations. Sharing of Results with Participants You will be provided with a transcript of your interview to access accuracy before analysis begins. Questions You are welcome to ask questions at any time during your participation in this research. If you would like more information about this study, please talk to the researcher now. I understand that should I have further questions about the survey or larger study I may contact either Ms. Jennifer Mitchell Foley of the Torngat Secretariat (709-896-6782, electronically at jennifer.mitchell@torngatsecretariat.ca) or Dr. Lawrence Felt, (709-699-4560, electronically at lfelt@mun.ca). The proposal for this research has been approved by the Nunatsiavut Research Review Board. If you have concerns about the research, you may contact the Chair, Ms. Carla Pamak (709-922-2380, or electronically at carla_pamak@nunatsiavut.com). The proposal for this research has also been reviewed by the Interdisciplinary Committee on Ethics in Human Research and found to be in compliance with Memorial University’s ethics policy. If you have ethical concerns about the research (such as the way you have been treated or your rights as a participant), you may contact the Chairperson of the ICEHR at icehr@mun.ca or by telephone at 709-864-2861. Below is a list of agreements that we would ask you to consider. Please check YES or NO for

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each one. I agree to have my interview audio recorded: Yes _________ No __________ I agree to have my interview video recorded: Yes _________ No __________ I allow the Torngat Secretariat to use the information in my interview as part of its current and future research on managing Polar bears: Yes _________ No __________ I agree to be contacted for a follow-up interview if it is needed to clarify information that I have given: Yes _________ No __________ I would like a copy of all final reports and presentations where my interview is used. Yes _________ No __________ Consent Your signature on this form means that: 1 You have read the information about the research 2 You have been able to ask questions about this study 3 You are satisfied with the answers to all your questions 4 You understand what the study is about and what you will be doing 5 You understand that you are free to withdraw from the study at any time, without

having to give a reason, and that doing so will not affect you now or in the future 6 You understand that any data collected from you up to the point of your withdrawal will be

destroyed If you sign this form, you do not give up your legal rights and do not release the researchers from their professional responsibilities. Your signature: I have read and understood what this study is about and understand the risks and benefits. I have had enough time to think about this and had the chance to ask questions and my questions have been answered.

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I agree to participate in the research project understanding the risks and contributions of my participation, that my participation is voluntary, and that I may end my participation at any time.

A copy of this Informed Consent Form has been given to me for my records.

______________________________ _____________________________ Signature of Participant Date

Researcher’s Signature: I have explained this study to the best of my ability. I invited questions and gave answers. I believe that the participant fully understands what is involved in being in the study, any potential risks of the study and that he or she has freely chosen to be in the study. ______________________________ _____________________________

Signature of Principal Investigator Date (or designated representative)

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Appendix C 

POLAR BEAR TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE STUDY INTERVIEW INSTRUMENT 2012 NUNATSIAVUT COMPONENT

Interview Number __________________________ Date: _________________________________________ Interviewer(s): ______________________________ Start time: ___________________________________ End Time: ___________________________________ Preamble: (Check off when completed) Thank you for coming Introduce interviewer(s) Informal introduction from interviewee Reminder about the purpose of the interview - polar bears Review and sign informed consent form Interviewee gets to review the transcript Ensure noises in the room are minimal Ensure interviewee is comfortable Explain video recorder and turn it on Transfer control instructions Note. If interviewee says something of interest to you during the interview but does not elaborate much, you can use the following prompt “You mentioned “…….”, please tell me more about that”. This can be used as many times as necessary throughout the interview.

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A. Introduction/Ice-Breaker/Hunting/Time Markers 1. Please tell me your name. 2. Please tell me when you were born. 3. Please tell me where you were born. 4. What communities/camps have you lived in throughout your life?

5. When was the last time you hunted bears? 6. When did you start hunting bears?

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B. Time Markers Critical Events – Open-Ended Could you tell me about any memorable events in your life that you associate with your hunting of polar bears? Examples might be people getting snowmobiles, starting work, or moving from one community to another.

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C. Bear Population and Distribution Mapping Exercise It is important for us to know the location of bear sightings and harvests you have made over your life. Please show me, by marking a ‘B’ on the map provided, all of the places where you have seen polar bears. Can you also indicate how many bears you have seen there, how many were with cubs and when you saw them? Do people from your community go there to see the bears? Are there more, fewer or about the same number of bears in these places as there used to be?

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D. Wellbeing and Behavior Apart from the hunting of bears, describe other ways that polar bears die. Based on what you have told me about the other ways that polar die, has this changed since you were young. If so, how? Is this different from what people older than you would say? Have you ever seen a dead bear - other than the ones harvested?

If they answer yes: Tell me why you think they died. What time of year did you see the dead bear(s)? Did the elders ever talk about dead bears?

Have you ever seen a sick bear?

If they answer yes: Describe to me why you thought it was sick What time of year did you see the sick bear(s)? Did the elders ever talk about sick bears?

Have you ever seen anything strange when you skinned or butchered a bear?

If they answer yes: Tell me what you saw. What do you think caused it? What time of year did you see this? Did the elders ever talk about this?

Have you ever seen a starving bear?

If they answer yes: Tell me everything you saw. What time of year did you see this starving bear? Did the elders ever talk about starving bears?

Have you ever seen drowning bears?

If they answer yes: Tell me everything you saw. What time of year did you see this drowning bear? Did the elders ever talk about drowning bears?

Describe a good-looking bear [healthy]. Describe what a good-looking bear looks like after you harvest it.

106   I am going to show you some pictures of bears in different shape. For each picture, describe what you see.

[Use Diagram D on bear condition] Have you seen any changes to bears over your lifetime? If they answer yes, what are they and when did you first notice it? Would people older than you have noted other differences? How would they describe them?

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E. Habitat [Sea-Ice Pictures, Seasonal Calendar] What types of ice do bears use and how does it change throughout the year? How would you describe each type of ice and when does it occur? Do bears with cubs or young use ice differently? What about young bears that have just left their mother? Has that changed over time? Please tell me what your elders (or others older than you) may have told you about the sea ice. For example, places to avoid. Can you tell me about freeze up and melt? When does each occur? Do you see any changes? How does the weather (for example, wind, temperature, storms) affect the ice that bears use? What changes have you seen to these types of weather since you were young? Have elders or others older than you told you about how the weather affected the ice in the past? What did they say?

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F. Adaptation Do you think weather changes have affected bears? If so, in what ways? Do you think the bears have adapted to the weather changes? If so, in what ways? Do you think ice changes have affected polar bears? If so, in what ways? Do you think the bears have adapted to these ice changes? If so, in what ways?

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G. Food of Bears I’m now going to ask you about what polar bears eat. What do bears eat? Describe any differences between what males and females eat. Describe what bears with cubs eat. Show me on the map where bears hunt their food. When and where do they hunt? Have the places where bears find their food changed since you were young? Has their food changed? For example, different foods, different feeding locations? Do bears eat any other foods that you have seen? For example, grass, waterfowl, caribou or berries? Can you point on the map where you have seen this? Describe any differences in what bears eat now compared to when you were young. For example, what about feeding on different types different parts of seals OR different foods.

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H. Hunting Now I’d like to discuss hunting polar bears a bit. Can you describe for me a typical bear hunt, say twenty-five years ago? How did you travel? For how long? Where? If you were to hunt polar bear today, what, if anything, has changed? Do

you hunt bear more often today? Why or why not?

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I. Denning I’d now like to discuss bear denning with you. What types of places do bears prefer to den? What types of snow do they need? Please show me on the map where you have seen dens. Were they on ice? When did you see them? How did you know it was a den? Do all bears den? Why or why not? Have you seen bears that have died in dens? If so, can you locate on the map? Have you seen any changes in dens? If so, what were they? For example, is the time of year different now? Or the location? Why do you think these changes have occurred? Do you travel more or less in areas where there are dens? Why might this be so?

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J. Living With Bears Now I’d like to talk about living with bears. Tell me about bears coming into communities.

How has this changed since you were young? If so why? Tell me about bears coming into areas where there are cabins? Has

this changed since you were young? If so, why?

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K. Management We are nearly done, but I’d first like to discuss polar bear management with you. Please tell me all of the important things that you would tell or teach your children if they were to go polar bear hunting. For example, what are the things that you do when you harvest a bear? How do you show respect? Are these things your parents or other older people told or taught you? Did people ha any traditional ways to make sure they did not kill too many bears? Are these still being used since quotas came into effect? Did your elders hunt bears when they were with cubs? If no, why not? How you keep track of changes in the polar bear population. Do other hunters use the same ways to note changes? If not, what ways do they use? What is the condition of the polar bear population today? How do you know that? What needs to be done to ensure polar bear population is protected?

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L. End/Closure Please tell me anything else that you think is important and that you want to tell me about polar bears. Who else in the community is knowledgeable about polar bears? If you were interviewing other Inuit about polar bear, what questions would you ask them that you are curious about? That is all I have for questions for you. Do you have any questions for us? Thank you for taking the time to do this interview. Myself or someone from the Torngat Secretariat will follow up with you if we have any further questions. * Note finish time on the front page Post-interview Checklist All consent forms are signed and copies provided to participants and a second signed copy retained by interviewer

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Appendix D 

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