Modernization and Traditional Methods of Social Control in Southeastern Nigeria

BY

Dr. Anyacho E.O

Deputy Provost, F.C.E.,Obudu,C.R.S

AND

Dr. Ugal David B.

Dept of Sociology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria

Abstract

It is known that before the advent of colonialism, Africa had a system of justice and

adjudication hence, making the people conform to the ethos of the community, but the coming

of colonialism has changed the people’s cognitive mapping of what constitute social order and

control through the introduction of new methods leading to the abandonment of the traditional

that was instant, efficient and effective. This study examines the perception of the people

towards traditional methods of social control in the face of modernization. The study utilized

structured questionnaire to examine the people’s acceptance or appreciation of traditional

methods of social control in the modern world. The study found among other things that most

communities have abandoned their traditional methods of social control. The Christian

Religion has changed the people’s perception and attitudes towards traditional methods of

social control. That the modern methods of social control have not succeeded in adequately

reducing crime and building confidence on peace making and conflict management. There is

an urgent need to synchronize the modern and traditional methods of social control to create a

synergy for better security network. This will enable society to protect its people by creating in

them confidence in the social control mechanism.

Key Words: Traditional Methods, Justice system, peacemaking, peace building, peace

management.

Word count: 203

Background of the Study

Civilization has been said to have originated from Africa but today other

countries of the world are far ahead of Africa in science, technology and general

development. The differential woeful performance of the Blackman does not lie in his

biology because he is hard working; this is why Europe came for her to work in their

plantations as slaves for about 400 years (1450s-1850s). The fact remains that the

Blackman was doing well, before colonialism. He even had a university at Timbukutu

before most Europeans ever dreamed of them. Both traditional medicines and

methods of social control were making great advances before the colonial invasion of

Africa. The traditional medicines have been proven even in present day world to be so

efficacious that the World Health Organization (WHO) is virtually begging Africans

to encourage researchers into traditional medicines and their uses.

Samba (2004) stated that, “African traditional medicine is an integral part of

the people’s culture, it can only be developed in a way that is best suited to the African

people”. The Regional Director of WHO, Samba further stated that, contemporary

medical science should enhance and enrich the traditional health culture so that the

people can feel comfortable with it. Several other traditional practices have been so

praised by several other authors.

Africa just like other societies is bound to need cohesion in order to function

properly. Stagnet (1969) maintained that conflict, misunderstanding are inevitable

concomitant of human existence and interaction yet these are very destructive and

peace is therefore needed for security and meaningful development to be achieved.

Therefore, social control measures are established by nations and communities to

prevent, manage and resolve social disorganization. Communities, prior to the slave

trade era and colonialism had well-established mechanisms for peace education

confidence building, peacemaking, peace building, conflict monitoring, conflict

prevention management and resolution (Nwolise, 2004).

This study hopes to examine how colonialism or modernization has influenced

the traditional means of social control in African societies generally and Obudu Local

Government Area particularly.

Statement of the Problem

Despite elaborate and exhaustive discussion and exposition and

implementation of different modern social control measures, the society is far from

witnessing peace and a conflict free community. With the emergence of the police,

modern religions, courts of law, commissions etc, peace is still very far from being

achieved. Scholars, sociologists and educationists are at a loss on what really is

responsible for the dwindling security and sky rocketed criminal activities in the

society.

Several scholars have opined differently on the causes of this situation. One

school of thought holds that the breakdown in the family structure is responsible for

this situation. The contention here is that the traditional family structure where there

was in-built mechanism for peace building and avid respect for constituted authorities

has completely broken down.

Another school of thought hinges its argument on the introduction of modern

means of social control that has played down the traditional methods of social control.

It is the assertion of these schools that the instant justice built in the traditional society

scared people from breaking a norm no matter the circumstances. Another school

holds that the modern religions that postpone punishment have helped people escape

the hand of the law hence bringing about poor social control structure.

With all these postulations, none seems to explain exhaustively the factors

responsible for the breakdown of rules and regulations in the society. It is against this

backdrop that this study investigated the influence of modernization on the traditional

means of social control in African communities, using Obudu Local Government Area

of Cross River State as a case study.

Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study is to investigate the influence of modernization on the

traditional means of social control. Specifically, the study intends to:

i. Examine the state of traditional means of social control in African societies.

ii. Identify the strength of the traditional methods

iii. Explore how European religions have affected the traditional means of social

control.

iv. Identify the modern social control structure and how they influence social

control.

v. Suggest ways of blending the modern and traditional means of social control to

bring about better social cohesion.

Research Questions

The following research questions are drawn to guide the study:

i. What is the role of traditional means of social control in pre-colonial times?

ii. How has foreign religions influenced the traditional means of social control?

iii. What are the modern structures that have impacted negatively on the

traditional means of social control?

Significance of the Study

The significance of this study derives from the dearth of empirical information

on the role of modernization or colonialism in influencing the traditional means of

social control. This study therefore filled this intellectual gap.

Again, the study of the nature that have appeared to examine other areas

without looking at the issue of social control, this will make up for the data base

required to exhaustively examined the possible mutual interaction to enhance better

social control. The study also has brought to the fore the age long wrong notion that

everything about Africa is evil and negative, this is because the study showed that

before colonialism, the African continent and its communities lived in peace and

criminal activities were properly addressed before degenerating to violence. Finally,

the study sets the tone for examining the prevailing state of social control and ways of

blending both for better security in society.

Literature Review

Traditional Means of Social Control in Africa

This section examined the different means of social control in traditional

African societies. It covered both outside and within Nigeria. Each people, race, or

identity group in the world had (and have) their own ways of doing things especially

as it concerns social control and conflict resolution. While in Europe for instance the

police are a means of crime detection, several African societies relied on oath taking,

divination and blood covenant in pre-colonial times. These methods still thrive in

some areas though at very limited scales along side police torture and skull breaking in

the name of interrogation and confession extraction. Europeans strives on

commissions of inquires, constitution and court system of lawyers and judges, Africa

used council of elders, king’s court, people’s (open) assemblies etc for dispute

settlement and justice dispensation (Nwolise 2004).

Braimah (1998) carried out a study on the traditional methods of social control

in African societies before the advent of colonialism such as citizen diplomacy,

joking, relationship (as found among the Tiv and Fulani in the Northern areas of

Nigeria) oaths, symbolic diplomacy (peaceful methods) and blood feuding, raiding

and warfare (violent method).

Onoge (1993) found in his study in Nigeria confirms that before colonialism

and eventual amalgamation of 1914, social conflicts were monitored, prevented,

managed and resolved through established mechanisms generally accepted by rulers,

council of elders, age sets, chiefs, ancestral cults, religious beliefs, local deities and

others. Individual and group attitudes and behaviours were also controlled through

these mechanisms.

Alagoa (2004) examined these mechanisms in the South-south zone and

maintained that the traditional institutions for social control included council of elders,

general assembly of the people, secret societies (e.g. the Ekpe, Obong Ekine, Sekiapu

masquerade society) etc. The principles and values guiding conflict resolution

included impartiality, fairness, accommodation, reciprocity, moderation, compromise

and genuine reconciliation. In his own words, there is along with impartiality and

fairness.

…The related principle of accommodation, compromise and genuine reconciliation as opposed to the principle of “Winner takes it all”. It would do no good if the parties to a conflict did not possess a spirit of tolerance sufficient to encompass the opposition. There must be a willingness to live and let live.

An Ikwere proverb states “when other people’s goats graze, let mine graze

with them” the desired spirit of accommodation is related to love among people for

where “there is no love the skin of an antelope is not big enough for two to sit on”.

Looking outside Nigeria, Gluckman (1959) notes that when conflicts or strife

emerged in traditional Africa, there were institution and people to resolve them, based

on certain moral or legal principles, ethical ideals, and following established

procedures and methods. Well known codes of morality, conventions and rituals

existed which though were not written but persisted for generations before the colonial

invasion. For instance, among the Gikuyu elders of Kenya, they had it impressed in

their minds that their primary responsibility to their people was the prevention of strife

between members of lineages and the prevention of deadly conflicts in which people

would resort to super natural powers or open hostilities, bloodshed and destruction of

property.

The Kpelle people of Liberia had a well established forum for informal

settlement of conflicts. It was called “House of Palavar” or “moot” which was made

up of an ad-hoc council of kinsmen and neighbours of parties in conflict, every claim

was investigated with honesty and at the end, just judgment was delivered and all

parties involved shared a drink .This is similar to the moot of Tivland in Nigeria.

In most communities of southern Africa, there was the concept of ‘ubantu’ as

an indigenous social philosophy meaning collective personhood or member of the

human family. It was a customary law whose violation attracted sanctions ranging

from fines to isolation (Masina 1969).

Among the Oromo people of East Africa, there existed the ‘Gada’ system that

bound all. Institutions were set up to prevent strife, where violence broke out, it was

checked from escalation. Conflicts were resolved through establishing the truth and a

verdict of just and honourable peace given. They strove for reconciliation and

restoration of social harmony.

In African societies that had central authority, there were formally constituted

courts; chiefs were judges – Oba (Yoruba) Omanhene (Fante) Asntehene (Asante),

Eze (Igbo), Emir (Hausa/Fulani) Badwa (Akan), and others. African communities

according to Ayittey George followed four major principles in the maintenance of

peace and management of conflicts.

a. Settlement of disputes by peaceful deliberation not force.

b. Correction of wrong doing through compensation and restitution not

retribution

c. Adjudication and assessment by a body of impartial elders; and

d. Fairness (equity and justice)

He emphasizes the uniqueness of African’s modus operandi for resolving

conflict while Masina (1969) posits that the administration of justice in Africa was a

public (open) affair, without in-camera and freely cross-questioned the parties in

conflict. This was because traditional African saw human existence as unified, inter-

linked and integrated in a web. An Nguni proverb states “I am because we are”.

Traditional methods were aimed at resolving conflicts and not necessarily

pronouncing judgment. Emphasis was not on punishment but on reconciliation and

restoration of social harmony among the parties in conflict.

The unfortunate thing however is that today all these humane, morality, justice

and peace promoting institutions and procedures have either completely collapsed or

have been wakened into ineffectiveness by forces that came with slavery colonialism,

foreign religions and culture, materialism, greed and corruption. Today, what we have

is essentially conflict management, social control and termination institution and

procedures as found in the operations of the Anglo-Roman legal and court systems,

police, prisons, commissions of inquires and others. The result is a situation where

there is no peace education-training programme, or structure for social control conflict

monitoring and effective prevention. All that governments does is to send the police

when there is a riot or violence and follow this up with setting commission of inquiry

whose report may not achieve much in the real task of resolution, reconciliation and

restoration of social harmony.

All these methods were effective because there was reduction in conflict and

misunderstanding that could result in the death of a kinsman. Harunanah (2003)

maintained that the establishment of elaborate mechanisms for social control and

deliberate efforts at peace and social harmony between individuals and groups

because:

Indeed from…. Oral sources and …. Some existing written accounts, it is clear that all African indigenous cultures, customs, traditions and civilizations had emphasized not only the value and significance of peace in society but also, the necessity of having to ensure that there was peaceful co-existence and harmony among the various groups that lived in a community and between them and their neighbours. This sort of premium which was placed on peace, and the essence of ensuring

peaceful co-existence in pre-colonial Africa, stemmed from the realization by the people about the negative results and allied adversity that usually followed the demise of peace in a society and in inter-group relations. (Harunanah 2003: 123)

He went on to list such negative effects to include – the rise and spread of

anarchy and other forms of lawlessness, brigandage and criminality in the society, the

disruption and abandonment of all production processes, the disruption and

abandonment of trade and commercial activities, the dislocation of socio-cultural life

and activities, the culmination of all these in stagnation, retrogression, hardship and

migration by some ethnic people to new environments where peace existed.

The Igbo speaking people are found in the five states of Abia, Anambra,

Enugu, Ebonyi and Imo. Some are also found in Rivers and Delta States. It is one of

the three largest ethnic groups of Nigeria’s over 350 ethno-linguistic groups. The Igbo

as a group is part of the human family hence subject to the influence of al natural

causes of conflict among humans; differences in perceptions, needs, values, power,

desires, goals, opinions and many other components of human interaction. These

differences often lead to conflict (weeks, 1992).

Abraham (1992) assets supporting this argument that:

Conflict, misunderstanding and deviation arises from unequal distribution of desirables such as wealth, power, prestige and other goods. Individuals (groups) strive to maximize their share of the same commodities. Those who possess a greater share of the goods try to consolidate their possession, maximize their interests and dominate the structural arrangements by various means especially coercion. But men dislike intensely being ordered around and resist subjection. (Abraham 1992:54)

Though these are often the causes of conflict in most human societies but that

which in addition creates or causes conflict in the South East is land and territorial

ownership or boundary; chieftaincy position, sex matters, as they concern wife or

daughter to family property; honour; murder, or poisoning and matrimonial fallouts

(Maltreatments of wife) (Nwolise 2004). The continuum of conflict therefore ranges

between non-violent conflicts involving minor issues through riots to limited war. The

Igbo did not fight total wars or pitched battles in the pre-colonial period and did not

celebrate war like most of Africa (Nwolise 2004)

Before colonialism, the Igbo did not just jump into social control. They did

not wait for conflict before control; they rather had institutions for controlling the

suppression of one weaker person from the stronger. These institutions carried out the

task of peace education, peace building, confidence building, peace making and peace

enforcement as well as conflict monitoring, prevention, management and resolution.

These institutions included:

1. Eze (Family)

2. OKpara (elders) man holding ancestral spear (alo) and (ofo)

3. Umunna (clan)

4. Umuada or Umuokpu (Females born in a village)

5. Amala (Council of elders)

6. Nzuko Obodo (Village/town assembly)

7. Oha-na-Eze (Meeting of the king and the people)

8. Ndi-isi Obodo (Village heads)

9. Ndi-mmanwu (Masqurade-system)

10. Otu Ogbo (age grades)

11. Otu-neti Nta (Hunters association)

12. Ndi chilli echich (title) men e.g. Ozo title-holders)

13. Agbara (Oracles/deities)

These different institutions performed the role of social control at different

levels of human existence and the levels at which adjudication or redress can be

sought in the Igbo society. For instance, the family was the basic unit for social

control and this also involve the Okpara (elders) who are often involved in primary

socialization of the individual what could not be handled at this level will move to the

umuma or umuada and if necessary Amala.

When these institutions though informal could not control or solve a particular

conflict, it is moved to the village/town assembly or the Ohanaeze and the village

heads. Usually when the situation becomes violent or violence becomes eminent or

ominous the masquerades, age grades, hunters associations and title men are brought

in and when there are doubts on the truth or falsity of the matter in contention, the

oracle or deity is sought usually involving oath taking, blood exchange and vows that

often led to the death of the person who lied or was wrong.

At the level of socialization, from early childhood, the Igbo imparted to the

offspring the value of peace, love for one’s neighbours, being brother keeper and the

institutions and methods of proper behaving. It also taught the child to adopt

reconciliation and socially harmonious postures, a eschew adversary win-at-all cost

attitudes in conflict and dispute settlement situations. People were taught to view any

quarrel or fight between them and others as something between blood related persons

(Nwosile 2004).

As the child grew older, he was inculcated with myths through folktales,

idioms, proverbs and songs which described the nature of the world and how people

should live their lives they also demonstrated the dangers of violent conflicts and the

need to avoid it.

Other forms of social control were through monitoring conflictual situation and

abating it usually through ritual treaties and blood covenants (Igba ndu). These were

designed to ensure transparency in people’s dealings with one another, ensure that

people live in accordance with customs and tradition and to promote confidence

building between and within groups and individuals. Ritual treaties were used to

remove fear and mistrusts, bind families and villages and avoid war. Even villages

and families without previous blood ties could enter into blood covenant for the

purposes of confidence building, peaceful co-existence and conflict prevention. This

was done by designating elders who meet, kill a goat and mixed the blood with their

own blood, cook the meat and eat and often a tree is planted as a remembrance and

often this imposes obligation of peaceful settlement of all disputes and avoidance of

war and bloodshed on the two parties. Igbo deities who detested blood spilling

especially Ala (Earth goddess) which was seen as next to chineke (God the creator)

were involved in making such ritual treaties and therefore it was not easy to violate

them without incurring devastating consequences. Two villages that undergo blood

covenant never inter marry anymore.

Sanctions were also meted out on individuals, families etc, that acted in ways

contrary to custom and traditions, especially ways, likely to cause strife and

bloodshed, such sanctions were used to deter conflicts and conflict generating

behaviours such as stealing, adultery, willful murder, incest, abuse of elders, willful

damage to property, lying, bearing false witness, poisoning (ibu nsi) etc. the sanction

range from those imposed by the deities –sickness, accidents, famine, sudden death,

poverty, misery, barrenness and loss of children – to those imposed by the society

such as exile, ostracism, cleansing, rites, sale into slavery, fines, compensation,

restitution, rendering apology and others.

Furthermore, exogamous marriages were used in some cases to prevent

conflict here and eminent outbreak of hostilities could be forstal through asking parties

to exchange their daughters as a sign of union between and or among them. By so

doing they begin to live in peace and harmony.

Oath taking (inu iyi or ala isi) was very common among Igbo in pre-colonial

times and it is still practiced today by some. It was a strategy for establishing truth

and guilt and discouraging dishonest attitude and (wicked) evil actions in the society.

Oath taking was done on ‘Ofo’ in the name of ala, in the shrine of the village agbala

(deity) or that of a distant powerful and ‘impartial deity. People preparing for oath

taking were often advised not to eat poison out of shame (iji ihere taa oji nsi) and to

search their conscience (iji ire agu eze onu). This meant that they should accept their

guilt if they committee the offence, instead of keeping mute and dying in the bid to

avoid shame.

Other methods that were used when the conflict has broken out included non-

violent conflicts using moral, emotional and mystic force in collective decision. Here,

truth and collective interests were placed above individual interests. There was also

negotiation through third party- mediation, conciliation and arbitration. This was

carried out by umunna, umuada, selected okpara, the amala or and other selected body,

internal or external. The mediators made thorough investigation of the matter to

ensure that truth was clearly established. Blame was place on the guilty and apology

or compensation extracted from him, punishment or retribution was not the key goal,

instead, reconciliation and restoration of social harmony were.

Modern Religion and Social Control

The religious belief of the people influenced positively the methods of social control

used. For instance, the Igbo of Southeastern Nigeria believed in the creator God (chineke or

chukwu) and other smaller gods who served as intermediaries to the super God. Example

includes ala (goddess of earth) goddess of birth (fertility) etc. These goddess played several

roles in the maintenance of law and order. The religious belief that the punishment of these

gods created in the people fear and were compelled to live according to the ethos of the land.

Instant death, sickness and other harmful effects of the deities’ punishment was too buoyant

for anybody to dare their wrath.

Furthermore, the collective responsibility shared in whichever sin against these gods

was also a potent force in conformity. Collective responsibility refers to the belief that “sin or

crime of one person could have daunting consequences on the whole community. For

instance, famine, drought, epidemic, etc were said to be the punishment of the gods for a

wrongdoing by one or group of persons. This made the whole community ever ready to

condone in its totality any wrongdoing. These situations started from the socialization of the

child who at a very tender age is educated on the ‘dos’ and ‘don’ts’ of the society and as he

grows older, he is confronted with the institutions established for social control. The belief

and fear of the deities formed the core of conformity to societal rules. Yet the methods are

discussed below:

Since this section is devoted to explicit explanation on how religion serves as social

control mechanism, two views will be considered. These views include – religion and the

collective conscience of Durkhiem and the view of Karl Marx on religion and social control.

On religion and the collective conscience, Durkhiem believes that social life is

impossible without the shared values and moral beliefs, which form the collective conscience.

In their absence there would be no social order, social control, social solidarity or cooperation.

In short, there would be no society. Religion reinforces the collective conscience. The

worship of society strengthens the values and moral beliefs that form the basis of social life.

By defining them as sacred, religion provides them with greater power to direct human action.

The attitude of respect towards the sacred is the same attitude applied to social duties

and obligations. In worshipping society, people are, in effect, recognizing the importance of

the social group and their dependence upon it. In this way religion strengthens the unity of

the group; it promotes social solidarity.

Durkhiem emphasized the importance of collective worship. The social group comes

together in religious rituals full of drama and reverence. Together, its members express their

faith in common values and beliefs. In this highly charged atmosphere of collective worship,

the integration of society is strengthened. Member of society express, communicate and

understand the moral bonds, which unite them.

From a Marxist viewpoint, religion does to simply cushion the effects of oppression; it

is also an instrument of that oppression. It acts as a mechanism of social control, maintaining

the existing system of exploitation and reinforcing class relationships. Put simply, it keeps

people in their place. By making unsatisfactory line bearable, religion tends to discourage

people from attempting to change their situation. By offering an illusion of hope in a hopeless

situation. It prevents thought of overthrowing the system. Thus, the system remains stable,

which the other theorist sees as good, when it perhaps should be transformed to meet the

needs of all of the people.

Religion promotes the status quo in other ways. The powerless are taught to accept

religious beliefs that are against their own interest. The Hindu, for example, believes that it is

the person’s duty to accept his or her caste. Failure to do so will result in being reincarnated

to a lower caste or even as an animal.

In sum, established religion in any society tends to reinforce the status quo.

Instead of the clergy and their parishioners work actively to change the political and economic

system, they preach sermons extolling the virtues of ‘the society’s way of life” and “giving

unto Caesar the things which are Caesar’s”. Directly or indirectly there has been a strong

tendency for religious groups throughout society history to accept existing government.

Religious groups also preserve the status quo by teaching that people should

accept an imperfect society because they are born sinners. In this way, religion, as Marx

suggested, is an opiate of the masses because it convinces them to accept an unjust system

rather than work to change it. The downtrodden are advised to accept their lot because they

will be rewards in the next life. Thus, they have no need to change the system form below.

Police and Social Control

More recently, there has been a considerable interest by both the police and the public

in Nigeria about the effectiveness of policing in the country. The concern is being expressed

in the light of increasing rate of criminal behaviours and other civil disturbances that

oftentimes seem to defy police crime fighting efforts. The attempts to objectively appraise the

performance of the Nigeria Police Force in the recent past and under the nascent democracy,

especially as it relates to its statutory role as an agent of social control. Owing to the

constraints of time and space however, only a simple periscope of some key social control

efforts by the Nigeria Police Force shall be highlighted.

Tekena (1993) submits that any dispassionate analysis of the multiple management

problems of the Nigeria Police Force (NPF) will, among others, reveal that its hardest nuts lie

more in men than in measures and materials. Intra-service conflicts concerning loyalty,

dedication, motivation, morale, honesty, discipline, among others, seem to lie at the root of

the NPF’s hydra-headed problems, if not a can as well

The Nigeria Police Force has undoubtedly recorded some remarkable breakthroughs

and made significant progress in its assigned role of maintaining law and order in the Nigerian

polity. Highlights of notable recent achievements are as follows:

Arrest of the notorious international kingpin of a gang that specialized in

armed robbery and cross-border banditry, Mr. Ahmed Tidjani from

neighbouring Benin Republic.

Demystifying of the Okija Shrine in Anambra State that had hitherto served as

a haven of ritual killing and occult practices.

Introduction of the Police-Community Relations Scheme.

Introduction of the Police Insurance Scheme.

Introduction of the Annual Award Ceremony for deserving Police Officers as

witnessed last year.

Better media promotion and reportage of Police breakthroughs and modern

crime prevention strategies like the introduction of the highly informative

security programme on television (AIT) titled “Security Watch” being handled

by a retired Commissioner of Police (Mr. Frank Odita).

Participation in International peace-keeping operations in War-torn areas e.g.

Sierra Leone, Liberia etc.

Several other unresolved and celebrated cases of robberies, assassination of

prominent personalities, missing persons and the likes however abound that the Police

have been unable to unravel. These acts seem to have assumed an annual cyclical

dimension, especially with the usual post-incident media celebration and subsequent

abandonment of investigations. The recurrence of these sordid acts has equally

become more pronounced under the democratic dispensation. Worthy of note among

these high-profile killings are the assassination of Mr. Dele Giwa (a distinguished

Journalists), Pa Alfred Rilwanu (Elder Stateman), Alhaja Kuburat Abiola (Foremost

Politician), Chief Ajibola Ige (former Attorney-General of the Federation and Minister

of Justice), Mr. Barnabas Igwe (former Chairman of the Nigeria Bar Association,

Onitsha Branch) and his wife, Abigael; and Chief Harry Marshal (an opposition

leader and former Coordinator of the ANPP presidential campaign in the South-south).

Influences on Traditional Methods of Social Control

With the deities, shrines, ancestors and other traditional mechanisms of social

control, peace maintenance and conflict resolution, in African generally and the societies that

make up present day Nigeria with the Igbos inclusive had highly, moral, peaceful and stable

miler. It was not an ideal society but the chances that deviants will be caught and punished

almost immediately and certainly was extremely high. It is no more so today because new

values have come and are influencing the old system.

Imported religions and colonialism brought new values and introduced value-

confusion in Africans generally and the Igbos specifically. Imported religions brought talks

about judgment day; God’s kindness etc and new codes of crime punishment have come.

Political leaders are even immune to prosecution and have constitutional protection when the

commit crime. But again, much depends on how each new religion is practiced. In Saudi

Arabia for example Islam helps to maintain peace, security and stability Alsaad Al-Rasheed

(1980) noted that Islam seeks to preserve five fundamental values-religions, life offspring,

intellect and property emphasizing that infringement of each is effectively punished across the

board. In Nigeria, a poor Moslem stole a cow in Zamfara State and his limb was cut off but a

law maker sold his official car (state property) and the law closed its eyes. Thus, theory and

practice differ on the issue of enforcement and effectiveness of law.

On the side of Christianity, Tamuno writers ’he familiar Christ idea of Trinity,

salvation through Jesus Christ, Ten commandments, forgiveness, judgment day, tolerance,

monogamy, abhorrence of Idolatry workshop and the like, steadily challenged aspects of the

old (social) order and weakened its buttress for group solidarity, social control and peace

maintenance (among believers and non believers). The principle of individualism, which

Christianity indirectly encourages, also threatened the durability of the social control systems

and values built on the traditional collective/communal approach. Moreover, the element of

‘sin’ in the Christian context for example, came to be vested with notions of individual

responsibility and accountability, the traditional belief and fear that serious crimes, such as

abominations, as offences against the earth goodness would pollute an entire community

began to be eroded seriously. Above all other notions of the certainty of punishment,

prevalent under the traditional corpus of belief systems, stood in danger of disintegration with

increasing pressure of Christian doctrines concerning God’s judgment day.

In Igboland, peace was greatly valued and war was taken as the last resort and very

rarely too. Oguntomisin (1992) asserts indeed, Igbpo ethical ideals sought to maintain ritual

equilibrium between mankind and the ancestral spirit. The gods disfavoured war. The laws

of Ala, Goddess of land, sought to promote peace and prevent war. Ala forbade serious

crimes, which threatened societal peace, and social harmony or promoted blood spilling

(p66).

Idowu (1999) asserts that the combined forces of Christianity, Islam and

Western education as well as wider logic of colonialism weakened belief in the roles

of indigenous forces of restraint. He went on to state:

There has also been remarkable change in moral values all over the land. Western influence has not been altogether beneficial to the people. The people have been taught too many things! The pax Britannica makes it possible for a daylight burglar to escape his well merited punishment if he and his lawyers are sufficiently clever abut it…Christianity, by a marriage of purpose, makes it own contribution to the detrimental changes in moral values, some hold it has replaced the old fear of the divinities with the relieving but harmful notion of God who is a sentimental old man, ever ready to forgive. So also does Islam unwittingly create the erroneous impression that the fulfillment of the obligatory duties and acts of penance by good works are sufficient for the purpose of wining heaven? The result of all these is that our enlightened’ products of the two fashionable religions can now steal without any twinge of moral compunction those articles of food placed for sale at crossroads which used to be quite safe. They can break covenants or promises made on oath, with brazen indifference: all these they feel free to do where those who have brought up on the old ways and wisdom still shake and evemble at the mere thought of such things (Idowu 1999: 76).

In the light of the new slight situation where oaths are no longer dreaded Tamunon

(1992) asked. What then happened to the oracles and crops of diviners trusted by the rural

communities to put the search for truth in disputed matters beyond any reasonable doubt? In

response, he said:

It will be recalled that the dreaded shrines and groves of secret societies, cults, priest and priestesses of ancestral gods and nature spirit, among others under the traditional social order commanded so much public confidence that oath taking for whatever reason was considered serious business. Also, under the old order for psychological and other reasons, people believed death could result from drinking agreed portions administered during trails by ordeal. Any such fatality was believed to

be evidence of guilt. Accordingly, no offender could take lightly the implications and likely consequences of failure to tell the truth in a charge against him or her religion, belief in the ancient supernatural conglomerate of gods, goddesses, spirits and their associated ritual systems, provided the main engine of each communities recognized law and custom. The operative moral code, in each case, had strong religious underpinning. The newer faiths, Islamic and Christian, seriously threatened the bulwarks of the ancient moral code of conduct applicable to each rural community (p53-54).

Methodology

The study adopted the survey design which allows the collection of data from a subset

of a population administers instruments and generalized findings on the entire

population. This design explained vividly the conceptualization of triangulation which

allows intra and inters instrument utilization in order to draw on the advantages of this

design while reducing to the barest minimum it weaknesses thus achieving the three

basic purpose of research – exploration, description and explanation.

Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of a population to represent the

entire population. The subset is used for the study with the findings being generalized

on the entire population. For this study multi-staged sampling procedure was adopted.

It began with the purposive selection of Obudu Local Government Area as study area.

The local government was divided into the political wards and there are ten of them.

From here the hat ad draw method was used to select four Local Governments and

clustering method was used to put them into chiefdoms. Each chiefdom was used to

select twenty-five households where the head or (men of the house) were selected to

form the population or sample for the study. The sampling procedure gave the

following figure:

S/N Name of Community Sample TotalMale Female

1 Bebuabie 14 11 252 Okorshie 15 10 253 Ukprinyi, Utugwang 20 5 254 Alege 10 15 255 Kutiang 13 12 25

Total 72 53 125The population of the study is the Obudu Local Government Area of Cross

River State. The Local Government Area has an estimated population of over two

million according to 1991 Census. It lies within 50c and 150c of the equator. It is

roughly divided into two major linguistic groupings with the Bette as the major

language that is understood by all.

The major instrument for the study was the quantitative instrument which is

the questionnaire. This utilized closed and open ended questions used in soliciting

information from respondents. It was divided into four sections.

The researchers administered the questionnaire personally. He visited the

selected communities and took permission from the chiefs after explaining the purpose

of the study. The men were met in their age grade meetings while majority of the

women were met in the market. Since the study is historical, the data collected was

cleared, checked and updated to remove inconsistencies. The percentages and

frequency tables were used to analyze the data.

Results

Socio-Demographic Characteristics Of Respondents

The table below presents the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents

in the study. A total of 125 questionnaires were administered and returned. The

analysis is therefore based on this number.

Table one below shows that majority of the respondents were elderly men.

This is because the mean age is 42.4 indicating that the respondents are comparatively

old and are in a position to assess the extent of modern influences on the traditional

means of social control.

The table also indicates that almost all the respondents are presently married.

This result is attributed to the household specific sample design which adopted a

framework of using only the heads of households. Heads of these households are

often married.

Table 1: Percentage distribution of respondents by socio-demographic

characteristics

Characteristics Category Frequency Percentage Age <30 15 12

31-35 15 1236-40 25 2041-44 40 3245-50 20 1650+ 10 8Total 125 100

Marital Status Single 2 1.6Married 96 76.8Divorced 17 9.6Separated 5 4Widowed 10 8Total 125 100

Qualification No schooling 25 20Primary 25 20Secondary 40 42Tertiary 35 28Total 125 100

Occupation Trader 25 20Farmer 40 32Civil servant 25 20Others 35 28Total 125 100

Religion Christian 96 76.8Islam 12 9.6Traditional A R 5 4Others 12 9.6Total 125 100

Source: Fieldwork

With regards to educational qualification, majority of respondents have attended

secondary educational level. This implies that the study area is having a predominant number

of educated persons. They must therefore be change agents in their communities.

Majority of the respondents (32%) are farmers implying that the people engage in

occupations lower than their educational qualifications. Almost 80% of the respondents are

Christians with only 4% responding that they are traditional Africa religionist. An indication

that the TAR is almost non-existent as a result of the colonizing influence of missionary

activities that have led to the abandonment of the traditional mechanism for maintaining

peace. It is clear from the data above that people no longer respect what is traditional again.

State of Traditional Means of Social Control

The responses to three questions were used to answer or examine the statement above.

Table 2: State of traditional means of social control

S/N Item Response Total Percentage TotalYes No Yes No

1 Are you aware of traditional methods of social control? 80 45 125 64 36 100

2 Does your community still use

them? 45 80 125 36 64 1003 Would you want to use it to

settle misunderstanding? 30 95 125 24 76 100

It is indicated in the table above that majority of the respondents (64%) are aware of

the existence of traditional methods of social control but another 64% reported that

their communities no longer use them as a means of social control. The respondents

are also not positively disposed to using them as individuals. This is obvious and can

be traced to the religious (Christianity) inclination of respondents. The socio-

demographic characteristics on religion showed people as predominantly Christian

hence will see and call the traditional methods of social control idolatry. It is therefore

convenient to conclude that the state of traditional methods of social control is poor

and not respected in the African societies.

Strengths of Traditional Methods of Social Control

This section analyzed the perceived strengths of the methods in the traditional society

and the modern time

Table 3: Strengths of traditional methods of social control

S/N Item Response Total Percentage TotalYes No Yes No

4 Was this method powerful in the past? 90 35 125 72 28 100

5 Were they in use then? 90 35 125 72 28 1006 Do you think they are still

effective? 35 90 125 28 72 100

It is instructive from the table that the respondents accept that these methods

were used in the past and were very effective but they no longer see them as effective

today. When they were asked why they think it was no longer effective, different

responses were given and a summary of what hey felt is indicated as follows:

The Almighty God has replaced all that the idols were doing that have been overcome by the blood of the lamb. It is fetish and it did not really work.

From these responses, it can be concluded that the only reason for abandoning

the traditional methods of social control is the infiltration of the traditional psyche by

the religions of the modern world. It follows that the strength of traditional methods

of social control has been drastically reduced.

Modern Religion and Traditional Methods of Social Control

This objective examined the role of modern religions (Christianity) in influencing the

adoption of traditional methods of social control in the African society.

Table 4: Religion and traditional methods of social control

S/N Item Response Total Percentage TotalYes No Yes No

7 Is it because of your religion that you no longer like these methods? 100 25 125 80 20 100

8 Does your religion accept the use of these methods? 15 110 125 12 88 100

9 Would have used it if you were not a Christian? 95 30 125 76 24 100

Table 4 above shows that the reason for not utilizing the traditional methods of

social control is purely because they are members of a modern religion. This is

because 80% of respondents said that their religion forbids them from using the

traditional methods of social control. it is therefore pertinent to note that the greatest

influence on the traditional methods of social control is religion. This is because it

permeates every response that is given by respondents. This therefore reflects the

general perception of the people. In conclusion therefore, religion has influence the

utilization of traditional methods of social control.

Modern Methods of Social Control and their Influence

Table 5: Modern methods and influence

What are the modern methods of social control that are in use now?

Frequency YearsPolice 80 64Prison 20 16Court 10 8Playground 10 8Family members 5 4Total 125 100

The table above has succinctly captured the state of information and perception of the

people. The data shows that the commonest modern method of social control was the police

with 64 percent and the next is the prison while the playground and family members that were

the major methods in the traditional societies have the lowest of 8% and 4%. It is therefore

convenient to conclude that the traditional methods of social control have been replaced by

the modern that are often not very effective.

Discussion of Findings

The findings of this study have indicated that the traditional methods of social control

have been influenced by modernization. This is in line with postulation of scholars who

severally stated that “imported religions and colonialism brought new values and introduced

value – confusion in African generally and the Obudu people in particular. Imported religions

brought talks about judgment day, God’s kindness and new codes of crime punishment.

Political leaders are even immune to persecution and have constitutional protection when they

commit crimes. This also agrees with Idowu (1974) who state that there has been a

remarkable change

Conclusion

The study has shown how modernization or colonialism has influenced and changed

the value orientation of the people to the extent that there is a complete abandonment of the

cultural ethos and values of the African people generally and the Obudu people specifically.

It is therefore urgently required that traditional education should be restructured to

carry the younger generation along in knowing their past, and the happiness in the traditional

methods of social control.

Recommendations

The study makes the following recommendations:

i. There is an urgent need to create a forum for the discussion of the strength of

the traditional methods of social control in order that it can be used.

ii. There is need to see and appreciate the traditional methods of social control as

good and not as idolatry.

iii. The need to combine or join both modern and traditional methods of social

control to bring about a balanced security situation.

REFERENCES

Abraham, M. (1992) Modern Sociological Theory: An Introduction: New York: Oxford University Press

Afigbo, A. (1993) The Indigenous Political System of the Igbo; in Tarikh vol. 4 No.2

Afigbo, A. (2000) The National Question in Nigerian History: Politics and Public affairs. Abia State University Press.

Alagoa, E.H. (1998) Conflict Management Traditional Models from Pre-Colonial Times to the Present in the South-South . “Paper Presented At South-South Zonal Conference on Peaceful Co-Existence in Nigeria.

Ayittey, G. (1974) Indigenous African Institutions. New York: Transitional

Biaimah, A. (1998) Culture and Tradition in Conflict Resolution in Chris Garuba (ed) Capacity Building for Crisis management in Africa. Abuja NWC.

Bohanna, B. et al (1968) Tiv Economy. London: Longman

Chinweizu, (1978) The West and the rest of US. London: Nok Publishers

Gluckman, M. (1959) Custom and Conflict in Africa. Oxford Basil Blackwell

Harunah, H. (1990) Historical Perspectives of peace in Africa. Ibadan: Longman

Idowu, B. (1974) Olodumare: God in Tomba Belief. London.

Ijeoma, J.O. (1990) War and Diplomacy in Igboland West of the Niger in the Pre-colonial period: NDA Kaduna Vol. 1 No. 2.

Masina, N. (1969) Traditional Curse for Modern Conflicts.

Nwala, U.T. (1985) Igbo philosophy: Lagos: Lantern Books

Nwankwo, G. (2001) The Guardian Newspaper. May 24.

Nwolise, O.B.C. (2004) Death Knell for Zero-sum Game. A celebration of traditional methods of Bargaining and conflict resolution. Paper presented for Dr. Albert’s senate Research Grant Report and publication on conflicts in Africa. February

Nwolise, O.B.C. (2004) Shrines as Traditional Mechanisms of Peace Maintenance, Confidence Building and Conflict Resolution in Africa. The Okija Ogwugu Shrine Controversy in focus: Seminar paper. September.

Nwolise, O.B.C. (2004) Traditional Approaches to Conflict Resolution among the Igbo People of Nigeria: Reinforcing The Need For Africa To Rediscover its roots: Amani Journal of African Peace. No. 1

O. Donnel, O. (1993) Religion and morality among the Ibo of southern Nigeria in primitive man.

Oguntomisin, G. (2004) Perspectives on peace keeping and peace-making in Nigeria’s pre-colonial era in Gbor J. (ed)

Ojo, J.D. (1990) The Usuru Festival: An indigenous solution to crime control. Africa Votes. Vol. 1. No. 1 & 2.

Onoge, (1993) Socal Conflict and Crime Control in Colonial Nigeria in. Tamumo et al (eds) Policing Nigeria Past, Present and Future. Lagos: Malthouse Press.

Onwumechili, C.A. (2000) Igbo Enwe Eze ( The Igbo Itave no king?) paper presented at Ahiajioku lecture Owerri.

Samba, E.M. & Muanya, C. (2004) WHO Urges Governments to Promote African Traditional Medicine. The Guardian.

Shuman, M & Havey, H. (1993) Security without war. A post cold war foreign policy. Oxford Westerner Press.

Tamuno, T.N. (1966) Before the British police: Nigerian Magazine.

Tamuno, T.N. (1966) Foundations of Peace Maintenance in Nigeria’s Pre-colonial Era in John Gbor (ed) military history. Nigeria, from pre-colonial to present. Lagos: Longman.

Weeks, D. (1992) The Eight Essential Steps to Conflict Resolution: Los Angeles: Jeremy Tarcher.