transformation of education systems

8/7/2019 Transformation of Education Systems

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10 EUROPEAN EDUCATION

European Education, vol. 34, no. 4, Winter 20023, pp. 1033. 2003 M.E. Sharpe, Inc. All rights reserved.

ISSN 10564934/2003 $9.50 + 0.00.

TAMS KOZMA

Transformation of Education

Systems: The Case of Hungary

Central and Eastern Europe ceased to belong to the Soviet sphere ofinterest in 1994, and returned to the historic roots retained during theperiod of Soviet influence.

The united and compulsory basic and lower secondary school wasorganized under the Soviet influence after World War II, although the

new system appeared to be unified only on the surface and in declara-tions. Empirical research occurred only after the political system beganto lose its stability in the 1970s, and even then not everywhere, espe-cially not at the institution level. It would be interesting to comparebasic seven-year schools in Romania or Serbia with eight-year ones inHungary or Croatia, especially if the study examined basic schools re-structured from former lower gymnasiums, representing a generalizingof the system of lower gymnasiums, or higher elementary schools, rep-

resenting a lengthening of elementary public education. Differencesbetween education systems in distant areas of the region (e.g., Bulgariaand Czechoslovakia) were even greater. In the former case it was pos-sible to continue vocational training after six years of basic educationeven in the 1980s, in the latter case nine years of basic education be-

English translation 2003 by M.E. Sharpe, Inc. Az oktats talakulsa:Magyarorszg s Kzp Kelet Eurpa esete. Atalakuls: trsadalmi s trtnelmikihavs. Paper prepared for the international symposium Transformation of Edu-cational Systems in Comparative Perspective, DIPF [German Institute for Interna-tional Educational Research], Berlin, 2426 January 2002, with the contributions of


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came compulsory. Diverse territorial conditions led to tremendous dif-

ferences, as could be seen in the backwardness of the network of institu-tions in the Balkans in the 197080s, while in Central Europe this networkfitted in the municipalities and new centers of industry.

The international tendency of the expansion of secondary educationreached developed areas of the region in the 1960s; overall educationalreforms of the region date from then. Such reforms were not reallylaunched in countries that inherited firm and traditional secondaryschools; they resisted the pressure of the party, international unity ofaction, or the demands of experts. The clamor for a ten-year upper

polytechnical school, which was regarded as a Soviet pattern, led to itscreation only in the German Democratic Republic. A new type of sec-ondary school (secondary technical) was added to the system. In theseareas of the region, the education policy satisfied the increasing demandfor secondary schools by developing the system of vocational traininginstead of opening more secondary schools. This was the universal trendin socialist countries at the time, but the combination of secondary edu-cation and vocational training was created only in this area of the re-

gion. This factor widened the basis for continuing studies in collegesand led to an expanded need for higher education.

In countries where the tradition of secondary education was weaker,legislating the education system to have ten compulsory years was easyand rapid, as it meant restructuring and reorganizing traditional institu-tions; in some countries, it induced development of schooling. Never-theless, in most places this acted as a new filtering device between thetenth grade and the preparatory years before higher education. Tradi-

tional centers of secondary education, which were already accepted bylocal society, were dissolved or reorganized into two-year vocationaltraining and as a consequence lost their reputation. As 1990, the year ofchange, approached, this restructuring was described as a failure in Po-land, Romania, and in some states of Yugoslavia, and they tried to returnto the abandoned (French) pattern of secondary education.

Thus, restructuring has been one reason that the expansion of sec-ondary education is reaching countries on the periphery of this regiononly now, thirty or fifty years later than in the developed regions ofEurope. As secondary school is selective and academic, the real needfor higher education is even weaker The spectacular rise of needs at the


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Romania). The network of higher education at hand cannot fulfill the

needs of extended continuation of studies. The lack of tertiary voca-tional training is typical of the network of institutions, except for Hun-gary in the 1970s; instead, a network of so-called specializeduniversities came into being. This network comprises, more or less,developed areas in the region, so higher education is accessible to widergroups of local society. This could be a way of making higher educationin central Eastern Europe democratic. However, specialized universitiesare specialized on the national or sometimes regional level, which meansthat they cannot necessarily meet the needs for higher education in par-

ticular areas in their present form.These factors contribute to the fact that the needs for higher educa-

tion are still stagnant in this region of Europe; if they suddenly rose, itwould cause inextricable difficulties in the present network. Recogni-tion of this situation supports the pursuit of regional higher educationpolicies and the political slogans about privatizing higher education inthe 1990s. However, it is highly improbable that the problem could besolved this way. Higher education in the region is ahead of overall

reform processes that would widen the network and the narrow fieldof specialization. It is difficult to reform and expand higher educationunder conditions of an economy that is falling apart and awaiting re-structuring. This process can be launched in this region only wheneconomic prosperity occurs and countries of the region catch up withthe European Union.

The school system in transition

Basic-school provisions

The most important basic institutions are the primary schools. In thelong run, we develop cultural basic provision by developing primaryeducation. Organizing educational activities imply different tasks de-pending on the type of settlement. More than 50 percent of primary-school children live in towns in some counties; in other counties (e.g., inBcs-Kiskun, Bks, and Borsod-Abaj-Zempln), the number of schools

in villages is one and a half times larger than the number of schools intowns. It means, from the viewpoint of development, that development


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towns, the number of teachers who graduated from teaching institutes is

higher than the number without teachingdiplomas. Schools in smallvillages, however, have fewer pupils per teacher than in town schools,

which show large differences in the ratio of students to teachers. Theneed for supplies in village schools is much greater than in towns. Wehave to take into consideration the potentialities of the settlement and itsrole in a particular area when we organize complex (integrated) culturalinstitutions. This process will be supported by a more unified and flex-ible training system for class teachers or specialized teachers. One con-dition that will aid students further learning, moving on in the educational

system, is teachers more flexible movement among levels of education.

Secondary-school provisions

There have been different ideas (models) in connection with the devel-opment of secondary education. These ideas presupposed different levelsof economy, society, and culture and tried to solve the associated prob-lems. These differences can be found simultaneously and side by side in

regions of the country. Considering that regions develop differently, thefollowing variants are suggested: more intensive coordination of exist-ing educational, vocational training, and cultural institutions; buildingvocational-training centers; building and developing cultural urban cen-ters; developing so-called common secondary schools; integrating thepedagogical and vocational-training programs of a gymnasium, a voca-tional secondary school, and/or a vocational school (preserving institu-tional independence); integrating horizontally the social and cultural basic

provision, building and maintaining cultural areas.Higher-education provisions

Expansion of higher education is possible if the system of institutions isexpanded as well. The expansion may break the system of institutionsinto smaller pieces. The demands of structural development and effec-tiveness can be aligned if the existing and planned institutions are inte-grated in bigger structural units. The institution that can provide for the

needs of a region is an existing or planned regional university. Higher-education policies are the following: forms of further education between


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around a regional university; the university is developed as a multifunc-

tional institution, quantitative or polycentric development of the exist-ing intellectual center.Problems can be caused not only by a system that is broken into smaller

parts, but by the need of the necessary intellectual background. We candevelop intellectual centers if we can rely on the wider potential of aregion. To use intellectual potential more effectively, we need to buildup an almost complete structure of education in every area and maintainmedium-size and smaller institutions.

The basic structure of Hungarian education was easy to

survey before 1990

The traditional structure started to change after 1990. Possible variantsare the following.

8+4 basic structure with four-year secondary school

Four-year secondary schools (grammar schools and secondary techni-cal schools) involve upper secondary education compared with interna-tional standards. They are incomplete formations from the historic pointof view. We can see similar incomplete formations, though with differ-ent grades, in the Scandinavian countries. Four-year secondary schoolsare the direct results of the organization of general education schools.The organization of general educationschools was supported by profes-sional and political reasons. Expanding and standardizing secondary

education seemed to be a professional reason, while the devaluing ofelite gymnasiums was a political reason. The structuring of general edu-cationschools was not an organic process (e.g., expanding higher el-ementary public schools, which are the majority in grades five througheight, and combining elementary public schools in education districts).An important aspect was to organize, possibly in every settlement, gradesfive through eight, which corresponded to lower secondary school. Theeducational administration at the time insisted on organizing all of themwithin one building, in one standardized system. It does not seem rea-

sonable to maintain general education schools without any changes af-ter forty years. The goal was to develop an integrated education system.


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10+2 basic structure with two-year additional training

A basic structural problem of public education is that compulsory edu-cation until the age of sixteen, which matches European standards, doesnot have the necessary organizational framework and legal guarantees.The system is so deficient in this respect and the legal controls so con-troversial that leaving primary school at the normal time, the age offourteen, constitutes compulsory education. Rural primary schools arethreatened by further centralization (whatever name it will be given inthe future), since the number of students decreased after the demographic

boom. A way of escaping ahead is keeping in school the fourteen- tosixteen-year-olds who will not go on to secondary school. Increasingprimary school to ten years, which is preferable in areas with scatteredsettlements, could slow the reduction of the network while fulfilling therequirement of compulsory education until sixteen years of age. Wherepossible, a lengthened primary school could take over compulsory sub-jects from vocational training schools, which are close to a crisis, couldoffer vocational training, or could prepare for secondary grammar school.

4+8 basic structure with eight-year secondary school

The idea of eight-year grammar schools began in 198889. Some of itsconcepts present a real alternative to existing grammar schools. Eightgrades are easy to arrange by dividing the present primary school. Inthis case the upper grades are to be joined (again) with a mother school.It should be mentioned that this version was included in the 1961 re-formschools with twelve gradessome of which operated almost untilthe present. Eight-grade grammar schools require restructuring inde-pendent four-grade elementary schools. This part of the concept is theeasiest to realize and agrees with the educational policy that would liketo (because it could) supply local authorities with institutions of fewergrades (and fewer students).

6+6 basic structure with six-year secondary schools

Secondary schools with six grades do not have such a long tradition.This idea appeared first in the educational policies of programs of new


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of the French education system was adopted, rather than the four-grade

GermanAustrian type. The six-grade secondary school presupposes asix-grade basic school. This concept is supported by the psychologicalreasoning that the age limit of elementary education should be raised bytwo years so that children can catch up. At the same time, at aroundtwelve years of age there are psychological processes in the childs de-velopment that make changing schools necessary and possible. Thesearguments are supported by the inner differentiation of the currentprimary-school bureaucracy. It is definitely easier to organize six gradesthan eight grades in each area of settlements; this model is easier to

handle than that of 8+4 or 10+2 from the viewpoint of organization.Another positive element of this idea is that the aims and methods ofbasic schoolteacher training would not be divided, as it is today. Thereare heavy arguments against this model, as well, because it could lead toreconstructing an old and outdated structure: the elementary public schooland upper-grade schools.

The models discussed concentrate on gymnasiums, where 30 per-cent of secondary school students go. A similar type of structure change

occurs with vocational schools, the majority of secondary schools. Themovement of an alternative grade structure can be viewed as theneed of gymnasiums to find their place. The question is how certifi-cates from different types of gymnasium can be validated in other typesof secondary schools. There is also the problem of inner equivalence.How it is possible to change one type of gymnasium to another? Wecan expect that a unified overall structure will be formulated in thenext few years, and existing variants may be authorized as possible

alternatives.

The school content in transition

The National Core Curriculum

The 1993 Law on Public Education superseded central curricula docu-ments. The National Core Curriculum was accepted in the autumn of1993. It prescribes unified requirements for all types of school until

tenth grade. There is a huge social interest in the development of twoareas, languages and computer science. Because the demand for these


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Unfortunately, knowledge of foreign languages among adults is rather

poor: only 32 percent of those older than fourteen spoke any foreignlanguage in 1994. Most spoke German, followed by English, Russian,and French. For the sake of comparison, in Austria 69 percent of peopleabove the age of fifteen spoke some foreign language. The number oflanguage learners grew in Hungary in the 199697 academic year.

The National Core Curriculum is flexible concerning languages. It isuncertain how many language classes are scheduled in a given schoolafter preparing the local curriculum and pedagogical program, or afterthe agreement between local/municipal government and the school.

Compulsory language learning now starts in the fourth grade, but on thebasis of the National Core Curriculum it would start in fifth grade, whichmeans the number of language learners in elementary school would de-crease. The other important area to develop is computer science. It en-hances the modernization of aspects of public education such asadministration, as well as development of the information network andthe context of public education. The success of the teaching and devel-opment programs of computer science depends on the teachers and other

agents of education who recognize the possibilities offered by informa-tion technology.

Regulation leaves ample room for schools to adjust their local cur-ricula to the knowledge and capacity of their students. The NationalInstitution of Public Education developed the data bank of curricula start-ing in late 1996. Schools had to begin preparing their local curricula inearly 1997. The information network of institutions of public educationwas built while the supply of curricula was developed. Schools were

supported by the budget through the preparation of local curricula andin-service training for teachers.The new National Core Curriculum was launched in the beginning

of 1997. The 1996 Law for Public Education provides for its compul-sory introduction starting in 1998. From that date on, schools have toteach according to their local curriculum and pedagogical programthat is compatible with the National Core Curriculum. The success ofthe introduction of the National Core Curriculum depends on theschools that are able to prepare their local curriculum with the neces-sary quality and on time. According to a 1997 survey, 8 percent ofschools had completed the pedagogical program and 8 percent could


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a curriculum from the data bank, and 84 percent were still preparing the

local curriculum.Textbooks

According to the ratio of inflation between 1996 and 1997, the averageprice of books increased 22 percent. Every school decides which text-books to choose, so we can only estimate how much it costs for thefamily. This estimate was between 4,000 and 12,000 Forints (Ft) in the199798 academic year. A new practice has come into being at some

schools: families pay in monthly instalments; parents are not involvedin choosing appropriate and sometimes more expensive textbooks. Teach-ers consider this decision to be part of their expertise and professionalautonomy. Family expenses in buying textbooks are supported throughthe budget but the subsidy does not keep up with the rising costs.

This kind of aid was unified at all levels of public education (860Ft/person) in 1994, but it was differentiated in 1997; it was decreased insecondary schools at the real value (1.140Ft/person) and in primary

schools at the nominal value (760Ft/person). The result is that familiescover an increasingly larger part of expenses while the state covers lessand less. The normative aid was out of step with inflation; the group ofsolvent parents became smaller under the influence of the Bokros pack-age, and this group became resigned to paying more and more. A typicalform of social aid offered by local authorities is assistance given to thepoorest families to buy textbooks, in addition to paying for school meals.

Since 1993, textbook publishers whose books are on the list of ap-

proved textbooks are given some credit with a state guarantee to pur-chase a certain number of books. This regulation helps publishers whoare successful professionally but cannot invest the necessary capital.The Ministry of Education prefers textbooks that can be used for severalyears in order to justify expenses. This initiative is not successful withparents and children because they do not like to use second-hand books.It is more popular to have a student use one approved textbook for sev-eral years. Thepedagogical institutes of the counties helpteachers getacquainted with the new books from the very large range of those avail-able. Also, professional organizations have an important role in text-book selection, primary among which is the National Union of Textbook


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National production is hindered by the need for capital, and imports are

blocked by the fear of competition. The role of the state, especially bud-get support, cannot be seen yet. International examples show that devel-oping and marketing the most expensive educational materials such aseducational videos, educational software, or CD is impossible withoutsome kind of state support. The 1996 Law on Public Education stipu-lates that the minister of education publish the list of educational mate-rial that must be obtained. The new list of educational materials iscompatible with the National Core Curriculum and covers a wide rangeof educational materials; it includes not concrete materials but rather

educational tasks. Teachers unions, parents and students organizationsand local authorities were consulted when the list was compiled. In theopinion of experts the functional list informs producers and traders aboutthe demand, thus giving it a marketing function. At the same time, thelist of educational materials must be published for the teachers, schools,and users every year.

Examinations

The other important element of the contextual regulation is the changeof the system of examinations. The 1993 Law on Public Education in-troduced an examination, called the basic examination, which can bepassed after the tenth grade, in both primary and secondary schools.Detailed regulation was elaborated after the National Core Curriculumwas instated in June 1997. Thematurity examination was passed in largenumbers in the mid-1990s and as a result of the expansion of secondary

education it will be general in the future. This tendency is strengthenedby the expansion of education after the secondary level and the need formaturity examination in vocational training. Now the role, content, andfunction of the maturity examination are questioned.

The maturity examination covers three areas: (1) education and in-struction in the eleventh and twelfth grades of gymnasium and voca-tional secondary school; (2) compulsory subjects; (3) elective subjects.The examination has general education and advanced levels; applicantshave to pass in at least five subjects at the general educationlevel, andone subject may be chosen by the applicant. Compulsory examinationsubjects are Hungarian language and literature, history, mathematics,


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The measures referring to the materials of examination decide the parts

of examination (oral, written, and practice). The aim of the examinationis to assess academic knowledge and the needed problem-solving skills.Basic examination of education is a new element of the Hungarian

system of education. It is an examination that must be held nationally,according to the requirements of the National Core Curriculum. Stu-dents can sit for this examination after completing the tenth grade; thecertificate of the basic examination entitles them to join forms of voca-tional training approved by law or to take certain jobs. The materialincluded can be any cultural area of the National Core Curriculum. Com-

pulsory groups of subjects are (1) foreign language or information tech-nology; (2) biology and health education, physics, environmental studies,chemistry; (3) social studies, music, media studies, dance and drama,polytechnical studies, household practice, physical education, sports,and visual education.

The teaching profession in transition

Teachers as a group

Teachers as a social group can be characterized by the following. Thenumber of the intellectuals was rapidly growing in the past fifty years,and the number of teachers was growing even more quickly in this group.In 1930, the number of people with diplomas in Hungary was 87,000.This number grew to 176,000 in 1960, and the census shows 489,000 in1980. Of these, 18 percent were teachers fifty years ago, 29 percent twenty

years ago, and today 37 percent. The facts show that teachers comprisethe most numerous group in Hungary among intellectuals. The propor-tion of other sizable professions is small in comparison: technical intel-lectuals comprise fewer than 30 percent, agricultural intellec-tuals fewer than 20 percent, and other groups of intellectuals are under 10percent. The teaching profession is feminized, although it used to be atypical choice for women, as can be seen if we compare it with otherprofessional careers. Fifty years ago, 42 percent of teachers were women,and in 1980, 64 percent. In 1930, only every tenth person with a diplomawas a woman, in 1949 seventeen out of one hundred, in 1970 thirty-one,and according to the census, in 1980, forty-one. In fact, Hungarian intel-


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eral. The proportion of people over age sixty is 10 percent among intel-

lectuals in general, but this proportion is only 7 percent among teachers.The proportion of people over fifty is nearly 25 percent in general amongpeople with diplomas, but only 10 percent among teachers; 61 percentof teachers are under forty, but only 57 percent among intellectuals.Because young women predominate among teachers, there is compara-tively more absence due to maternity leave. A recent survey showed thatevery tenth teacher was absent from work because they were on mater-nity leave, especially elementary teachers (15 percent) and nursery-schoolteachers (16 percent). Rural intellectuals living in towns determine

teacher society; 40 percent of intellectuals work in the capital, but only30 percent of teachers do; 20 percent of intellectuals work in villages,where the proportion of teachers is 30 percent; 70 percent of teacherslive and work in the rural areas.

The educational level of teachers has grown rapidly in the past fiftyyears. Secondary education was typical of teachers around 1930 (sec-ondary teacher-training institutions), but the majority of teachers have adiploma. A certificate of secondary education means not trained. The

transformation of the Hungarian teacher society is the result of a histori-cal process, but fundamental changes occurred in the past ten to fifteenyears. Great numbers of students graduated from higher education andappeared in the schools in this period, including growing numbers ofwomen. The effects of structural changes among teacher society can beexpected from now on.

The teaching profession

A teaching career has a great advantage over other professions, as far asits publicity and the work itself. If there is a workplace that everybodygets to know in childhood, it is school. If there is a profession that stronglyattracts one, it is the profession of ones teacher.

Statistics of entrance examinations show that children of blue-collarworkers are more numerous among student teachers than among stu-dents at other institutions of higher education. The teaching professionlost a lot of prestige in society, but teacher-training institutions do nothave enrollment problems. Statistics from the end of the nineteenth cen-tury show that the profession of a (secondary) teacher was more open to


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young people to join the teaching profession was upward social mobil-

ity, and this is still the case.Even today, those who choose a teaching career consistently adhereto their choice. The majority of young women want to stay in their job;but nearly half of the students in college are thinking about leaving theprofession. Relevant statistics indicate that primary-school teachers,especially twenty-year-olds, are least likely to leave their job. Teachersat vocational-training schools leave their job most often. As we can ex-pect, this is more typical of men than of women. Outsiders may thinkthat teaching as a job has fewer restrictions, that there is more free time;

teachers do not think so. They feel that time utilization is wasteful, andthey are not expected to do what they can do best and what they likemost. Teachersa group of intellectuals that is numerous and influen-tialfeel they are on the periphery of public life, and, what is more, ofeducational practice.

Professional interests

Teachers jobs seem easily substituted by other teachers. Teachers try tochange this situation in different ways. A teacher can assert his interestsas an employee, he can even refuse worka preferred method in Hun-gary nowadays, although few teachers do so. Teachers poor politicalclout is not the only reason; they have been brought up to be loyal sothat they will bring up loyal students. While they can refuse to partici-pate in activities, in very few cases would this present a real threat to theoperation of the school. Teachers try to realize their knowledge in the

market outside school, particularly in popular subjects such as languages,sciences, physical education, and some arts subjects. But only great num-bers of teachers in vocational training can expect to make a living fromteaching as a business.

If teachers want to assert their professional and scientific interests,they have to keep together. There are teacher unions (teacher chambers)again, but it is not clear yet for whom and against whom. They shouldrepresent the professional standpoint of the teacher society in opposi-tion to governmental plans, and, above all, suggest and elaborate a na-tional system of requirements and examinations. A national system ofexaminations would be the most important self-defense weapon of a


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what qualification. Furthermore, there are examples in the world that

could help teachers to prepare for the qualifying examination that meetthe requirements of the chambers.

Educational policy in transition

School administration

There are four levels of educational administration: (1) central or gov-ernmental level; (2) territorial or regional level; (3) local level; (4) insti-

tutional level. The main characteristic of the Hungarian educationalsystem is that decision making is possible at the school or local level,but it is not necessarily so at the regional level. Supervision is regulatedat the national and regional levels by the minister, at the territorial levelby the county authority, at the local level by the local authority, at theinstitution level by local interest groups, amd at the teachers level bythe head of the institution.

Sectoral responsibility in public education rests with the minister

of education. The law defines three types of responsibility: (1) directadministration; (2) regulation; (3) development. The 1996 Law on Pub-lic Education widened the ministers responsibility with further educa-tion of teachers and heads of institutions, preparing county developmentprojects, organizing a students parliament, and assessing and evaluat-ing public education. The role of the social partners is more important inthe administration of systems of public education. The National Coun-cil of Public Education coordinates partners interested in the contents of

public education (regulation of syllabuses, textbooks, educational ma-terials, system of examinations, teacher training). These partners areteachers professional organizations, teacher-training colleges and uni-versities, the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, and the ministers directrepresentatives. This Council initiated a national maturity examinationboard and the national in-service teacher-training accreditation board.The Council of Public Education Policies is the ministers advisory or-ganization that prepares decisions and formulates opinion and recom-mendations. It involves national professional, social, and governmentalpartners, such as teachers professional organizations, teachers tradeunions, parents organizations, students organizations, local authorities,


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The national administration of education is supported by national in-

stitutions of improvement, services, and research. The ministry of edu-cation controls the Hungarian Institution of Educational Research, theNational Institution of Public Education, and the National Bureau ofServices for Public Education. The registration and statistics of publiceducation has been in a state of constant change for years. County of-fices of the Central Statistical Office took over the task of collecting thestatistical data of public education from county cultural departmentsafter 1990. The responsibility for collecting data is shared by the Cen-tral Statistical Office and the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of

Education made a one-time data collection for the first time in 1995.Data showing the processes of public education can be found in differ-ent data collections. An authentic register of institutions is missing, whichcontains the most important data of the institutions of public education.In the past few years an information network of public education wasdeveloped, with the task of creating information services (e.g., a database of patterns for local curricula).

Any institution can offer pedagogical professional services, but the

1996 Law on Public Education stipulates that this falls under the aegisof county authorities. County pedagogical institutions cooperate in thesetasks; there are central institutions of research and improvement, andthe role of private enterprises is more important. Institutions of publiceducation, local/municipal governments, teachers, students, and localauthorities are among those that may need these services, which caninclude assessment, counseling in teaching subjects, counseling for in-stitutions, services for public administration, tasks in documentation and

information, in-service training, and participation in research.Taking responsibility for public education is a task for local commu-nities and authorities in Hungary; the responsibility for supply is notconnected with the obligation of plant maintenance. Local authoritieshave the right to decide how they want to provide for the public educa-tion of their inhabitants. The only restriction is that local authoritieshave to take into consideration the countys development projects forpublic education. The quality of local administration of public educa-tion is the most important strategic issue of national educational policy.It is very difficult to establish the necessary expertise to perform tasksof educational administration for most local authorities and coopera-


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administration was growing. The 1996 Law on Public Education im-

posed the responsibility of planning on county authorities, which meansthat they must make a plan for performing necessary tasks to maintainand develop institutions, and this should be done in cooperation withlocal/municipal governments.

There were no important changes in the administration of institu-tions; the independence of institutions is still important. The most im-portant challenges for institutions are the decreasing number of children,budget restrictions, and the preparation of a local educationalprogramthat is compatible with the National Core Curriculum. In the educa-

tional systems, where decision making at the institution level is impor-tant, the quality of institutional management is a key issue.

School maintenance

The state monopoly of maintaining schools was ended in 1990. TheLaw on Local Administration stipulates that local authorities create the

necessary conditions for compulsory education, either by maintainingpublic institutions or by contributing to the maintenance of private insti-tutions for children of local families. Now local authorities maintainmore than 90 percent of institutions of public education, and churches,foundations, or other interest groups maintain the rest.

In the 199596 academic year, 4.5 percent of the total number ofeducational institutions were owned by churches or privately. Therewas hardly any demand for religious and private schools; the well-to-

do living in towns needed private schools and in rural areas religiousschools were more common. More than 60 percent of religious schoolsbelong to the Catholic Church, 20 percent are Calvinist, 10 percentLutheran, and 1 percent Jewish. Catholic schools are maintained bythe diocesan Catholic educational authorities; local religious organi-zations and monastic ordersare under its control. Twenty-three mo-nastic orders deal with education in Hungary at the present time.Calvinist schools are maintained by the diocese and Calvinist organi-zations under the control of the Synod Office of the Hungarian Cal-vinist Church. Lutheran schools are maintained by the diocese and thelocal Lutheran organizations under the control of the National Office


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to individual organizations, 15 percent are maintained by private enter-

prises, and 9 percent are maintained by associations. A group of founda-tion schools belong to a branch of reform educationsuch as Waldorf,Rogers, or Montessori. Private schools have become more popular, es-pecially vocational schools, art schools, and nursery schools. Secondaryand vocational education were expanded after World War II; educationas an organization followed the state curriculum guidelines. Absolutemonarchy initiated and organized public education almost everywherein Eastern Europe; as it is impossible to organize expanded educationwithout state financial support, it is thus under state influence. A par-

ticular example of socialization is in so-called socialist countries whereautocratic communist parties socialized churches and their schools. Sev-eral means of influencing schools were developed, some typical of stateinfluence, others identical with the means school supporters use in con-nection with their schools (and teachers).

Increasing state influence brought about various forms of opposition.The slogan socialization of schools hides the ideology of liberatingschools from the influence of the state and substitutes this with the in-

fluence of different interest groups. Neoliberal economists best expressedthe ideology of restricting state influence in education by increasing therole of the private sector and the market. Restricting the states abso-lute power means dividing areas of power in the representative demo-cracy. According to some, state influence can best be restricted if differ-ent individuals and organizations maintain schools. When schools (teach-ers, headmasters, local interest groups, and others) unite and assert theirinterests collectively in opposition to the state (administration, control,

legislation, etc.), this restricts state influence.In the democratic restructuring of public administration (local au-thorities), schools were taken over by the new interest groupswithoutreasonable guarantees. Under the Kdr regime, experimenting schoolreformers resisted the control of the totalitarian regime.

Advocates of autonomy seem to forget about the fact that the schoolis not the property of teachers; it belongs to students and parents as well.That is why the next step of democratic changes in education was build-ing up representative democracy instead of school autonomy. Schoolautonomy is guaranteed by building up interdependencies. If a schoolhas a problem with its local authority it can turn to the central adminis-


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than that of the administration, whether the supporterbe a local author-

ity, a church, or a foundation, then a reasonable increase of state influ-encewould be felt without restricting school autonomy, but would givethem more space to oppose their supporter.

School finance

There were many who understood the reform of education as a reformof finances. The opinion of this author, in brief, is as follows:

General education should be maintained by the budget;

Vocational training should be maintained by the entity for whom itis profitable (the citizen, organization, or both);

Higher education must be supported in areaswhere citizens areleast likely to find employment. Similarly, different financial andedu-cational support needs to be made for social work, cultural activities,and leisure-time activities outside of school.

General education is a central task of the state, so it is budgeted cen-trally. The following financing techniques are used.

Normative financing: the financial support forperforming a task isdecided in the budget, and the budget assures this sum to everybody.(When deciding on the task different priorities can be determined, sodifferent conditions of schools and teachers can be considered.)

Per-capita financing: the expenses of general education should becalculated and allocated per child, so the budget will guarantee everycitizen the necessary amount to obtain a general education.

Project financing: Projects and programs are financed rather than in-

stitutions. No amount of money can be attached to teacher tasks andprojects.Basic education was overloaded with additional programs, such as

school meals, afternoon classes, sports, and leisure activities. These havea different financing from the general educational budget. Complemen-tary activities are paid for by citizens. However, the state subsidizescitizens so they can buy necessary services. Possible forms of support inHungary are now:

Tax allowances: The family pays for complementary social and edu-cational services but the budget balances it with allowances.

Local taxes: The local community can finance the complementary


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and the budget may support them directly or indirectly.Income supplementation

: For example, the employer may supplementa familys income to allow them to pay for educational services.Assignment: Local authorities finance the buyer, not the services.

To ensure that money is used only for education, funds are assigned andparents (children) can pay the school with these funds. Institutions re-ceive funding in proportion to the service provided.

The transition process: prospects and dilemmas

Expansion in higher education

The expansion of higher education means that more and more secondary-school graduates seek the possibilities of further education, training, andprogress. In the past, 10 to 15 percent of eighteen- to twenty-three-year-olds in a given country continued studies in higher education. Today thisrate is around 40 percent, and continued increase seems inevitable in al-most all European countries. Those who expected the increase to peak

at about 35 to 40 percent must be surprised, as were decision makerswho expected a comparable level of secondary-school graduates in themid-1970s. People produced a strikingly different result. The expansionof higher education cannot be hindered, and this expansion entails anintensive integration of the educational system. This is reflected in theirnames as well: once aristocratic and restrictive universities were men-tioned first inhigher education statistics, and now they are included intertiary education.

Expansion of education will not stop at conquering the third stageof education. As there has not been a new formal stage of educationalsystems in general, they will create a fourth stage, adult education.

Adult education

Adult education received new emphasis in international understandingin the 1990s. This change of emphasis is symbolized in the Report of theDelors Committee in 1998, but signs of new tendencies could be de-

tected in the previous decade. Comparing this period with the 1970s, itcan be argued that everything that was already known in 196070 has


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through the expansion of traditional institutions. The majority do not

flock to universities in the most developed regions of the Atlantic area(at least not yet), choosing instead postsecondary or postcompulsoryforms of education. These different forms gradually become identical,as long as secondary education becomes general and compulsory. Thetwo trendsthe expansion of nontraditional institutions of higher edu-cation and the transition of adult education into lifelong learningactually follow the same route. The fourth stage is expected to developafter the third stage of education, which is not traditional either.

New migration

If social security and safety covers everyone, and the elderly are sup-ported primarily by the contributions of the young, and the proportionof the elderly and the young are imbalanced in European societies, howit is possible to assure, at the present level, social security and relativelyequal opportunities of different age groups? According to recentUNESCO demographic forecasts, Europe would need 100150 million

new immigrants.How will the expansion of education change in Hungary if there is a

huge wave of immigrants, or if Hungary has to rely on these immi-grants? Might a better-developedimmigration policy expand the fourthstage further? Naturally, not only children come as immigrants, but firstof all young people who are active economically, and who must becomeacquainted with the economic, political, and cultural situation. In such acase the need for the fourth stage of education will increase not only

because the populations level of education is higher, but, even moreimportant, because their educational background is wholly or partiallyinadequate with requirements here. If it holds true that the numbers ofmigrants increase, then there will be a growing and more intensive so-cial demand for the fourth stage of education and a corresponding changein educational policy.

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