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in their ability to detect cross-cultural differences. This is not per se an argument against mediational analyses. It is simply a reason why questionnaires may not be terribly useful as mediators. In principle, there is no reason why mediators have to be measured via questionnaires. As long as they are valid, behavioral samples, performance on engaging tasks, or any other rneasure may serve as a mediator and stand in for the underlying construct. If researchers want to take the individualdifference perspective seriously, it will be useful to develop a repertoire of such nonquestionnaire measures that have demonstrated validity and are practical to itse as mediating variables (Spencer, Zanna, Fong, 2005). 2. The theoretical issues with the mediation method are different and quite interesting; by adopting the individualdifference mediation methodology, one is implicitly adopting a certain view of culture. This view locates culture within the individual. Beliefs are held by individuals. Behaviors are done by individuals. Affect is felt by individuals. Cognitions are thought by individuals (Bond, 2002). Whereas this is prima facie true, it does miss out om some things that some cultural psychologists would like to consider cultural" and worthy of study (Fiske, 2002; Miller, 2002). More specifically, it can reduceculture to an individualdifference, insidethe-head variable that neglects how situations, practices, and institutional arrangements afford" certain types of behavior, pulling for one pattern of thoughts and actions rather than another. A situationalstructural approach that actually measures affordances that pull for a certain type of behaviorrather than merely asserting that such affordances existcan require some creative thinking. However, such studies may help clarify why an individualdifference reductionistaccount will be necessarily incomplete. As one example of a interesting and creative situational approach, Kitayama, Markus, Matsumoto, and Norasakkunkit (1997; see also Morling, Kitayama, Miyamoto, 2002) developed a method of situation samplingin which respondents were asked to generate as many situations as they could in which their own self-esteem either increased or decreased. Kitayama and colleagues (1997) then sampled the situations generated by American and Japanese respondents, and presented them to others for ratings, American raters were more likely than Japanese raters to believe that their self-esteem would go up in the success situations and

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in their ability to detect cross-cultural differences. This is not per se an argument against mediational analyses. It is simply a reason why questionnaires may not be terribly useful as mediators. In principle, there is no reason why mediators have to be measured via questionnaires. As long as they are valid, behavioral samples, performance on engaging tasks, or any other rneasure may serve as a mediator and stand in for the underlying construct. If researchers want to take the individualdifference perspective seriously, it will be useful to develop a repertoire of such nonquestionnaire measures that have demonstrated validity and are practical to itse as mediating variables (Spencer, Zanna, Fong, 2005). 2. The theoretical issues with the mediation method are different and quite interesting; by adopting the individualdifference mediation methodology, one is implicitly adopting a certain view of culture. This view locates culture within the individual. Beliefs are held by individuals. Behaviors are done by individuals. Affect is felt by individuals. Cognitions are thought by individuals (Bond, 2002). Whereas this is prima facie true, it does miss out om some things that some cultural psychologists would like to consider cultural" and worthy of study (Fiske, 2002; Miller, 2002). More specifically, it can reduceculture to an individualdifference, insidethe-head variable that neglects how situations, practices, and institutional arrangements afford" certain types of behavior, pulling for one pattern of thoughts and actions rather than another.A situationalstructural approach that actually measures affordances that pull for a certain type of behaviorrather than merely asserting that such affordances existcan require some creative thinking. However, such studies may help clarify why an individualdifference reductionistaccount will be necessarily incomplete. As one example of a interesting and creative situational approach, Kitayama, Markus, Matsumoto, and Norasakkunkit (1997; see also Morling, Kitayama, Miyamoto, 2002) developed a method of situation samplingin which respondents were asked to generate as many situations as they could in which their own self-esteem either increased or decreased. Kitayama and colleagues(1997) then sampled the situations generated by American and Japanese respondents, and presented them to others for ratings, American raters were more likely than Japanese raters to believe that their self-esteem would go up in the success situations and less likely to think their self-esteem would go down in the failure situations. But perhaps more importantly, the success situations generated by Americans were judged by both Japanese and Americans to be more affirming than the success situations generated by the Japanese, and the failure situations generated by the Japanese were judged to be more deflating than the failure situations generated by Americans. If one trusts the situation sample" to reflect roughly the situations encountered in real life, then the argument can be made that American versus Japanese differences in self-enhancement (vs. self-criticism) at least partially derive from the differences in situations that Americans and Japanese encounter in day-to-day liwing. (The assumption of a perfect correspondence between the frequency of situations in real life" and the frequency of situations generated and sampled in an experimental study is clearly untenable. However, it does not seem untenable that there is at least a positive correlation between the frequency of situations generated in the lab and situations encountered in real life.) Another situational approach might drop the issue of sampling" altogether and attempt to examine in the lab how prototypicalsituations from culture A and prototypicalsituations from culture B will each lead to different sorts of behavior. This too can be a useful way of demonstrating how situations from one culture or another afford different types of behavior. The predictions might involve (1) main effects (e.., the prototypical" situation of culture A leads to greater feelings of selfefficacy than that of culture B) and (2) interactions of the sort Morling et al. (2002) found (namely, routinely encountering the prototypical situation helps shape the person such that he or she becomes well-attuned to the affordances and practiced at the culturally appropriate ways of responding. Thus, there may be an interaction such that the prototypical situation of culture. A leads to greater feelings of self-efficacyand this is true especially for members of culture A. The disadvantages here are that (1) situations from one culture may not translate" well to another culture (a point that is discussed later) and (2) the argument

dalam kemampuan mereka untuk mendeteksi perbedaan lintas-budaya. Ini bukan per se argumen terhadap analisis mediational. Ini hanyalah sebuah alasan mengapa kuesioner mungkin tidak terlalu berguna sebagai mediator. Pada prinsipnya, tidak ada alasan mengapa mediator harus diukur melalui kuesioner. Selama hal itu masih valid, sampel perilaku, kinerja pada tugas-tugas yang terlibat, atau mengukur hal lain dapat berfungsi sebagai mediator dan berdiri di atas konstruksi yang mendasari. Jika peneliti ingin mengambil perspektif perbedaan individual yang serius, itu akan berguna untuk mengembangkan repertoar tindakan tidak berkuisoner seperti yang telah menunjukkan validitas dan praktis untuk digunakan sebagai mediasi variabel (Spencer, Zanna, Fong, 2005).2. isu-isu teoritis dengan metode mediasi yang berbeda dan cukup menarik; dengan mengadopsi metodologi perbedaan mediasi individu, salah satu caranya implisit dan mengadopsi pandangan tertentu dari kebudayaan. Pandangan ini menempatkan budaya dalam diri individu. Keyakinan yang dimiliki oleh individu. Perilaku yang dilakukan oleh individu. Mempengaruhi dirasakan oleh individu. Kognisi diperkirakan oleh individu (Bond, 2002). Sedangkan ini adalah prima facie yang benar, yaitu kehilangan beberapa hal, bahwa beberapa psikolog budaya ingin mempertimbangkan budaya "dan layak studi (Fiske, 2002; Miller, 2002). Lebih khusus lagi, dapat reduceculture ke perbedaan individu, variabel yang ada di dalam kepala yang mengabaikan bagaimana situasi, praktik, dan pengaturan kelembagaan mampu "jenis perilaku tertentu, menarik untuk satu pola pikiran dan tindakan daripada yang lain.Pendekatan situationalstructural yang benar-benar mengukur affordances yang menarik untuk jenis tertentu behaviorrather dari sekedar menyatakan bahwa affordances tersebut existcan membutuhkan beberapa pemikiran kreatif. Namun, penelitian tersebut dapat membantu menjelaskan mengapa reductionistaccount individualdifference akan selalu tidak lengkap. Sebagai salah satu contoh dari pendekatan situasional yang menarik dan kreatif, Kitayama, Markus, Matsumoto, dan Norasakkunkit (1997; lihat juga Morling, Kitayama, Miyamoto, 2002) mengembangkan metode situasi samplingin yang meminta responden untuk menghasilkan banyak situasi yang mereka bisa di mana harga diri mereka sendiri baik meningkat atau menurun. Kitayama dan rekan(1997) kemudian sampel situasi yang dihasilkan oleh responden Amerika dan Jepang, dan disajikan kepada orang lain untuk peringkat, penilai Amerika lebih mungkin dibandingkan penilai Jepang percaya bahwa harga diri mereka akan naik dalam situasi keberhasilan dan cenderung untuk berpikir mereka harga diri akan turun dalam situasi kegagalan. Tapi mungkin lebih penting, situasi keberhasilan yang dihasilkan oleh Amerika dinilai oleh Jepang dan Amerika untuk lebih meneguhkan daripada situasi keberhasilan yang dihasilkan oleh Jepang, dan situasi kegagalan yang dihasilkan oleh Jepang dinilai lebih mengempis daripada situasi kegagalan yang dihasilkan oleh Amerika. Jika salah satu mempercayai sampel situasi "untuk mencerminkan kira-kira situasi yang dihadapi dalam kehidupan nyata, maka argumen dapat dibuat bahwa Amerika dibandingkan perbedaan Jepang di diri peningkatan (vs otokritik) setidaknya sebagian berasal dari perbedaan dalam situasi yang Amerika dan pertemuan Jepang di hari-hari liwing. (Asumsi korespondensi yang sempurna antara frekuensi situasi dalam kehidupan nyata "dan frekuensi situasi yang dihasilkan dan sampel dalam penelitian eksperimental jelas tidak bisa dipertahankan. Namun, tampaknya tidak bisa dipertahankan bahwa ada setidaknya korelasi positif antara frekuensi situasi yang dihasilkan di laboratorium dan situasi yang dihadapi dalam kehidupan nyata.) Pendekatan situasional lain mungkin drop masalah sampling "sama sekali dan mencoba untuk memeriksa di laboratorium bagaimana prototypicalsituations dari budaya A dan prototypicalsituations dari budaya B masing-masing akan menyebabkan berbagai macam perilaku. Hal ini juga dapat menjadi cara yang berguna untuk menunjukkan bagaimana situasi dari satu budaya atau lain membeli berbagai jenis perilaku. Prediksi mungkin melibatkan (1) efek utama (e .., "situasi prototipe budaya A mengarah ke perasaan yang lebih besar selfefficacy daripada budaya B) dan (2) interaksi semacam itu Morling et al. (2002) menemukan ( yaitu, secara rutin menghadapi situasi prototipe membantu membentuk orang sehingga ia menjadi baik selaras dengan affordances dan dipraktekkan di budaya yang tepat menanggapi. Jadi, mungkin ada interaksi tersebut bahwa situasi prototipe budaya. Sebuah lead perasaan yang lebih besar dari diri efficacyand ini benar terutama untuk anggota budaya A. Kelemahan di sini adalah bahwa (1) situasi dari satu budaya mungkin tidak menerjemahkan "dengan baik untuk budaya lain (titik yang dibahas nanti) dan (2) argumen