transnational partnerships in higher education in china ...the article will discuss the concept of...
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London Review of Education DOI1018546LRE14108Volume14Number1April2016
Transnational partnerships in higher education in China The diversity and complexity of elite strategic alliances
CatherineMontgomeryUniversity of Hull
TransnationalpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiescanillustratethechangingpoliticalsocialandculturalterrainofglobalhighereducationDrawingonsecondarydataanalysisofgovernmenteducational statistics university web pages and a comprehensive literature review thisarticlefocusesontransnationalpartnershipswithparticularreferencetoChinainordertoilluminatethediversifyingrelationshipsbetweennetworksofglobaluniversitiesInternationalpartnershipsdevelopinhistoricalgeographicsocialandculturalcontextsandtheanalysisofChinese universitiesrsquo partnerships across different social cultural and geopolitical contextsindicates that even within the elite groups of universities transnational partnerships arediverseandcomplexThisarticleaimstodemonstratethatthespreadofinternationalizationintheformoftransnationalpartnershipisnotuniformbutisinfluencedbycomplexcontextualfactorssomeofwhichareaccentuatinginequalitiesinthesystem
Keywordstransnationalpartnershipinternationalizationelitesdiversity
Introduction
Fromearlyinthehistoryofhighereducation(HE)universitieshavebeeninfluencedbyastronginternational and transnational dimension (Gunn and Minstrom 2013) and have from theirinceptionmovedacrossnationalboundariesInthepastthreedecadeshowevertransnationalpartnershipshavebecomeincreasinglysignificantbeingatacomplexandcontradictorynexusof both collaboration and competition (Oleksiyenko andYang 2015)Although historicallytransnational partnership in HE centred on research and scholarship latterly programmecoordinationorTransnationalHigherEducation (TNHE)wherestudentsstudypartorallofa foreign degree in their home country has emerged as an increasingly significant elementof internationalization across a rangeof countries (Huang 2007Trahar 2015)Global highereducationpartnershipsarediversifyingandbecomingincreasinglyimportantinabroaderrangeofwaysTheriseintransnationalpartnershipintheUKhasbeenmirroredinotherpartsoftheglobewithparticularlyrapiddevelopmentinEastAsiawithMalaysiaSingaporeandChinabeingthetopthreecountriesforactivity(HESA2015)
Transnationalhighereducation inChinahasalsobeengrowing in the last threedecadesandmore than 1000 programmes and institutions have nowbeen approved by theChinesegovernment (Fang 2012)TNHE plays out differently in different national contexts howeverand in China the emphasis is on controlled cooperation with joint investment in forms ofcapital includingland intellectualpropertybrandsandmanagementsystems(Fang2012)TheunderlyingpurposeofTNHEpartnershipsoftenvaries internationallywith themotivationofUKTNHEbeingpredominantlyfinancialandthedrivingforceforChinarelatingtoaccesstoaninternationalhighereducationathomeforabroaderrangeofthepopulation(Huang2006
Emailcmontgomeryhullacuk copyCopyright 2016 MontgomeryThis is an OpenAccess article distributed under the terms of theCreativeCommonsAttributionLicencewhichpermitsunrestrictedusedistributionandreproductioninanymediumprovidedtheoriginalauthorandsourcearecredited
London Review of Education 71
Houet al2014)Researchinterestsaroundtheconceptoftransnationalpartnershiparealsobeginning to intensify (Oleksiyenko 2015) and there has been a sharp increase in publishedworkinthisareasince2006(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)includinginitiativesaroundEUprogrammecollaborationandresearchcarriedoutbytheBritishCouncilNotwithstandingthisincreaseinresearchOleksiyenkoandYang(2015)notethattherehasbeenadearthofresearchon partnerships and their associated policies and challenges particularlywith regard to theemerging global andeconomicpowersof theBRICSnations (BrazilRussia IndiaChina andSouthAfrica)andChinainparticular
This article focuses on transnational partnerships in China and considers the influenceof geopolitical and sociocultural context on the diversity and complexity of Chinarsquos globalpartnershipsThenatureofChinarsquostransnationalpartnershipsisexploredconsideringthevariationwithinthecountryandfocusingontheelite985and211groupsofChineseuniversitiesFirstlythearticlewilldiscusstheconceptoftransnationalpartnershipdrawingonresearchliteratureinthefieldand includingreferencetothehistoricalperspectiveontransnationalpartnershipSecondlythearticlemapsthegeographicallocationoftheelitealliancesofChineseuniversitiesasameansofillustratingthatthegapbetweenurbaneastChinaandtheruralwestisreflectedinthegeographical locationoftheelitegroupsofuniversitiesandhasimplicationsforaccesstohighereducation(Yang2014)ThirdlythearticlefocusesonthepartnershipsestablishedbysomeoftheelitegroupsofChineseuniversitiesdefininglsquoelitersquoasthoseuniversitiesthatarepartoftheChineseC9groupandthe985and211projectsthatareexplainedbelowTwoindividualcasesofuniversitiesindifferentsocioculturalandgeographiccontextsareconsideredinmoredepthwithaviewtounderstandingtheinfluenceofdiversityincontextonpartnershipFinallythearticledrawssomeconclusionsregardingtherelationshipbetweenthedevelopmentofelitealliancesinChinaandinternationalizationinhighereducationmorebroadly
The research
This article draws on three forms of evidenceThe first is a systematic literature reviewofelectronically accessible articles on transnational higher education published in journals andotherelectronicsources(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)Anonlinesearchofhighereducationresearchplatformswascarriedout focusingonhighereducation journalsandresourcesandpaying particular attention to work produced by non-Western authorsThis was a broadliteraturereviewthatselectedsourcesusingawiderangeofsearchtermsincludingforexamplelsquotransnational educationrsquo lsquotransnational higher educationrsquo and lsquointernationalinterculturalpartnershiprsquoandsearcheswerecarriedoutonpolicyatthenationalandsupranational levelslsquostudentrsquofocuslsquostaff rsquofocusandlsquoqualityrsquo(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)AsecondaryanalysisofthelibraryoftheinitialprojectwascarriedoutforthepurposesofthisarticleandthetermswerenarrowedtofocusontransnationalhighereducationinChinaandtheissueofpartnershipelitealliancesandtheimplicationsofHEpartnerships
ThesecondsourceofevidenceisananalysisofChineseMinistryofEducationdocumentsrelatingtothe locationandnatureofpartnershipsofChinesehighereducationTheMinistryofEducation(MoE)onlinestatistics inthepublicdomainwereaccessedinChineseusingtheofficialwebsiteoftheMoEandtranslatedintoEnglishThedataaccessedwasthemostrecentMoEdataavailablecollectedintheyears2012and2013thefiguresfollowatwo-yearcensusperiodandrefresheddatawillbeavailableattheendof2015ThreeareasoftheMoEdatawereexplored inparticularfirstly thegeographicaldistributionofeliteChinese institutions in the211and985groupswasfocusedonmappingthenumbersofeliteandnon-eliteinstitutionsinthedifferentprovincesacrossChinaSecondlytheinternationalpartnershipsengagedinby11
72 Catherine Montgomery
eliteChineseinstitutionswerefocusedonincludingthe9universitiesintheChineseC9group(ChinarsquoselitemissiongroupandequivalentoftheUKRussellGroup)and2exampleuniversitiesthataremembersofboththe211and985groupsTheMoEpartnershipdatadiscretelyanalyseddifferentdimensionsofrelationshipsbetweentheinstitutionsincludingexchangeandcooperativeprogrammes jointdegreeprogrammes researchandlsquoacademicexchangeandcooperation inrunningschoolsrsquotheChinesetermfortransnationalhighereducationThethirdandfinalareaofMoEdatarelatestospecificreferencetothegeographicallocationofTNHEprovisioninChinaacross thedifferent provincesof the countryThe spreadof partnerships for each individualprovince is mapped through this dataThis information was also accessed from the officialChineseMinistryofEducationwebsite
Thethirdsourceofevidenceconsistsofadetailedreviewoftwouniversitiesrsquowebpageswhich were translated into English where necessary In addition to this associated publiclyavailabledocumentsandpolicieswereaccessedtoinvestigatethetwouniversitiesrsquointernationalpartnershipsandcollaborationsincludingprobingthestatedaimsbehindtheirpartnershipswithinternationalinstitutionswherethisinformationwasavailable
Transnational partnerships in global HE
Partnershipbetweenuniversitiesworldwideisafundamentalelementoftwenty-firstcenturyinternationalizationandYangandXienote thatglobalizationhasputuniversity internationalnetworkinglsquoonsteroidsrsquo(201566)Thegrowthintransnationalpartnershipsbetweengroupsofhighereducationinstitutionsacrossthegloberepresentsfundamentalchangesinthewaysthat universities areworking together and constructing themselves Partnerships networksandglobalallianceshavebecomestrategicallyimportantandlsquouniversitiescanrealisesignificantvalue fromengaging in allianceshellipglobal university alliances create substantively importantcollaborative advantages for those involvedrsquo (Gunn and Mintrom 2013 180) Partnershipswithinandbetweenthelargestemergingglobalpoliticalandeconomicpowersarebecomingparticularlysignificantwiththeso-calledBRICSnationsofBrazilRussiaIndiaChinaandSouthAfrica investing hugely in elite groups of flagship institutions in order to compete globally(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)
However transnationalpartnershipsbetweengroupsofHE institutionsarecomplexandcontradictoryanddevelopagainstabackdropofintensecompetitivenesstermedlsquocompetitive-collaborative perspectivesrsquo by Oleksiyenko andYang (2015) Marginson (2015) notes thatthe shape of higher education systemsworldwide is being stretched vertically and that thehierarchiesofglobaluniversitiesarebecomingmoreacuteThisstratificationandthedevelopingsignificanceoftheglobalrankings(Kehm2014)hasasignificantinfluenceonpartnershipsTheincreasinginfluenceofrankingshascoincidedwithawaveofmodernizationmarketizationandreform of higher education acrossmany national contexts and this has brought interactionbetweentherankingsandmarketization(Locke2014)anduniversitypartnershipsarecaughtupinthiscycleThesignificanceofuniversityrankingshasgonewellbeyondbeingatooltosupportstudentorfamilychoiceofuniversitywiththisformofpoliticalandeconomicpositioningbynationsalsohavinganinfluenceonchoiceofpartnership(Locke2014)particularlywithrespecttoresearchactivitythatisincreasinglyenactedcooperativelyandcompetitivelyonagloballevel(Horta2009)Rankingsorderthestatusofinstitutionsandthishasacceleratedalsquostatusculturersquo(Marginson2014)RolesandpositionsareshiftinginglobalhighereducationwiththestrongstrategiesespousedbyChinahavinganimpactforexampleonHongKongwhichisnolongertheonlynexusorhuboftransnationalpartnershipinEastAsia(Ng2011)
London Review of Education 73
Itisimportanttonotethatpartnershipinhighereducationishistoricallysociallypoliticallyand culturally situated with geography also having an influenceThere can be tensions invaluesvisionsandgoalswhichcanplacepartnershipatthecentreofpowerstrugglesthatcanbecomeobstaclestocollaboration(Oleksiyenko2014)Thehistoricalcontextofpartnershipis influentialandcollaborationdevelops in thecontextof thehistoricityofnationsandtheireducationsystemsTherearestronginfluencesfromtheWesterntraditionsofhighereducationincountriesinboththeEastandtheWest(forexampleboththeUKandChina)Partnershipin HE is embedded in a context of colonialism imbalance and asymmetry and historicalinequalitiesstillhavean influencetoday(YangandXie2015)Highereducation isan integralpart of the colonial structure and is a site where colonial attitudes are perpetuated (YangandXie2015)DespitethefactthatinternationalpartnershipsinHEaimtopositionnationalinterest above global agendas themajority of countries includingChina tend to favour andprioritizepartnershipswithWesternuniversitiesandglobalcompetitivenessisstilldefinedbylsquotheWestrsquo(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)Thusinternationalnetworkingcouldbeperceivedasbeinglsquoadouble-edgedswordrsquothatshouldbeaccompaniedbyhistoricalawarenessandasenseofcontext(YangandXie201587)Partnershipsdevelopwithinacomplexenvironmentofpowerstructures identities and subjectivities between international national regional institutionalandindividuallevelsofstructureandagency(Djerasimovic2014)ComparisonsacrossnationalcontextswithregardtothedevelopmentandnatureofglobalHEpartnershipsarethereforedifficultgiventhecomplexityanddiversityofthepoliticaleconomicandsocioculturalcontextsinwhichuniversitiesoperateAltbachandBassett(2014)argueforexamplethatcomparisonofcollaborationacrosstheBRICSgroupofnationsisoflittlevalueduetothecomplexityoftheindividualcountriesrsquohighereducationenvironmentsThisunderlinestheinfluentialroleofhistoricalandsocioculturalcontextinpartnership
Global alliances and groups The elite universities of China and the UK
Partnershipsdevelopingbetweenuniversitiesgloballyarepartofcomplexmultilateralnetworksandalliancesbuiltonhistoricalpoliticalandsocioculturalcontexts(YangandXie2015)TheemergenceoflsquomissiongroupsrsquointheUKisanexampleofwaysinwhichHEinstitutionsintheBritishHEsystemareestablishinglsquoself-identitiesrsquoandforminghierarchicalalliancesinassociationwithother institutions (Filippakou andTapper 2015)There are a numberofmission groupsin theUK including theMillion+ and theGuildHE aswell as theRussellGroupofBritishHEinstitutionswhichisseenasanelitegroupthatclaimstorepresent24research-intensiveinstitutions who also boast outstanding teaching and learning and excellence in links withbusinessandthepublicsector(FilippakouandTapper2015)DespitemembershipoftheRussellGroupbeingbasedonprestige there is alsodiversitywithin this groupwhichhasmembersrangingfromOxfordandCambridgeuniversitiesinEnglandtoCardiffandGlasgowuniversitiestwohighlydistinctiveinstitutionsthatarepartoftheWelshandScottishsystemsofHEwhichcanbedifferentiated from theEnglish systemnot leastbecauseof the issueof student fees(FilippakouandTapper2015)
InthelastthreedecadesChinahasengagedinanintensivereformofitshighereducationsystem and this has involved a staggering level of investment in the building of capacity andresource in a relatively small number of universitieswith the aimof developingworld-classinstitutionsthatwillcompeteonaglobalscaleTheChinese211Projectwasinitiatedin1995andintheyearsupto2011agroupof112universitiesweresupportedbyinvestmentintheproject
74 Catherine Montgomery
receivingextensivefundingtolsquogroomtalentsanddevelopdisciplines infaceofthechallengesin21stcenturyrsquo (MinistryofEducationof thePeoplersquosRepublicofChina2013a)Duringthefirstphaseoftheprojectapproximately US$22billionwasinvestedinthedevelopmentofthisrelativelysmallgroupofuniversitiesAlongsidethe211Project the985Projectwas initiatedin1999Asmallgroupof39universitieswereselectedforintensivefundingaimingtosupportinternationalizationagendasanddeveloptheseuniversitiesaseliteinstitutionstoreachlsquoworld-classrsquo level(MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina2013)Table1showstheelitehighereducationinstitutionsofChinaincludedintheC9leaguetheequivalentoftheUKRussellGroupofresearch-intensiveuniversitiesThetablealsoshowstwoinstitutionsthataremembersofthe985and211groupsbutnotoftheC9LeagueandthesetwoinstitutionswillbeprofiledinmoredetaillaterinthisarticleThefulllistofeliteandnon-eliteinstitutionscanbefoundonlineattheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsite(wwwmoeeducn)
Table 1TheelitehighereducationinstitutionsofChina
University Labels
TsinghuaUniversity 211985C9League
PekingUniversity 211985C9League
FudanUniversity 211985C9League
ShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity 211985C9League
ZhejiangUniversity 211985C9League
NanjingUniversity 211985C9League
XirsquoanJiaoTongUniversity 211985C9League
UniversityofScienceandTechnologyofChina 211985C9League
HarbinInstituteofTechnology 211985C9League
Two examples of 985 and 211 institutions
XiamenUniversity 211985
EastChinaNormalUniversity 211985
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
As a means of understanding a sample of Chinese partnerships their relationship with UKinstitutions is focused on here and their affiliation with UK lsquomission groupsrsquo is highlighted(FilippakouandTapper2015)AsampleanalysisoftheUKpartnershipsofthreeeliteinstitutionsofChina(twoC9institutionsandone985211university)wascompiledusingdatafromtheMoE
TheanalysisofthethreeuniversitiesrsquopartnershipswithUKinstitutionsrevealedthattheChineseeliteinstitutionshadmostlyestablishedlinkswithUKinstitutionsthatweremembersoftheeliteRussellGroupTheseinstitutionsincludetheUKuniversitiesthatperformbestintheglobalrankingsandarealsoknownaslsquoresearch-intensiversquoinstitutions(FilippakouandTapper2015)Table2showstheUKpartnershipsofPekingUniversityoneoftheC9institutionsanddemonstratesthatthevastmajorityofPekingrsquospartnersareprestigiousUKuniversitiesincludingOxfordCambridgeandDurhamuniversities
London Review of Education 75
Table 2 TheUKpartnersofPekingUniversity
Institution (Chinese) Institution (English) Country Affiliation
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
格拉斯哥大学 UniversityofGlasgow Scotland RussellGroup
诺丁汉大学 UniversityofNottingham England RussellGroup
伦敦大学学院 UniversityCollegeLondon
England RussellGroup
牛津大学 UniversityofOxford England RussellGroup
伦敦政治经济学院 LondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience
England RussellGroup
杜伦大学 UniversityofDurham England RussellGroup
卡迪夫大学 CardiffUniversity Wales RussellGroup
伦敦大学玛丽皇后学院 QueenMaryUniversityofLondon
England RussellGroup
米德尔塞克斯大学 MiddlesexUniversity England Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland RussellGroup
阿伯泰邓迪大学 UniversityofAbertayDundee
Scotland Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
东安格利亚大学 UniversityofEastAnglia England Unaffiliated
苏塞克斯大学 UniversityofSussex England Unaffiliated
利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton
England RussellGroup
约克大学 UniversityofYork England RussellGroup
赫尔大学 UniversityofHull England Unaffiliated
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
ThispatternwasrepeatedacrossthethreeinstitutionshighlightedinthispartofthestudyandTable3showstheUKpartnershipsestablishedbyShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity includingtheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgeandtwooftheprestigiouscollegesoftheUniversityofLondonBoththeC9universities inTables1and2haveestablished linkspredominantlywithEnglishuniversitiesbutallof the threeuniversities in the samplehad linkswithat leastoneuniversity in Scotland and onelsquopost-1992rsquo (or former polytechnic) university in their list ofpartners
76 Catherine Montgomery
Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation
伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup
邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated
帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992
拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated
伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup
牛津大学 UniversityofOxford England RussellGroup
纽卡斯尔大学 NewcastleUniversity England RussellGroup
诺丁汉大学 UniversityofNottingham England RussellGroup
萨里大学 UniversityofSurrey England Unaffiliated
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables
IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith
London Review of Education 77
thenewuniversitiesintheUKandnon-eliteuniversitiesinChinabeingmorepreparedtosetupoverseasvalidatedcourses(Fang2012Houet al2014BennellandPearce2003)
Table 4 EastChinaNormalUniversityrsquospartnerinstitutionsintheUK
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation Exchange and cooperation code
艾克斯特大学 ExeterUniversity EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
霍尔大学 HullUniversity England FSA
诺丁汉特伦特大学 NottinghamTrentUniversity
EnglandPost-1992 S
爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland
英国伦敦大学教育学院 UCLInstituteofEducationUniversityCollegeLondon
EnglandFRIS
班戈大学 BangorUniversity Wales FS
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
ThemostpopulatedandurbanizedareasofChinaaretheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrywiththemunicipalityaroundBeijingandTianjin theareaaroundShanghaiHongKongandtheeasternprovincesofShandongandJiangsubeingthemostdenselypopulatedTheleastdenselypopulatedareasareinthewestofChinawiththeregionsofQinghaiandXinjianginthefarwestbeingmuchmoresparselypopulated(Waugh2009)IfalineweredrawnacrossthecountrydividingtheEasternandCentralregionsfromtheWesternregionitwoulddemonstratethattheEasternandCentralregionshave40percentofthelandareaand94percentofthepopulationwhiletheWesternregionhas60percentofthelandareabutonly6percentofthepopulationThis illustrates theacutedifferences indemographicsacross thedifferent regionsandprovincesofChinaTheareasofdensepopulationarealsoamongthemosturbanizedandindustrializedpartsofthecountry
78 Catherine Montgomery
Figure 1 MapofChinashowingtheprovinces(Shen2015)
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
London Review of Education 79
Figure 2 ThenumberofChinesenon-eliteuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Figure 3 ThenumberofChinese211groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
ThedatapresentedaboveillustratethatthereisanintenselyunequaldistributionofeliteuniversitiesacrosstheprovincesandregionsofChinaItisimportanttonotethatthescaleofruralndashurbanmigrationishugeinChinawiththeChineseNationalBureauofStatisticsestimatingthatbytheendof2009therewere145millionruralmigrantsincityareasofChinawith50
80 Catherine Montgomery
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Figure 4 ThedistributionofChinese985groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
London Review of Education 81
notontheperspectivesofthoseinvolvedinthepartnershipsTheythereforerepresentonlyoneviewofthenatureofthecollaborations
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ECNUhas114formalpartnershipswithinstitutionsinseveralcontinents21inEurope3inAustralia43inAsia45inAmericaand2inAfrica(wwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp)TheconcentrationofECNUrsquospartnershipsreflectitshistoricalcolonialpastandtheuniversityrsquosmostdevelopedandlong-standingpartnershipsarewithFrancetheUSAandAustraliaWithregardtoFranceECNUhasastrongrelationshipwiththeEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresthathaslastedforovertwentyyearsinvolvingjointprogrammesprofessorialexchangeandclosecollaborationinarangeofdisciplinesbutparticularlyinscienceandbusinessdisciplines(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987)ECNUrsquospartnershipwithLaTrobeUniversityinAustraliaissimilarlylong-standingandhasspanned14yearsinvolvingresearchcollaborationandalsotransnationalprogrammepartnershipswherestudentsstudyforthefirsttwoyearsatECNUinChinaandthencompletetheirundergraduateprogrammesatLaTrobeinAustralia
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
ItisworthnotingthatECNUarealsodevelopinganewformofpartnershipandcooperationwithdevelopingcountriesinAsiaLatinAmericaandAfricaIn2015theyestablishedanEducationMasterrsquosProgrammeforDevelopingCountriestargetinguniversitiesinTanzaniaEthiopiaJordanandChileECNUhasastatedaimtoformcloserbilateraltieswiththeemergingAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)ECNUhasanambitiontodevelopitsroleasahubforhighereducationprovisionfordevelopingcountrieschallengingtheWestforitsdominanceineducatingdevelopingnationsandextendingChinarsquosrangeoflsquosoftpowerrsquo(Nye1990)
Xiamen University Reaching out to Asia
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
82 Catherine Montgomery
coastofFujianprovincesouth-eastChinaandishometolargenumbersofoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaThecityislocatedclosetoTaiwanandhistoricallyhasbeenthesiteofconflictbetweenChinaandTaiwanalthoughthishasdevelopedintoamorepeacefulrelationshipwiththeNovember2015historicmeetingbetweentheChinesePresidentXiJinpingandTaiwanrsquosPresidentMaYing-jeou(BBCNews2015)
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina
thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous
(Yang20141)
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible
Notes on the contributor
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
References
AltbachPGandBassettRM(2014)lsquoNixtheBRICsAtleastforthehighereducationdebatersquoInternational Higher Education772ndash5
BBC News (2015) lsquoChina andTaiwan leaders hail historic talksrsquo Online wwwbbccouknewsworld-asia-34742680(accessed8February2016)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
London Review of Education 71
Houet al2014)Researchinterestsaroundtheconceptoftransnationalpartnershiparealsobeginning to intensify (Oleksiyenko 2015) and there has been a sharp increase in publishedworkinthisareasince2006(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)includinginitiativesaroundEUprogrammecollaborationandresearchcarriedoutbytheBritishCouncilNotwithstandingthisincreaseinresearchOleksiyenkoandYang(2015)notethattherehasbeenadearthofresearchon partnerships and their associated policies and challenges particularlywith regard to theemerging global andeconomicpowersof theBRICSnations (BrazilRussia IndiaChina andSouthAfrica)andChinainparticular
This article focuses on transnational partnerships in China and considers the influenceof geopolitical and sociocultural context on the diversity and complexity of Chinarsquos globalpartnershipsThenatureofChinarsquostransnationalpartnershipsisexploredconsideringthevariationwithinthecountryandfocusingontheelite985and211groupsofChineseuniversitiesFirstlythearticlewilldiscusstheconceptoftransnationalpartnershipdrawingonresearchliteratureinthefieldand includingreferencetothehistoricalperspectiveontransnationalpartnershipSecondlythearticlemapsthegeographicallocationoftheelitealliancesofChineseuniversitiesasameansofillustratingthatthegapbetweenurbaneastChinaandtheruralwestisreflectedinthegeographical locationoftheelitegroupsofuniversitiesandhasimplicationsforaccesstohighereducation(Yang2014)ThirdlythearticlefocusesonthepartnershipsestablishedbysomeoftheelitegroupsofChineseuniversitiesdefininglsquoelitersquoasthoseuniversitiesthatarepartoftheChineseC9groupandthe985and211projectsthatareexplainedbelowTwoindividualcasesofuniversitiesindifferentsocioculturalandgeographiccontextsareconsideredinmoredepthwithaviewtounderstandingtheinfluenceofdiversityincontextonpartnershipFinallythearticledrawssomeconclusionsregardingtherelationshipbetweenthedevelopmentofelitealliancesinChinaandinternationalizationinhighereducationmorebroadly
The research
This article draws on three forms of evidenceThe first is a systematic literature reviewofelectronically accessible articles on transnational higher education published in journals andotherelectronicsources(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)Anonlinesearchofhighereducationresearchplatformswascarriedout focusingonhighereducation journalsandresourcesandpaying particular attention to work produced by non-Western authorsThis was a broadliteraturereviewthatselectedsourcesusingawiderangeofsearchtermsincludingforexamplelsquotransnational educationrsquo lsquotransnational higher educationrsquo and lsquointernationalinterculturalpartnershiprsquoandsearcheswerecarriedoutonpolicyatthenationalandsupranational levelslsquostudentrsquofocuslsquostaff rsquofocusandlsquoqualityrsquo(CaruanaandMontgomery2015)AsecondaryanalysisofthelibraryoftheinitialprojectwascarriedoutforthepurposesofthisarticleandthetermswerenarrowedtofocusontransnationalhighereducationinChinaandtheissueofpartnershipelitealliancesandtheimplicationsofHEpartnerships
ThesecondsourceofevidenceisananalysisofChineseMinistryofEducationdocumentsrelatingtothe locationandnatureofpartnershipsofChinesehighereducationTheMinistryofEducation(MoE)onlinestatistics inthepublicdomainwereaccessedinChineseusingtheofficialwebsiteoftheMoEandtranslatedintoEnglishThedataaccessedwasthemostrecentMoEdataavailablecollectedintheyears2012and2013thefiguresfollowatwo-yearcensusperiodandrefresheddatawillbeavailableattheendof2015ThreeareasoftheMoEdatawereexplored inparticularfirstly thegeographicaldistributionofeliteChinese institutions in the211and985groupswasfocusedonmappingthenumbersofeliteandnon-eliteinstitutionsinthedifferentprovincesacrossChinaSecondlytheinternationalpartnershipsengagedinby11
72 Catherine Montgomery
eliteChineseinstitutionswerefocusedonincludingthe9universitiesintheChineseC9group(ChinarsquoselitemissiongroupandequivalentoftheUKRussellGroup)and2exampleuniversitiesthataremembersofboththe211and985groupsTheMoEpartnershipdatadiscretelyanalyseddifferentdimensionsofrelationshipsbetweentheinstitutionsincludingexchangeandcooperativeprogrammes jointdegreeprogrammes researchandlsquoacademicexchangeandcooperation inrunningschoolsrsquotheChinesetermfortransnationalhighereducationThethirdandfinalareaofMoEdatarelatestospecificreferencetothegeographicallocationofTNHEprovisioninChinaacross thedifferent provincesof the countryThe spreadof partnerships for each individualprovince is mapped through this dataThis information was also accessed from the officialChineseMinistryofEducationwebsite
Thethirdsourceofevidenceconsistsofadetailedreviewoftwouniversitiesrsquowebpageswhich were translated into English where necessary In addition to this associated publiclyavailabledocumentsandpolicieswereaccessedtoinvestigatethetwouniversitiesrsquointernationalpartnershipsandcollaborationsincludingprobingthestatedaimsbehindtheirpartnershipswithinternationalinstitutionswherethisinformationwasavailable
Transnational partnerships in global HE
Partnershipbetweenuniversitiesworldwideisafundamentalelementoftwenty-firstcenturyinternationalizationandYangandXienote thatglobalizationhasputuniversity internationalnetworkinglsquoonsteroidsrsquo(201566)Thegrowthintransnationalpartnershipsbetweengroupsofhighereducationinstitutionsacrossthegloberepresentsfundamentalchangesinthewaysthat universities areworking together and constructing themselves Partnerships networksandglobalallianceshavebecomestrategicallyimportantandlsquouniversitiescanrealisesignificantvalue fromengaging in allianceshellipglobal university alliances create substantively importantcollaborative advantages for those involvedrsquo (Gunn and Mintrom 2013 180) Partnershipswithinandbetweenthelargestemergingglobalpoliticalandeconomicpowersarebecomingparticularlysignificantwiththeso-calledBRICSnationsofBrazilRussiaIndiaChinaandSouthAfrica investing hugely in elite groups of flagship institutions in order to compete globally(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)
However transnationalpartnershipsbetweengroupsofHE institutionsarecomplexandcontradictoryanddevelopagainstabackdropofintensecompetitivenesstermedlsquocompetitive-collaborative perspectivesrsquo by Oleksiyenko andYang (2015) Marginson (2015) notes thatthe shape of higher education systemsworldwide is being stretched vertically and that thehierarchiesofglobaluniversitiesarebecomingmoreacuteThisstratificationandthedevelopingsignificanceoftheglobalrankings(Kehm2014)hasasignificantinfluenceonpartnershipsTheincreasinginfluenceofrankingshascoincidedwithawaveofmodernizationmarketizationandreform of higher education acrossmany national contexts and this has brought interactionbetweentherankingsandmarketization(Locke2014)anduniversitypartnershipsarecaughtupinthiscycleThesignificanceofuniversityrankingshasgonewellbeyondbeingatooltosupportstudentorfamilychoiceofuniversitywiththisformofpoliticalandeconomicpositioningbynationsalsohavinganinfluenceonchoiceofpartnership(Locke2014)particularlywithrespecttoresearchactivitythatisincreasinglyenactedcooperativelyandcompetitivelyonagloballevel(Horta2009)Rankingsorderthestatusofinstitutionsandthishasacceleratedalsquostatusculturersquo(Marginson2014)RolesandpositionsareshiftinginglobalhighereducationwiththestrongstrategiesespousedbyChinahavinganimpactforexampleonHongKongwhichisnolongertheonlynexusorhuboftransnationalpartnershipinEastAsia(Ng2011)
London Review of Education 73
Itisimportanttonotethatpartnershipinhighereducationishistoricallysociallypoliticallyand culturally situated with geography also having an influenceThere can be tensions invaluesvisionsandgoalswhichcanplacepartnershipatthecentreofpowerstrugglesthatcanbecomeobstaclestocollaboration(Oleksiyenko2014)Thehistoricalcontextofpartnershipis influentialandcollaborationdevelops in thecontextof thehistoricityofnationsandtheireducationsystemsTherearestronginfluencesfromtheWesterntraditionsofhighereducationincountriesinboththeEastandtheWest(forexampleboththeUKandChina)Partnershipin HE is embedded in a context of colonialism imbalance and asymmetry and historicalinequalitiesstillhavean influencetoday(YangandXie2015)Highereducation isan integralpart of the colonial structure and is a site where colonial attitudes are perpetuated (YangandXie2015)DespitethefactthatinternationalpartnershipsinHEaimtopositionnationalinterest above global agendas themajority of countries includingChina tend to favour andprioritizepartnershipswithWesternuniversitiesandglobalcompetitivenessisstilldefinedbylsquotheWestrsquo(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)Thusinternationalnetworkingcouldbeperceivedasbeinglsquoadouble-edgedswordrsquothatshouldbeaccompaniedbyhistoricalawarenessandasenseofcontext(YangandXie201587)Partnershipsdevelopwithinacomplexenvironmentofpowerstructures identities and subjectivities between international national regional institutionalandindividuallevelsofstructureandagency(Djerasimovic2014)ComparisonsacrossnationalcontextswithregardtothedevelopmentandnatureofglobalHEpartnershipsarethereforedifficultgiventhecomplexityanddiversityofthepoliticaleconomicandsocioculturalcontextsinwhichuniversitiesoperateAltbachandBassett(2014)argueforexamplethatcomparisonofcollaborationacrosstheBRICSgroupofnationsisoflittlevalueduetothecomplexityoftheindividualcountriesrsquohighereducationenvironmentsThisunderlinestheinfluentialroleofhistoricalandsocioculturalcontextinpartnership
Global alliances and groups The elite universities of China and the UK
Partnershipsdevelopingbetweenuniversitiesgloballyarepartofcomplexmultilateralnetworksandalliancesbuiltonhistoricalpoliticalandsocioculturalcontexts(YangandXie2015)TheemergenceoflsquomissiongroupsrsquointheUKisanexampleofwaysinwhichHEinstitutionsintheBritishHEsystemareestablishinglsquoself-identitiesrsquoandforminghierarchicalalliancesinassociationwithother institutions (Filippakou andTapper 2015)There are a numberofmission groupsin theUK including theMillion+ and theGuildHE aswell as theRussellGroupofBritishHEinstitutionswhichisseenasanelitegroupthatclaimstorepresent24research-intensiveinstitutions who also boast outstanding teaching and learning and excellence in links withbusinessandthepublicsector(FilippakouandTapper2015)DespitemembershipoftheRussellGroupbeingbasedonprestige there is alsodiversitywithin this groupwhichhasmembersrangingfromOxfordandCambridgeuniversitiesinEnglandtoCardiffandGlasgowuniversitiestwohighlydistinctiveinstitutionsthatarepartoftheWelshandScottishsystemsofHEwhichcanbedifferentiated from theEnglish systemnot leastbecauseof the issueof student fees(FilippakouandTapper2015)
InthelastthreedecadesChinahasengagedinanintensivereformofitshighereducationsystem and this has involved a staggering level of investment in the building of capacity andresource in a relatively small number of universitieswith the aimof developingworld-classinstitutionsthatwillcompeteonaglobalscaleTheChinese211Projectwasinitiatedin1995andintheyearsupto2011agroupof112universitiesweresupportedbyinvestmentintheproject
74 Catherine Montgomery
receivingextensivefundingtolsquogroomtalentsanddevelopdisciplines infaceofthechallengesin21stcenturyrsquo (MinistryofEducationof thePeoplersquosRepublicofChina2013a)Duringthefirstphaseoftheprojectapproximately US$22billionwasinvestedinthedevelopmentofthisrelativelysmallgroupofuniversitiesAlongsidethe211Project the985Projectwas initiatedin1999Asmallgroupof39universitieswereselectedforintensivefundingaimingtosupportinternationalizationagendasanddeveloptheseuniversitiesaseliteinstitutionstoreachlsquoworld-classrsquo level(MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina2013)Table1showstheelitehighereducationinstitutionsofChinaincludedintheC9leaguetheequivalentoftheUKRussellGroupofresearch-intensiveuniversitiesThetablealsoshowstwoinstitutionsthataremembersofthe985and211groupsbutnotoftheC9LeagueandthesetwoinstitutionswillbeprofiledinmoredetaillaterinthisarticleThefulllistofeliteandnon-eliteinstitutionscanbefoundonlineattheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsite(wwwmoeeducn)
Table 1TheelitehighereducationinstitutionsofChina
University Labels
TsinghuaUniversity 211985C9League
PekingUniversity 211985C9League
FudanUniversity 211985C9League
ShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity 211985C9League
ZhejiangUniversity 211985C9League
NanjingUniversity 211985C9League
XirsquoanJiaoTongUniversity 211985C9League
UniversityofScienceandTechnologyofChina 211985C9League
HarbinInstituteofTechnology 211985C9League
Two examples of 985 and 211 institutions
XiamenUniversity 211985
EastChinaNormalUniversity 211985
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
As a means of understanding a sample of Chinese partnerships their relationship with UKinstitutions is focused on here and their affiliation with UK lsquomission groupsrsquo is highlighted(FilippakouandTapper2015)AsampleanalysisoftheUKpartnershipsofthreeeliteinstitutionsofChina(twoC9institutionsandone985211university)wascompiledusingdatafromtheMoE
TheanalysisofthethreeuniversitiesrsquopartnershipswithUKinstitutionsrevealedthattheChineseeliteinstitutionshadmostlyestablishedlinkswithUKinstitutionsthatweremembersoftheeliteRussellGroupTheseinstitutionsincludetheUKuniversitiesthatperformbestintheglobalrankingsandarealsoknownaslsquoresearch-intensiversquoinstitutions(FilippakouandTapper2015)Table2showstheUKpartnershipsofPekingUniversityoneoftheC9institutionsanddemonstratesthatthevastmajorityofPekingrsquospartnersareprestigiousUKuniversitiesincludingOxfordCambridgeandDurhamuniversities
London Review of Education 75
Table 2 TheUKpartnersofPekingUniversity
Institution (Chinese) Institution (English) Country Affiliation
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
格拉斯哥大学 UniversityofGlasgow Scotland RussellGroup
诺丁汉大学 UniversityofNottingham England RussellGroup
伦敦大学学院 UniversityCollegeLondon
England RussellGroup
牛津大学 UniversityofOxford England RussellGroup
伦敦政治经济学院 LondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience
England RussellGroup
杜伦大学 UniversityofDurham England RussellGroup
卡迪夫大学 CardiffUniversity Wales RussellGroup
伦敦大学玛丽皇后学院 QueenMaryUniversityofLondon
England RussellGroup
米德尔塞克斯大学 MiddlesexUniversity England Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland RussellGroup
阿伯泰邓迪大学 UniversityofAbertayDundee
Scotland Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
东安格利亚大学 UniversityofEastAnglia England Unaffiliated
苏塞克斯大学 UniversityofSussex England Unaffiliated
利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton
England RussellGroup
约克大学 UniversityofYork England RussellGroup
赫尔大学 UniversityofHull England Unaffiliated
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
ThispatternwasrepeatedacrossthethreeinstitutionshighlightedinthispartofthestudyandTable3showstheUKpartnershipsestablishedbyShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity includingtheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgeandtwooftheprestigiouscollegesoftheUniversityofLondonBoththeC9universities inTables1and2haveestablished linkspredominantlywithEnglishuniversitiesbutallof the threeuniversities in the samplehad linkswithat leastoneuniversity in Scotland and onelsquopost-1992rsquo (or former polytechnic) university in their list ofpartners
76 Catherine Montgomery
Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation
伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup
邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated
帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992
拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated
伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup
牛津大学 UniversityofOxford England RussellGroup
纽卡斯尔大学 NewcastleUniversity England RussellGroup
诺丁汉大学 UniversityofNottingham England RussellGroup
萨里大学 UniversityofSurrey England Unaffiliated
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables
IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith
London Review of Education 77
thenewuniversitiesintheUKandnon-eliteuniversitiesinChinabeingmorepreparedtosetupoverseasvalidatedcourses(Fang2012Houet al2014BennellandPearce2003)
Table 4 EastChinaNormalUniversityrsquospartnerinstitutionsintheUK
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation Exchange and cooperation code
艾克斯特大学 ExeterUniversity EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
霍尔大学 HullUniversity England FSA
诺丁汉特伦特大学 NottinghamTrentUniversity
EnglandPost-1992 S
爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland
英国伦敦大学教育学院 UCLInstituteofEducationUniversityCollegeLondon
EnglandFRIS
班戈大学 BangorUniversity Wales FS
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
ThemostpopulatedandurbanizedareasofChinaaretheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrywiththemunicipalityaroundBeijingandTianjin theareaaroundShanghaiHongKongandtheeasternprovincesofShandongandJiangsubeingthemostdenselypopulatedTheleastdenselypopulatedareasareinthewestofChinawiththeregionsofQinghaiandXinjianginthefarwestbeingmuchmoresparselypopulated(Waugh2009)IfalineweredrawnacrossthecountrydividingtheEasternandCentralregionsfromtheWesternregionitwoulddemonstratethattheEasternandCentralregionshave40percentofthelandareaand94percentofthepopulationwhiletheWesternregionhas60percentofthelandareabutonly6percentofthepopulationThis illustrates theacutedifferences indemographicsacross thedifferent regionsandprovincesofChinaTheareasofdensepopulationarealsoamongthemosturbanizedandindustrializedpartsofthecountry
78 Catherine Montgomery
Figure 1 MapofChinashowingtheprovinces(Shen2015)
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
London Review of Education 79
Figure 2 ThenumberofChinesenon-eliteuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Figure 3 ThenumberofChinese211groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
ThedatapresentedaboveillustratethatthereisanintenselyunequaldistributionofeliteuniversitiesacrosstheprovincesandregionsofChinaItisimportanttonotethatthescaleofruralndashurbanmigrationishugeinChinawiththeChineseNationalBureauofStatisticsestimatingthatbytheendof2009therewere145millionruralmigrantsincityareasofChinawith50
80 Catherine Montgomery
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Figure 4 ThedistributionofChinese985groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
London Review of Education 81
notontheperspectivesofthoseinvolvedinthepartnershipsTheythereforerepresentonlyoneviewofthenatureofthecollaborations
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ECNUhas114formalpartnershipswithinstitutionsinseveralcontinents21inEurope3inAustralia43inAsia45inAmericaand2inAfrica(wwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp)TheconcentrationofECNUrsquospartnershipsreflectitshistoricalcolonialpastandtheuniversityrsquosmostdevelopedandlong-standingpartnershipsarewithFrancetheUSAandAustraliaWithregardtoFranceECNUhasastrongrelationshipwiththeEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresthathaslastedforovertwentyyearsinvolvingjointprogrammesprofessorialexchangeandclosecollaborationinarangeofdisciplinesbutparticularlyinscienceandbusinessdisciplines(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987)ECNUrsquospartnershipwithLaTrobeUniversityinAustraliaissimilarlylong-standingandhasspanned14yearsinvolvingresearchcollaborationandalsotransnationalprogrammepartnershipswherestudentsstudyforthefirsttwoyearsatECNUinChinaandthencompletetheirundergraduateprogrammesatLaTrobeinAustralia
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
ItisworthnotingthatECNUarealsodevelopinganewformofpartnershipandcooperationwithdevelopingcountriesinAsiaLatinAmericaandAfricaIn2015theyestablishedanEducationMasterrsquosProgrammeforDevelopingCountriestargetinguniversitiesinTanzaniaEthiopiaJordanandChileECNUhasastatedaimtoformcloserbilateraltieswiththeemergingAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)ECNUhasanambitiontodevelopitsroleasahubforhighereducationprovisionfordevelopingcountrieschallengingtheWestforitsdominanceineducatingdevelopingnationsandextendingChinarsquosrangeoflsquosoftpowerrsquo(Nye1990)
Xiamen University Reaching out to Asia
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
82 Catherine Montgomery
coastofFujianprovincesouth-eastChinaandishometolargenumbersofoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaThecityislocatedclosetoTaiwanandhistoricallyhasbeenthesiteofconflictbetweenChinaandTaiwanalthoughthishasdevelopedintoamorepeacefulrelationshipwiththeNovember2015historicmeetingbetweentheChinesePresidentXiJinpingandTaiwanrsquosPresidentMaYing-jeou(BBCNews2015)
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina
thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous
(Yang20141)
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible
Notes on the contributor
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
References
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Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
72 Catherine Montgomery
eliteChineseinstitutionswerefocusedonincludingthe9universitiesintheChineseC9group(ChinarsquoselitemissiongroupandequivalentoftheUKRussellGroup)and2exampleuniversitiesthataremembersofboththe211and985groupsTheMoEpartnershipdatadiscretelyanalyseddifferentdimensionsofrelationshipsbetweentheinstitutionsincludingexchangeandcooperativeprogrammes jointdegreeprogrammes researchandlsquoacademicexchangeandcooperation inrunningschoolsrsquotheChinesetermfortransnationalhighereducationThethirdandfinalareaofMoEdatarelatestospecificreferencetothegeographicallocationofTNHEprovisioninChinaacross thedifferent provincesof the countryThe spreadof partnerships for each individualprovince is mapped through this dataThis information was also accessed from the officialChineseMinistryofEducationwebsite
Thethirdsourceofevidenceconsistsofadetailedreviewoftwouniversitiesrsquowebpageswhich were translated into English where necessary In addition to this associated publiclyavailabledocumentsandpolicieswereaccessedtoinvestigatethetwouniversitiesrsquointernationalpartnershipsandcollaborationsincludingprobingthestatedaimsbehindtheirpartnershipswithinternationalinstitutionswherethisinformationwasavailable
Transnational partnerships in global HE
Partnershipbetweenuniversitiesworldwideisafundamentalelementoftwenty-firstcenturyinternationalizationandYangandXienote thatglobalizationhasputuniversity internationalnetworkinglsquoonsteroidsrsquo(201566)Thegrowthintransnationalpartnershipsbetweengroupsofhighereducationinstitutionsacrossthegloberepresentsfundamentalchangesinthewaysthat universities areworking together and constructing themselves Partnerships networksandglobalallianceshavebecomestrategicallyimportantandlsquouniversitiescanrealisesignificantvalue fromengaging in allianceshellipglobal university alliances create substantively importantcollaborative advantages for those involvedrsquo (Gunn and Mintrom 2013 180) Partnershipswithinandbetweenthelargestemergingglobalpoliticalandeconomicpowersarebecomingparticularlysignificantwiththeso-calledBRICSnationsofBrazilRussiaIndiaChinaandSouthAfrica investing hugely in elite groups of flagship institutions in order to compete globally(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)
However transnationalpartnershipsbetweengroupsofHE institutionsarecomplexandcontradictoryanddevelopagainstabackdropofintensecompetitivenesstermedlsquocompetitive-collaborative perspectivesrsquo by Oleksiyenko andYang (2015) Marginson (2015) notes thatthe shape of higher education systemsworldwide is being stretched vertically and that thehierarchiesofglobaluniversitiesarebecomingmoreacuteThisstratificationandthedevelopingsignificanceoftheglobalrankings(Kehm2014)hasasignificantinfluenceonpartnershipsTheincreasinginfluenceofrankingshascoincidedwithawaveofmodernizationmarketizationandreform of higher education acrossmany national contexts and this has brought interactionbetweentherankingsandmarketization(Locke2014)anduniversitypartnershipsarecaughtupinthiscycleThesignificanceofuniversityrankingshasgonewellbeyondbeingatooltosupportstudentorfamilychoiceofuniversitywiththisformofpoliticalandeconomicpositioningbynationsalsohavinganinfluenceonchoiceofpartnership(Locke2014)particularlywithrespecttoresearchactivitythatisincreasinglyenactedcooperativelyandcompetitivelyonagloballevel(Horta2009)Rankingsorderthestatusofinstitutionsandthishasacceleratedalsquostatusculturersquo(Marginson2014)RolesandpositionsareshiftinginglobalhighereducationwiththestrongstrategiesespousedbyChinahavinganimpactforexampleonHongKongwhichisnolongertheonlynexusorhuboftransnationalpartnershipinEastAsia(Ng2011)
London Review of Education 73
Itisimportanttonotethatpartnershipinhighereducationishistoricallysociallypoliticallyand culturally situated with geography also having an influenceThere can be tensions invaluesvisionsandgoalswhichcanplacepartnershipatthecentreofpowerstrugglesthatcanbecomeobstaclestocollaboration(Oleksiyenko2014)Thehistoricalcontextofpartnershipis influentialandcollaborationdevelops in thecontextof thehistoricityofnationsandtheireducationsystemsTherearestronginfluencesfromtheWesterntraditionsofhighereducationincountriesinboththeEastandtheWest(forexampleboththeUKandChina)Partnershipin HE is embedded in a context of colonialism imbalance and asymmetry and historicalinequalitiesstillhavean influencetoday(YangandXie2015)Highereducation isan integralpart of the colonial structure and is a site where colonial attitudes are perpetuated (YangandXie2015)DespitethefactthatinternationalpartnershipsinHEaimtopositionnationalinterest above global agendas themajority of countries includingChina tend to favour andprioritizepartnershipswithWesternuniversitiesandglobalcompetitivenessisstilldefinedbylsquotheWestrsquo(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)Thusinternationalnetworkingcouldbeperceivedasbeinglsquoadouble-edgedswordrsquothatshouldbeaccompaniedbyhistoricalawarenessandasenseofcontext(YangandXie201587)Partnershipsdevelopwithinacomplexenvironmentofpowerstructures identities and subjectivities between international national regional institutionalandindividuallevelsofstructureandagency(Djerasimovic2014)ComparisonsacrossnationalcontextswithregardtothedevelopmentandnatureofglobalHEpartnershipsarethereforedifficultgiventhecomplexityanddiversityofthepoliticaleconomicandsocioculturalcontextsinwhichuniversitiesoperateAltbachandBassett(2014)argueforexamplethatcomparisonofcollaborationacrosstheBRICSgroupofnationsisoflittlevalueduetothecomplexityoftheindividualcountriesrsquohighereducationenvironmentsThisunderlinestheinfluentialroleofhistoricalandsocioculturalcontextinpartnership
Global alliances and groups The elite universities of China and the UK
Partnershipsdevelopingbetweenuniversitiesgloballyarepartofcomplexmultilateralnetworksandalliancesbuiltonhistoricalpoliticalandsocioculturalcontexts(YangandXie2015)TheemergenceoflsquomissiongroupsrsquointheUKisanexampleofwaysinwhichHEinstitutionsintheBritishHEsystemareestablishinglsquoself-identitiesrsquoandforminghierarchicalalliancesinassociationwithother institutions (Filippakou andTapper 2015)There are a numberofmission groupsin theUK including theMillion+ and theGuildHE aswell as theRussellGroupofBritishHEinstitutionswhichisseenasanelitegroupthatclaimstorepresent24research-intensiveinstitutions who also boast outstanding teaching and learning and excellence in links withbusinessandthepublicsector(FilippakouandTapper2015)DespitemembershipoftheRussellGroupbeingbasedonprestige there is alsodiversitywithin this groupwhichhasmembersrangingfromOxfordandCambridgeuniversitiesinEnglandtoCardiffandGlasgowuniversitiestwohighlydistinctiveinstitutionsthatarepartoftheWelshandScottishsystemsofHEwhichcanbedifferentiated from theEnglish systemnot leastbecauseof the issueof student fees(FilippakouandTapper2015)
InthelastthreedecadesChinahasengagedinanintensivereformofitshighereducationsystem and this has involved a staggering level of investment in the building of capacity andresource in a relatively small number of universitieswith the aimof developingworld-classinstitutionsthatwillcompeteonaglobalscaleTheChinese211Projectwasinitiatedin1995andintheyearsupto2011agroupof112universitiesweresupportedbyinvestmentintheproject
74 Catherine Montgomery
receivingextensivefundingtolsquogroomtalentsanddevelopdisciplines infaceofthechallengesin21stcenturyrsquo (MinistryofEducationof thePeoplersquosRepublicofChina2013a)Duringthefirstphaseoftheprojectapproximately US$22billionwasinvestedinthedevelopmentofthisrelativelysmallgroupofuniversitiesAlongsidethe211Project the985Projectwas initiatedin1999Asmallgroupof39universitieswereselectedforintensivefundingaimingtosupportinternationalizationagendasanddeveloptheseuniversitiesaseliteinstitutionstoreachlsquoworld-classrsquo level(MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina2013)Table1showstheelitehighereducationinstitutionsofChinaincludedintheC9leaguetheequivalentoftheUKRussellGroupofresearch-intensiveuniversitiesThetablealsoshowstwoinstitutionsthataremembersofthe985and211groupsbutnotoftheC9LeagueandthesetwoinstitutionswillbeprofiledinmoredetaillaterinthisarticleThefulllistofeliteandnon-eliteinstitutionscanbefoundonlineattheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsite(wwwmoeeducn)
Table 1TheelitehighereducationinstitutionsofChina
University Labels
TsinghuaUniversity 211985C9League
PekingUniversity 211985C9League
FudanUniversity 211985C9League
ShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity 211985C9League
ZhejiangUniversity 211985C9League
NanjingUniversity 211985C9League
XirsquoanJiaoTongUniversity 211985C9League
UniversityofScienceandTechnologyofChina 211985C9League
HarbinInstituteofTechnology 211985C9League
Two examples of 985 and 211 institutions
XiamenUniversity 211985
EastChinaNormalUniversity 211985
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
As a means of understanding a sample of Chinese partnerships their relationship with UKinstitutions is focused on here and their affiliation with UK lsquomission groupsrsquo is highlighted(FilippakouandTapper2015)AsampleanalysisoftheUKpartnershipsofthreeeliteinstitutionsofChina(twoC9institutionsandone985211university)wascompiledusingdatafromtheMoE
TheanalysisofthethreeuniversitiesrsquopartnershipswithUKinstitutionsrevealedthattheChineseeliteinstitutionshadmostlyestablishedlinkswithUKinstitutionsthatweremembersoftheeliteRussellGroupTheseinstitutionsincludetheUKuniversitiesthatperformbestintheglobalrankingsandarealsoknownaslsquoresearch-intensiversquoinstitutions(FilippakouandTapper2015)Table2showstheUKpartnershipsofPekingUniversityoneoftheC9institutionsanddemonstratesthatthevastmajorityofPekingrsquospartnersareprestigiousUKuniversitiesincludingOxfordCambridgeandDurhamuniversities
London Review of Education 75
Table 2 TheUKpartnersofPekingUniversity
Institution (Chinese) Institution (English) Country Affiliation
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
格拉斯哥大学 UniversityofGlasgow Scotland RussellGroup
诺丁汉大学 UniversityofNottingham England RussellGroup
伦敦大学学院 UniversityCollegeLondon
England RussellGroup
牛津大学 UniversityofOxford England RussellGroup
伦敦政治经济学院 LondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience
England RussellGroup
杜伦大学 UniversityofDurham England RussellGroup
卡迪夫大学 CardiffUniversity Wales RussellGroup
伦敦大学玛丽皇后学院 QueenMaryUniversityofLondon
England RussellGroup
米德尔塞克斯大学 MiddlesexUniversity England Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland RussellGroup
阿伯泰邓迪大学 UniversityofAbertayDundee
Scotland Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
东安格利亚大学 UniversityofEastAnglia England Unaffiliated
苏塞克斯大学 UniversityofSussex England Unaffiliated
利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton
England RussellGroup
约克大学 UniversityofYork England RussellGroup
赫尔大学 UniversityofHull England Unaffiliated
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
ThispatternwasrepeatedacrossthethreeinstitutionshighlightedinthispartofthestudyandTable3showstheUKpartnershipsestablishedbyShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity includingtheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgeandtwooftheprestigiouscollegesoftheUniversityofLondonBoththeC9universities inTables1and2haveestablished linkspredominantlywithEnglishuniversitiesbutallof the threeuniversities in the samplehad linkswithat leastoneuniversity in Scotland and onelsquopost-1992rsquo (or former polytechnic) university in their list ofpartners
76 Catherine Montgomery
Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation
伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup
邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated
帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992
拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated
伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup
牛津大学 UniversityofOxford England RussellGroup
纽卡斯尔大学 NewcastleUniversity England RussellGroup
诺丁汉大学 UniversityofNottingham England RussellGroup
萨里大学 UniversityofSurrey England Unaffiliated
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables
IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith
London Review of Education 77
thenewuniversitiesintheUKandnon-eliteuniversitiesinChinabeingmorepreparedtosetupoverseasvalidatedcourses(Fang2012Houet al2014BennellandPearce2003)
Table 4 EastChinaNormalUniversityrsquospartnerinstitutionsintheUK
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation Exchange and cooperation code
艾克斯特大学 ExeterUniversity EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
霍尔大学 HullUniversity England FSA
诺丁汉特伦特大学 NottinghamTrentUniversity
EnglandPost-1992 S
爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland
英国伦敦大学教育学院 UCLInstituteofEducationUniversityCollegeLondon
EnglandFRIS
班戈大学 BangorUniversity Wales FS
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
ThemostpopulatedandurbanizedareasofChinaaretheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrywiththemunicipalityaroundBeijingandTianjin theareaaroundShanghaiHongKongandtheeasternprovincesofShandongandJiangsubeingthemostdenselypopulatedTheleastdenselypopulatedareasareinthewestofChinawiththeregionsofQinghaiandXinjianginthefarwestbeingmuchmoresparselypopulated(Waugh2009)IfalineweredrawnacrossthecountrydividingtheEasternandCentralregionsfromtheWesternregionitwoulddemonstratethattheEasternandCentralregionshave40percentofthelandareaand94percentofthepopulationwhiletheWesternregionhas60percentofthelandareabutonly6percentofthepopulationThis illustrates theacutedifferences indemographicsacross thedifferent regionsandprovincesofChinaTheareasofdensepopulationarealsoamongthemosturbanizedandindustrializedpartsofthecountry
78 Catherine Montgomery
Figure 1 MapofChinashowingtheprovinces(Shen2015)
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
London Review of Education 79
Figure 2 ThenumberofChinesenon-eliteuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Figure 3 ThenumberofChinese211groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
ThedatapresentedaboveillustratethatthereisanintenselyunequaldistributionofeliteuniversitiesacrosstheprovincesandregionsofChinaItisimportanttonotethatthescaleofruralndashurbanmigrationishugeinChinawiththeChineseNationalBureauofStatisticsestimatingthatbytheendof2009therewere145millionruralmigrantsincityareasofChinawith50
80 Catherine Montgomery
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Figure 4 ThedistributionofChinese985groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
London Review of Education 81
notontheperspectivesofthoseinvolvedinthepartnershipsTheythereforerepresentonlyoneviewofthenatureofthecollaborations
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ECNUhas114formalpartnershipswithinstitutionsinseveralcontinents21inEurope3inAustralia43inAsia45inAmericaand2inAfrica(wwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp)TheconcentrationofECNUrsquospartnershipsreflectitshistoricalcolonialpastandtheuniversityrsquosmostdevelopedandlong-standingpartnershipsarewithFrancetheUSAandAustraliaWithregardtoFranceECNUhasastrongrelationshipwiththeEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresthathaslastedforovertwentyyearsinvolvingjointprogrammesprofessorialexchangeandclosecollaborationinarangeofdisciplinesbutparticularlyinscienceandbusinessdisciplines(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987)ECNUrsquospartnershipwithLaTrobeUniversityinAustraliaissimilarlylong-standingandhasspanned14yearsinvolvingresearchcollaborationandalsotransnationalprogrammepartnershipswherestudentsstudyforthefirsttwoyearsatECNUinChinaandthencompletetheirundergraduateprogrammesatLaTrobeinAustralia
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
ItisworthnotingthatECNUarealsodevelopinganewformofpartnershipandcooperationwithdevelopingcountriesinAsiaLatinAmericaandAfricaIn2015theyestablishedanEducationMasterrsquosProgrammeforDevelopingCountriestargetinguniversitiesinTanzaniaEthiopiaJordanandChileECNUhasastatedaimtoformcloserbilateraltieswiththeemergingAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)ECNUhasanambitiontodevelopitsroleasahubforhighereducationprovisionfordevelopingcountrieschallengingtheWestforitsdominanceineducatingdevelopingnationsandextendingChinarsquosrangeoflsquosoftpowerrsquo(Nye1990)
Xiamen University Reaching out to Asia
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
82 Catherine Montgomery
coastofFujianprovincesouth-eastChinaandishometolargenumbersofoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaThecityislocatedclosetoTaiwanandhistoricallyhasbeenthesiteofconflictbetweenChinaandTaiwanalthoughthishasdevelopedintoamorepeacefulrelationshipwiththeNovember2015historicmeetingbetweentheChinesePresidentXiJinpingandTaiwanrsquosPresidentMaYing-jeou(BBCNews2015)
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina
thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous
(Yang20141)
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible
Notes on the contributor
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
References
AltbachPGandBassettRM(2014)lsquoNixtheBRICsAtleastforthehighereducationdebatersquoInternational Higher Education772ndash5
BBC News (2015) lsquoChina andTaiwan leaders hail historic talksrsquo Online wwwbbccouknewsworld-asia-34742680(accessed8February2016)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
London Review of Education 73
Itisimportanttonotethatpartnershipinhighereducationishistoricallysociallypoliticallyand culturally situated with geography also having an influenceThere can be tensions invaluesvisionsandgoalswhichcanplacepartnershipatthecentreofpowerstrugglesthatcanbecomeobstaclestocollaboration(Oleksiyenko2014)Thehistoricalcontextofpartnershipis influentialandcollaborationdevelops in thecontextof thehistoricityofnationsandtheireducationsystemsTherearestronginfluencesfromtheWesterntraditionsofhighereducationincountriesinboththeEastandtheWest(forexampleboththeUKandChina)Partnershipin HE is embedded in a context of colonialism imbalance and asymmetry and historicalinequalitiesstillhavean influencetoday(YangandXie2015)Highereducation isan integralpart of the colonial structure and is a site where colonial attitudes are perpetuated (YangandXie2015)DespitethefactthatinternationalpartnershipsinHEaimtopositionnationalinterest above global agendas themajority of countries includingChina tend to favour andprioritizepartnershipswithWesternuniversitiesandglobalcompetitivenessisstilldefinedbylsquotheWestrsquo(OleksiyenkoandYang2015)Thusinternationalnetworkingcouldbeperceivedasbeinglsquoadouble-edgedswordrsquothatshouldbeaccompaniedbyhistoricalawarenessandasenseofcontext(YangandXie201587)Partnershipsdevelopwithinacomplexenvironmentofpowerstructures identities and subjectivities between international national regional institutionalandindividuallevelsofstructureandagency(Djerasimovic2014)ComparisonsacrossnationalcontextswithregardtothedevelopmentandnatureofglobalHEpartnershipsarethereforedifficultgiventhecomplexityanddiversityofthepoliticaleconomicandsocioculturalcontextsinwhichuniversitiesoperateAltbachandBassett(2014)argueforexamplethatcomparisonofcollaborationacrosstheBRICSgroupofnationsisoflittlevalueduetothecomplexityoftheindividualcountriesrsquohighereducationenvironmentsThisunderlinestheinfluentialroleofhistoricalandsocioculturalcontextinpartnership
Global alliances and groups The elite universities of China and the UK
Partnershipsdevelopingbetweenuniversitiesgloballyarepartofcomplexmultilateralnetworksandalliancesbuiltonhistoricalpoliticalandsocioculturalcontexts(YangandXie2015)TheemergenceoflsquomissiongroupsrsquointheUKisanexampleofwaysinwhichHEinstitutionsintheBritishHEsystemareestablishinglsquoself-identitiesrsquoandforminghierarchicalalliancesinassociationwithother institutions (Filippakou andTapper 2015)There are a numberofmission groupsin theUK including theMillion+ and theGuildHE aswell as theRussellGroupofBritishHEinstitutionswhichisseenasanelitegroupthatclaimstorepresent24research-intensiveinstitutions who also boast outstanding teaching and learning and excellence in links withbusinessandthepublicsector(FilippakouandTapper2015)DespitemembershipoftheRussellGroupbeingbasedonprestige there is alsodiversitywithin this groupwhichhasmembersrangingfromOxfordandCambridgeuniversitiesinEnglandtoCardiffandGlasgowuniversitiestwohighlydistinctiveinstitutionsthatarepartoftheWelshandScottishsystemsofHEwhichcanbedifferentiated from theEnglish systemnot leastbecauseof the issueof student fees(FilippakouandTapper2015)
InthelastthreedecadesChinahasengagedinanintensivereformofitshighereducationsystem and this has involved a staggering level of investment in the building of capacity andresource in a relatively small number of universitieswith the aimof developingworld-classinstitutionsthatwillcompeteonaglobalscaleTheChinese211Projectwasinitiatedin1995andintheyearsupto2011agroupof112universitiesweresupportedbyinvestmentintheproject
74 Catherine Montgomery
receivingextensivefundingtolsquogroomtalentsanddevelopdisciplines infaceofthechallengesin21stcenturyrsquo (MinistryofEducationof thePeoplersquosRepublicofChina2013a)Duringthefirstphaseoftheprojectapproximately US$22billionwasinvestedinthedevelopmentofthisrelativelysmallgroupofuniversitiesAlongsidethe211Project the985Projectwas initiatedin1999Asmallgroupof39universitieswereselectedforintensivefundingaimingtosupportinternationalizationagendasanddeveloptheseuniversitiesaseliteinstitutionstoreachlsquoworld-classrsquo level(MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina2013)Table1showstheelitehighereducationinstitutionsofChinaincludedintheC9leaguetheequivalentoftheUKRussellGroupofresearch-intensiveuniversitiesThetablealsoshowstwoinstitutionsthataremembersofthe985and211groupsbutnotoftheC9LeagueandthesetwoinstitutionswillbeprofiledinmoredetaillaterinthisarticleThefulllistofeliteandnon-eliteinstitutionscanbefoundonlineattheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsite(wwwmoeeducn)
Table 1TheelitehighereducationinstitutionsofChina
University Labels
TsinghuaUniversity 211985C9League
PekingUniversity 211985C9League
FudanUniversity 211985C9League
ShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity 211985C9League
ZhejiangUniversity 211985C9League
NanjingUniversity 211985C9League
XirsquoanJiaoTongUniversity 211985C9League
UniversityofScienceandTechnologyofChina 211985C9League
HarbinInstituteofTechnology 211985C9League
Two examples of 985 and 211 institutions
XiamenUniversity 211985
EastChinaNormalUniversity 211985
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
As a means of understanding a sample of Chinese partnerships their relationship with UKinstitutions is focused on here and their affiliation with UK lsquomission groupsrsquo is highlighted(FilippakouandTapper2015)AsampleanalysisoftheUKpartnershipsofthreeeliteinstitutionsofChina(twoC9institutionsandone985211university)wascompiledusingdatafromtheMoE
TheanalysisofthethreeuniversitiesrsquopartnershipswithUKinstitutionsrevealedthattheChineseeliteinstitutionshadmostlyestablishedlinkswithUKinstitutionsthatweremembersoftheeliteRussellGroupTheseinstitutionsincludetheUKuniversitiesthatperformbestintheglobalrankingsandarealsoknownaslsquoresearch-intensiversquoinstitutions(FilippakouandTapper2015)Table2showstheUKpartnershipsofPekingUniversityoneoftheC9institutionsanddemonstratesthatthevastmajorityofPekingrsquospartnersareprestigiousUKuniversitiesincludingOxfordCambridgeandDurhamuniversities
London Review of Education 75
Table 2 TheUKpartnersofPekingUniversity
Institution (Chinese) Institution (English) Country Affiliation
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
格拉斯哥大学 UniversityofGlasgow Scotland RussellGroup
诺丁汉大学 UniversityofNottingham England RussellGroup
伦敦大学学院 UniversityCollegeLondon
England RussellGroup
牛津大学 UniversityofOxford England RussellGroup
伦敦政治经济学院 LondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience
England RussellGroup
杜伦大学 UniversityofDurham England RussellGroup
卡迪夫大学 CardiffUniversity Wales RussellGroup
伦敦大学玛丽皇后学院 QueenMaryUniversityofLondon
England RussellGroup
米德尔塞克斯大学 MiddlesexUniversity England Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland RussellGroup
阿伯泰邓迪大学 UniversityofAbertayDundee
Scotland Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
东安格利亚大学 UniversityofEastAnglia England Unaffiliated
苏塞克斯大学 UniversityofSussex England Unaffiliated
利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton
England RussellGroup
约克大学 UniversityofYork England RussellGroup
赫尔大学 UniversityofHull England Unaffiliated
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
ThispatternwasrepeatedacrossthethreeinstitutionshighlightedinthispartofthestudyandTable3showstheUKpartnershipsestablishedbyShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity includingtheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgeandtwooftheprestigiouscollegesoftheUniversityofLondonBoththeC9universities inTables1and2haveestablished linkspredominantlywithEnglishuniversitiesbutallof the threeuniversities in the samplehad linkswithat leastoneuniversity in Scotland and onelsquopost-1992rsquo (or former polytechnic) university in their list ofpartners
76 Catherine Montgomery
Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation
伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup
邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated
帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992
拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated
伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup
牛津大学 UniversityofOxford England RussellGroup
纽卡斯尔大学 NewcastleUniversity England RussellGroup
诺丁汉大学 UniversityofNottingham England RussellGroup
萨里大学 UniversityofSurrey England Unaffiliated
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables
IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith
London Review of Education 77
thenewuniversitiesintheUKandnon-eliteuniversitiesinChinabeingmorepreparedtosetupoverseasvalidatedcourses(Fang2012Houet al2014BennellandPearce2003)
Table 4 EastChinaNormalUniversityrsquospartnerinstitutionsintheUK
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation Exchange and cooperation code
艾克斯特大学 ExeterUniversity EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
霍尔大学 HullUniversity England FSA
诺丁汉特伦特大学 NottinghamTrentUniversity
EnglandPost-1992 S
爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland
英国伦敦大学教育学院 UCLInstituteofEducationUniversityCollegeLondon
EnglandFRIS
班戈大学 BangorUniversity Wales FS
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
ThemostpopulatedandurbanizedareasofChinaaretheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrywiththemunicipalityaroundBeijingandTianjin theareaaroundShanghaiHongKongandtheeasternprovincesofShandongandJiangsubeingthemostdenselypopulatedTheleastdenselypopulatedareasareinthewestofChinawiththeregionsofQinghaiandXinjianginthefarwestbeingmuchmoresparselypopulated(Waugh2009)IfalineweredrawnacrossthecountrydividingtheEasternandCentralregionsfromtheWesternregionitwoulddemonstratethattheEasternandCentralregionshave40percentofthelandareaand94percentofthepopulationwhiletheWesternregionhas60percentofthelandareabutonly6percentofthepopulationThis illustrates theacutedifferences indemographicsacross thedifferent regionsandprovincesofChinaTheareasofdensepopulationarealsoamongthemosturbanizedandindustrializedpartsofthecountry
78 Catherine Montgomery
Figure 1 MapofChinashowingtheprovinces(Shen2015)
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
London Review of Education 79
Figure 2 ThenumberofChinesenon-eliteuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Figure 3 ThenumberofChinese211groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
ThedatapresentedaboveillustratethatthereisanintenselyunequaldistributionofeliteuniversitiesacrosstheprovincesandregionsofChinaItisimportanttonotethatthescaleofruralndashurbanmigrationishugeinChinawiththeChineseNationalBureauofStatisticsestimatingthatbytheendof2009therewere145millionruralmigrantsincityareasofChinawith50
80 Catherine Montgomery
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Figure 4 ThedistributionofChinese985groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
London Review of Education 81
notontheperspectivesofthoseinvolvedinthepartnershipsTheythereforerepresentonlyoneviewofthenatureofthecollaborations
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ECNUhas114formalpartnershipswithinstitutionsinseveralcontinents21inEurope3inAustralia43inAsia45inAmericaand2inAfrica(wwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp)TheconcentrationofECNUrsquospartnershipsreflectitshistoricalcolonialpastandtheuniversityrsquosmostdevelopedandlong-standingpartnershipsarewithFrancetheUSAandAustraliaWithregardtoFranceECNUhasastrongrelationshipwiththeEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresthathaslastedforovertwentyyearsinvolvingjointprogrammesprofessorialexchangeandclosecollaborationinarangeofdisciplinesbutparticularlyinscienceandbusinessdisciplines(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987)ECNUrsquospartnershipwithLaTrobeUniversityinAustraliaissimilarlylong-standingandhasspanned14yearsinvolvingresearchcollaborationandalsotransnationalprogrammepartnershipswherestudentsstudyforthefirsttwoyearsatECNUinChinaandthencompletetheirundergraduateprogrammesatLaTrobeinAustralia
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
ItisworthnotingthatECNUarealsodevelopinganewformofpartnershipandcooperationwithdevelopingcountriesinAsiaLatinAmericaandAfricaIn2015theyestablishedanEducationMasterrsquosProgrammeforDevelopingCountriestargetinguniversitiesinTanzaniaEthiopiaJordanandChileECNUhasastatedaimtoformcloserbilateraltieswiththeemergingAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)ECNUhasanambitiontodevelopitsroleasahubforhighereducationprovisionfordevelopingcountrieschallengingtheWestforitsdominanceineducatingdevelopingnationsandextendingChinarsquosrangeoflsquosoftpowerrsquo(Nye1990)
Xiamen University Reaching out to Asia
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
82 Catherine Montgomery
coastofFujianprovincesouth-eastChinaandishometolargenumbersofoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaThecityislocatedclosetoTaiwanandhistoricallyhasbeenthesiteofconflictbetweenChinaandTaiwanalthoughthishasdevelopedintoamorepeacefulrelationshipwiththeNovember2015historicmeetingbetweentheChinesePresidentXiJinpingandTaiwanrsquosPresidentMaYing-jeou(BBCNews2015)
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina
thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous
(Yang20141)
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible
Notes on the contributor
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
References
AltbachPGandBassettRM(2014)lsquoNixtheBRICsAtleastforthehighereducationdebatersquoInternational Higher Education772ndash5
BBC News (2015) lsquoChina andTaiwan leaders hail historic talksrsquo Online wwwbbccouknewsworld-asia-34742680(accessed8February2016)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
74 Catherine Montgomery
receivingextensivefundingtolsquogroomtalentsanddevelopdisciplines infaceofthechallengesin21stcenturyrsquo (MinistryofEducationof thePeoplersquosRepublicofChina2013a)Duringthefirstphaseoftheprojectapproximately US$22billionwasinvestedinthedevelopmentofthisrelativelysmallgroupofuniversitiesAlongsidethe211Project the985Projectwas initiatedin1999Asmallgroupof39universitieswereselectedforintensivefundingaimingtosupportinternationalizationagendasanddeveloptheseuniversitiesaseliteinstitutionstoreachlsquoworld-classrsquo level(MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina2013)Table1showstheelitehighereducationinstitutionsofChinaincludedintheC9leaguetheequivalentoftheUKRussellGroupofresearch-intensiveuniversitiesThetablealsoshowstwoinstitutionsthataremembersofthe985and211groupsbutnotoftheC9LeagueandthesetwoinstitutionswillbeprofiledinmoredetaillaterinthisarticleThefulllistofeliteandnon-eliteinstitutionscanbefoundonlineattheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsite(wwwmoeeducn)
Table 1TheelitehighereducationinstitutionsofChina
University Labels
TsinghuaUniversity 211985C9League
PekingUniversity 211985C9League
FudanUniversity 211985C9League
ShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity 211985C9League
ZhejiangUniversity 211985C9League
NanjingUniversity 211985C9League
XirsquoanJiaoTongUniversity 211985C9League
UniversityofScienceandTechnologyofChina 211985C9League
HarbinInstituteofTechnology 211985C9League
Two examples of 985 and 211 institutions
XiamenUniversity 211985
EastChinaNormalUniversity 211985
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
As a means of understanding a sample of Chinese partnerships their relationship with UKinstitutions is focused on here and their affiliation with UK lsquomission groupsrsquo is highlighted(FilippakouandTapper2015)AsampleanalysisoftheUKpartnershipsofthreeeliteinstitutionsofChina(twoC9institutionsandone985211university)wascompiledusingdatafromtheMoE
TheanalysisofthethreeuniversitiesrsquopartnershipswithUKinstitutionsrevealedthattheChineseeliteinstitutionshadmostlyestablishedlinkswithUKinstitutionsthatweremembersoftheeliteRussellGroupTheseinstitutionsincludetheUKuniversitiesthatperformbestintheglobalrankingsandarealsoknownaslsquoresearch-intensiversquoinstitutions(FilippakouandTapper2015)Table2showstheUKpartnershipsofPekingUniversityoneoftheC9institutionsanddemonstratesthatthevastmajorityofPekingrsquospartnersareprestigiousUKuniversitiesincludingOxfordCambridgeandDurhamuniversities
London Review of Education 75
Table 2 TheUKpartnersofPekingUniversity
Institution (Chinese) Institution (English) Country Affiliation
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
格拉斯哥大学 UniversityofGlasgow Scotland RussellGroup
诺丁汉大学 UniversityofNottingham England RussellGroup
伦敦大学学院 UniversityCollegeLondon
England RussellGroup
牛津大学 UniversityofOxford England RussellGroup
伦敦政治经济学院 LondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience
England RussellGroup
杜伦大学 UniversityofDurham England RussellGroup
卡迪夫大学 CardiffUniversity Wales RussellGroup
伦敦大学玛丽皇后学院 QueenMaryUniversityofLondon
England RussellGroup
米德尔塞克斯大学 MiddlesexUniversity England Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland RussellGroup
阿伯泰邓迪大学 UniversityofAbertayDundee
Scotland Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
东安格利亚大学 UniversityofEastAnglia England Unaffiliated
苏塞克斯大学 UniversityofSussex England Unaffiliated
利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton
England RussellGroup
约克大学 UniversityofYork England RussellGroup
赫尔大学 UniversityofHull England Unaffiliated
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
ThispatternwasrepeatedacrossthethreeinstitutionshighlightedinthispartofthestudyandTable3showstheUKpartnershipsestablishedbyShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity includingtheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgeandtwooftheprestigiouscollegesoftheUniversityofLondonBoththeC9universities inTables1and2haveestablished linkspredominantlywithEnglishuniversitiesbutallof the threeuniversities in the samplehad linkswithat leastoneuniversity in Scotland and onelsquopost-1992rsquo (or former polytechnic) university in their list ofpartners
76 Catherine Montgomery
Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation
伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup
邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated
帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992
拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated
伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup
牛津大学 UniversityofOxford England RussellGroup
纽卡斯尔大学 NewcastleUniversity England RussellGroup
诺丁汉大学 UniversityofNottingham England RussellGroup
萨里大学 UniversityofSurrey England Unaffiliated
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables
IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith
London Review of Education 77
thenewuniversitiesintheUKandnon-eliteuniversitiesinChinabeingmorepreparedtosetupoverseasvalidatedcourses(Fang2012Houet al2014BennellandPearce2003)
Table 4 EastChinaNormalUniversityrsquospartnerinstitutionsintheUK
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation Exchange and cooperation code
艾克斯特大学 ExeterUniversity EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
霍尔大学 HullUniversity England FSA
诺丁汉特伦特大学 NottinghamTrentUniversity
EnglandPost-1992 S
爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland
英国伦敦大学教育学院 UCLInstituteofEducationUniversityCollegeLondon
EnglandFRIS
班戈大学 BangorUniversity Wales FS
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
ThemostpopulatedandurbanizedareasofChinaaretheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrywiththemunicipalityaroundBeijingandTianjin theareaaroundShanghaiHongKongandtheeasternprovincesofShandongandJiangsubeingthemostdenselypopulatedTheleastdenselypopulatedareasareinthewestofChinawiththeregionsofQinghaiandXinjianginthefarwestbeingmuchmoresparselypopulated(Waugh2009)IfalineweredrawnacrossthecountrydividingtheEasternandCentralregionsfromtheWesternregionitwoulddemonstratethattheEasternandCentralregionshave40percentofthelandareaand94percentofthepopulationwhiletheWesternregionhas60percentofthelandareabutonly6percentofthepopulationThis illustrates theacutedifferences indemographicsacross thedifferent regionsandprovincesofChinaTheareasofdensepopulationarealsoamongthemosturbanizedandindustrializedpartsofthecountry
78 Catherine Montgomery
Figure 1 MapofChinashowingtheprovinces(Shen2015)
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
London Review of Education 79
Figure 2 ThenumberofChinesenon-eliteuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Figure 3 ThenumberofChinese211groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
ThedatapresentedaboveillustratethatthereisanintenselyunequaldistributionofeliteuniversitiesacrosstheprovincesandregionsofChinaItisimportanttonotethatthescaleofruralndashurbanmigrationishugeinChinawiththeChineseNationalBureauofStatisticsestimatingthatbytheendof2009therewere145millionruralmigrantsincityareasofChinawith50
80 Catherine Montgomery
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Figure 4 ThedistributionofChinese985groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
London Review of Education 81
notontheperspectivesofthoseinvolvedinthepartnershipsTheythereforerepresentonlyoneviewofthenatureofthecollaborations
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ECNUhas114formalpartnershipswithinstitutionsinseveralcontinents21inEurope3inAustralia43inAsia45inAmericaand2inAfrica(wwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp)TheconcentrationofECNUrsquospartnershipsreflectitshistoricalcolonialpastandtheuniversityrsquosmostdevelopedandlong-standingpartnershipsarewithFrancetheUSAandAustraliaWithregardtoFranceECNUhasastrongrelationshipwiththeEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresthathaslastedforovertwentyyearsinvolvingjointprogrammesprofessorialexchangeandclosecollaborationinarangeofdisciplinesbutparticularlyinscienceandbusinessdisciplines(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987)ECNUrsquospartnershipwithLaTrobeUniversityinAustraliaissimilarlylong-standingandhasspanned14yearsinvolvingresearchcollaborationandalsotransnationalprogrammepartnershipswherestudentsstudyforthefirsttwoyearsatECNUinChinaandthencompletetheirundergraduateprogrammesatLaTrobeinAustralia
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
ItisworthnotingthatECNUarealsodevelopinganewformofpartnershipandcooperationwithdevelopingcountriesinAsiaLatinAmericaandAfricaIn2015theyestablishedanEducationMasterrsquosProgrammeforDevelopingCountriestargetinguniversitiesinTanzaniaEthiopiaJordanandChileECNUhasastatedaimtoformcloserbilateraltieswiththeemergingAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)ECNUhasanambitiontodevelopitsroleasahubforhighereducationprovisionfordevelopingcountrieschallengingtheWestforitsdominanceineducatingdevelopingnationsandextendingChinarsquosrangeoflsquosoftpowerrsquo(Nye1990)
Xiamen University Reaching out to Asia
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
82 Catherine Montgomery
coastofFujianprovincesouth-eastChinaandishometolargenumbersofoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaThecityislocatedclosetoTaiwanandhistoricallyhasbeenthesiteofconflictbetweenChinaandTaiwanalthoughthishasdevelopedintoamorepeacefulrelationshipwiththeNovember2015historicmeetingbetweentheChinesePresidentXiJinpingandTaiwanrsquosPresidentMaYing-jeou(BBCNews2015)
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina
thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous
(Yang20141)
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible
Notes on the contributor
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
References
AltbachPGandBassettRM(2014)lsquoNixtheBRICsAtleastforthehighereducationdebatersquoInternational Higher Education772ndash5
BBC News (2015) lsquoChina andTaiwan leaders hail historic talksrsquo Online wwwbbccouknewsworld-asia-34742680(accessed8February2016)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
London Review of Education 75
Table 2 TheUKpartnersofPekingUniversity
Institution (Chinese) Institution (English) Country Affiliation
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
格拉斯哥大学 UniversityofGlasgow Scotland RussellGroup
诺丁汉大学 UniversityofNottingham England RussellGroup
伦敦大学学院 UniversityCollegeLondon
England RussellGroup
牛津大学 UniversityofOxford England RussellGroup
伦敦政治经济学院 LondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience
England RussellGroup
杜伦大学 UniversityofDurham England RussellGroup
卡迪夫大学 CardiffUniversity Wales RussellGroup
伦敦大学玛丽皇后学院 QueenMaryUniversityofLondon
England RussellGroup
米德尔塞克斯大学 MiddlesexUniversity England Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland RussellGroup
阿伯泰邓迪大学 UniversityofAbertayDundee
Scotland Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
东安格利亚大学 UniversityofEastAnglia England Unaffiliated
苏塞克斯大学 UniversityofSussex England Unaffiliated
利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post-1992(Formerpolytechnics)
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton
England RussellGroup
约克大学 UniversityofYork England RussellGroup
赫尔大学 UniversityofHull England Unaffiliated
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
ThispatternwasrepeatedacrossthethreeinstitutionshighlightedinthispartofthestudyandTable3showstheUKpartnershipsestablishedbyShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity includingtheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridgeandtwooftheprestigiouscollegesoftheUniversityofLondonBoththeC9universities inTables1and2haveestablished linkspredominantlywithEnglishuniversitiesbutallof the threeuniversities in the samplehad linkswithat leastoneuniversity in Scotland and onelsquopost-1992rsquo (or former polytechnic) university in their list ofpartners
76 Catherine Montgomery
Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation
伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup
邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated
帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992
拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated
伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup
牛津大学 UniversityofOxford England RussellGroup
纽卡斯尔大学 NewcastleUniversity England RussellGroup
诺丁汉大学 UniversityofNottingham England RussellGroup
萨里大学 UniversityofSurrey England Unaffiliated
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables
IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith
London Review of Education 77
thenewuniversitiesintheUKandnon-eliteuniversitiesinChinabeingmorepreparedtosetupoverseasvalidatedcourses(Fang2012Houet al2014BennellandPearce2003)
Table 4 EastChinaNormalUniversityrsquospartnerinstitutionsintheUK
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation Exchange and cooperation code
艾克斯特大学 ExeterUniversity EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
霍尔大学 HullUniversity England FSA
诺丁汉特伦特大学 NottinghamTrentUniversity
EnglandPost-1992 S
爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland
英国伦敦大学教育学院 UCLInstituteofEducationUniversityCollegeLondon
EnglandFRIS
班戈大学 BangorUniversity Wales FS
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
ThemostpopulatedandurbanizedareasofChinaaretheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrywiththemunicipalityaroundBeijingandTianjin theareaaroundShanghaiHongKongandtheeasternprovincesofShandongandJiangsubeingthemostdenselypopulatedTheleastdenselypopulatedareasareinthewestofChinawiththeregionsofQinghaiandXinjianginthefarwestbeingmuchmoresparselypopulated(Waugh2009)IfalineweredrawnacrossthecountrydividingtheEasternandCentralregionsfromtheWesternregionitwoulddemonstratethattheEasternandCentralregionshave40percentofthelandareaand94percentofthepopulationwhiletheWesternregionhas60percentofthelandareabutonly6percentofthepopulationThis illustrates theacutedifferences indemographicsacross thedifferent regionsandprovincesofChinaTheareasofdensepopulationarealsoamongthemosturbanizedandindustrializedpartsofthecountry
78 Catherine Montgomery
Figure 1 MapofChinashowingtheprovinces(Shen2015)
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
London Review of Education 79
Figure 2 ThenumberofChinesenon-eliteuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Figure 3 ThenumberofChinese211groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
ThedatapresentedaboveillustratethatthereisanintenselyunequaldistributionofeliteuniversitiesacrosstheprovincesandregionsofChinaItisimportanttonotethatthescaleofruralndashurbanmigrationishugeinChinawiththeChineseNationalBureauofStatisticsestimatingthatbytheendof2009therewere145millionruralmigrantsincityareasofChinawith50
80 Catherine Montgomery
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Figure 4 ThedistributionofChinese985groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
London Review of Education 81
notontheperspectivesofthoseinvolvedinthepartnershipsTheythereforerepresentonlyoneviewofthenatureofthecollaborations
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ECNUhas114formalpartnershipswithinstitutionsinseveralcontinents21inEurope3inAustralia43inAsia45inAmericaand2inAfrica(wwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp)TheconcentrationofECNUrsquospartnershipsreflectitshistoricalcolonialpastandtheuniversityrsquosmostdevelopedandlong-standingpartnershipsarewithFrancetheUSAandAustraliaWithregardtoFranceECNUhasastrongrelationshipwiththeEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresthathaslastedforovertwentyyearsinvolvingjointprogrammesprofessorialexchangeandclosecollaborationinarangeofdisciplinesbutparticularlyinscienceandbusinessdisciplines(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987)ECNUrsquospartnershipwithLaTrobeUniversityinAustraliaissimilarlylong-standingandhasspanned14yearsinvolvingresearchcollaborationandalsotransnationalprogrammepartnershipswherestudentsstudyforthefirsttwoyearsatECNUinChinaandthencompletetheirundergraduateprogrammesatLaTrobeinAustralia
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
ItisworthnotingthatECNUarealsodevelopinganewformofpartnershipandcooperationwithdevelopingcountriesinAsiaLatinAmericaandAfricaIn2015theyestablishedanEducationMasterrsquosProgrammeforDevelopingCountriestargetinguniversitiesinTanzaniaEthiopiaJordanandChileECNUhasastatedaimtoformcloserbilateraltieswiththeemergingAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)ECNUhasanambitiontodevelopitsroleasahubforhighereducationprovisionfordevelopingcountrieschallengingtheWestforitsdominanceineducatingdevelopingnationsandextendingChinarsquosrangeoflsquosoftpowerrsquo(Nye1990)
Xiamen University Reaching out to Asia
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
82 Catherine Montgomery
coastofFujianprovincesouth-eastChinaandishometolargenumbersofoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaThecityislocatedclosetoTaiwanandhistoricallyhasbeenthesiteofconflictbetweenChinaandTaiwanalthoughthishasdevelopedintoamorepeacefulrelationshipwiththeNovember2015historicmeetingbetweentheChinesePresidentXiJinpingandTaiwanrsquosPresidentMaYing-jeou(BBCNews2015)
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina
thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous
(Yang20141)
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible
Notes on the contributor
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
References
AltbachPGandBassettRM(2014)lsquoNixtheBRICsAtleastforthehighereducationdebatersquoInternational Higher Education772ndash5
BBC News (2015) lsquoChina andTaiwan leaders hail historic talksrsquo Online wwwbbccouknewsworld-asia-34742680(accessed8February2016)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
76 Catherine Montgomery
Table 3 TheUKpartnersofShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation
伯明翰大学 UniversityofBirmingham England RussellGroup
邓迪大学 UniversityofDundee Scotland Unaffiliated
帝国理工学院 ImperialCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
华威大学 UniversityofWarwick England RussellGroup
剑桥大学 UniversityofCambridge England RussellGroup
克兰菲尔德大学 CranfieldUniversity England Post1992
拉夫堡大学 LoughboroughUniversity England Unaffiliated
伦敦国王学院 KingrsquosCollegeLondon England RussellGroup
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester England RussellGroup
南安普顿大学 UniversityofSouthampton England RussellGroup
牛津大学 UniversityofOxford England RussellGroup
纽卡斯尔大学 NewcastleUniversity England RussellGroup
诺丁汉大学 UniversityofNottingham England RussellGroup
萨里大学 UniversityofSurrey England Unaffiliated
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
In addition to this the data analysis included attention to the recorded purposes of thepartnershipsestablishedandthecategoriesprovidedbytheMoEincludeddetailsofthenatureof the exchange and cooperation including faculty exchange student exchange joint degreeprogrammes research collaboration academic exchange and cooperation in running schools(TNHE)andinformationexchangeFromthedatacollecteditwasclearthattheestablishmentof partnerships by elite Chinese institutionswas strategic and purposeful For example thecooperationwiththepost-1992institutionsappearedtobepredominantlyforstudentexchangeThepartnershipsestablishedbyEastChinaNormalUniversitywithNottinghamTrentUniversityinEnglandweremarkedasbeingforthepurposesofstudentexchangeratherthanforfacultyexchangeresearchorTNHETable4showsthepartnershipsofEastChinaNormalUniversitywiththepurposesofthosepartnershipsindicatedEastChinaNormalUniversityrsquoslinkswiththeUKforthepurposesoffacultyandstudentexchangeandTNHEarepredominantlywithRussellGrouporresearch-intensiveuniversitiesItisinterestingtonotethattheonlypartnershiplistedinthetablethatisindicatedtobeforthepurposesofresearchisthatwiththeUCLInstituteof EducationUniversityCollege Londonwhich is the top research institute for educationalresearchintheUKrankedtopintheUKinmanyofthegloballeaguetables
IntermsofcollaborativepartnershipsinvolvingtransnationalhighereducationthepictureissimilarinthateliteChineseuniversitiesseekTNHEpartnershipswithhigh-rankinguniversitiesacross the globeAccording to the MoE statistics there are 577 Chinese higher educationinstitutionswholsquohostrsquoTNHEwhichaccountsfor21percentofthetotalnumberofChineseuniversitiesHoweveronly79oftheseinstitutionsarein985or211elitegroupsrepresentingonly 16per centofTNHE institutions (MoE 2013b)This suggests that the elite institutionsaremore risk aversewhen it comes toTNHE (Hou et al 2014) Research has indicated adifferentiationinthewaythateliteuniversitiesandpost-1992institutionsapproachTNHEwith
London Review of Education 77
thenewuniversitiesintheUKandnon-eliteuniversitiesinChinabeingmorepreparedtosetupoverseasvalidatedcourses(Fang2012Houet al2014BennellandPearce2003)
Table 4 EastChinaNormalUniversityrsquospartnerinstitutionsintheUK
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation Exchange and cooperation code
艾克斯特大学 ExeterUniversity EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
霍尔大学 HullUniversity England FSA
诺丁汉特伦特大学 NottinghamTrentUniversity
EnglandPost-1992 S
爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland
英国伦敦大学教育学院 UCLInstituteofEducationUniversityCollegeLondon
EnglandFRIS
班戈大学 BangorUniversity Wales FS
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
ThemostpopulatedandurbanizedareasofChinaaretheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrywiththemunicipalityaroundBeijingandTianjin theareaaroundShanghaiHongKongandtheeasternprovincesofShandongandJiangsubeingthemostdenselypopulatedTheleastdenselypopulatedareasareinthewestofChinawiththeregionsofQinghaiandXinjianginthefarwestbeingmuchmoresparselypopulated(Waugh2009)IfalineweredrawnacrossthecountrydividingtheEasternandCentralregionsfromtheWesternregionitwoulddemonstratethattheEasternandCentralregionshave40percentofthelandareaand94percentofthepopulationwhiletheWesternregionhas60percentofthelandareabutonly6percentofthepopulationThis illustrates theacutedifferences indemographicsacross thedifferent regionsandprovincesofChinaTheareasofdensepopulationarealsoamongthemosturbanizedandindustrializedpartsofthecountry
78 Catherine Montgomery
Figure 1 MapofChinashowingtheprovinces(Shen2015)
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
London Review of Education 79
Figure 2 ThenumberofChinesenon-eliteuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Figure 3 ThenumberofChinese211groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
ThedatapresentedaboveillustratethatthereisanintenselyunequaldistributionofeliteuniversitiesacrosstheprovincesandregionsofChinaItisimportanttonotethatthescaleofruralndashurbanmigrationishugeinChinawiththeChineseNationalBureauofStatisticsestimatingthatbytheendof2009therewere145millionruralmigrantsincityareasofChinawith50
80 Catherine Montgomery
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Figure 4 ThedistributionofChinese985groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
London Review of Education 81
notontheperspectivesofthoseinvolvedinthepartnershipsTheythereforerepresentonlyoneviewofthenatureofthecollaborations
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ECNUhas114formalpartnershipswithinstitutionsinseveralcontinents21inEurope3inAustralia43inAsia45inAmericaand2inAfrica(wwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp)TheconcentrationofECNUrsquospartnershipsreflectitshistoricalcolonialpastandtheuniversityrsquosmostdevelopedandlong-standingpartnershipsarewithFrancetheUSAandAustraliaWithregardtoFranceECNUhasastrongrelationshipwiththeEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresthathaslastedforovertwentyyearsinvolvingjointprogrammesprofessorialexchangeandclosecollaborationinarangeofdisciplinesbutparticularlyinscienceandbusinessdisciplines(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987)ECNUrsquospartnershipwithLaTrobeUniversityinAustraliaissimilarlylong-standingandhasspanned14yearsinvolvingresearchcollaborationandalsotransnationalprogrammepartnershipswherestudentsstudyforthefirsttwoyearsatECNUinChinaandthencompletetheirundergraduateprogrammesatLaTrobeinAustralia
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
ItisworthnotingthatECNUarealsodevelopinganewformofpartnershipandcooperationwithdevelopingcountriesinAsiaLatinAmericaandAfricaIn2015theyestablishedanEducationMasterrsquosProgrammeforDevelopingCountriestargetinguniversitiesinTanzaniaEthiopiaJordanandChileECNUhasastatedaimtoformcloserbilateraltieswiththeemergingAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)ECNUhasanambitiontodevelopitsroleasahubforhighereducationprovisionfordevelopingcountrieschallengingtheWestforitsdominanceineducatingdevelopingnationsandextendingChinarsquosrangeoflsquosoftpowerrsquo(Nye1990)
Xiamen University Reaching out to Asia
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
82 Catherine Montgomery
coastofFujianprovincesouth-eastChinaandishometolargenumbersofoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaThecityislocatedclosetoTaiwanandhistoricallyhasbeenthesiteofconflictbetweenChinaandTaiwanalthoughthishasdevelopedintoamorepeacefulrelationshipwiththeNovember2015historicmeetingbetweentheChinesePresidentXiJinpingandTaiwanrsquosPresidentMaYing-jeou(BBCNews2015)
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina
thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous
(Yang20141)
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible
Notes on the contributor
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
References
AltbachPGandBassettRM(2014)lsquoNixtheBRICsAtleastforthehighereducationdebatersquoInternational Higher Education772ndash5
BBC News (2015) lsquoChina andTaiwan leaders hail historic talksrsquo Online wwwbbccouknewsworld-asia-34742680(accessed8February2016)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
London Review of Education 77
thenewuniversitiesintheUKandnon-eliteuniversitiesinChinabeingmorepreparedtosetupoverseasvalidatedcourses(Fang2012Houet al2014BennellandPearce2003)
Table 4 EastChinaNormalUniversityrsquospartnerinstitutionsintheUK
Institution (in Chinese) Institution (in English) Country Affiliation Exchange and cooperation code
艾克斯特大学 ExeterUniversity EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
曼彻斯特大学 UniversityofManchester EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
利兹大学 UniversityofLeeds EnglandRussellGroup
FSA
霍尔大学 HullUniversity England FSA
诺丁汉特伦特大学 NottinghamTrentUniversity
EnglandPost-1992 S
爱丁堡大学 UniversityofEdinburgh Scotland
英国伦敦大学教育学院 UCLInstituteofEducationUniversityCollegeLondon
EnglandFRIS
班戈大学 BangorUniversity Wales FS
ExchangeandcooperationcodeFndashfacultyexchangeSndashstudentexchangeDndashjointdegreeprogrammesR ndash research collaborationA ndash academic exchange and cooperation in running schools (TNHE) I ndashinformationexchange
SourceMinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(wwwmoeeducn)
Geography demographics and the concentration of higher education in China
China has 34 provincial-level administrative units which are made up of 23 provinces 4municipalities(BeijingTianjinShanghaiandChongqing)5autonomousregions(GuangxiInnerMongoliaTibetNingxia andXinjiang) and 2 special administrative regions (Hong Kong andMacau) (TravelChinaGuide 2015) Figure 1 illustrates the provinces and in additiondividesChinaintotheEasternRegionCentralRegionandWesternRegion
ThemostpopulatedandurbanizedareasofChinaaretheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrywiththemunicipalityaroundBeijingandTianjin theareaaroundShanghaiHongKongandtheeasternprovincesofShandongandJiangsubeingthemostdenselypopulatedTheleastdenselypopulatedareasareinthewestofChinawiththeregionsofQinghaiandXinjianginthefarwestbeingmuchmoresparselypopulated(Waugh2009)IfalineweredrawnacrossthecountrydividingtheEasternandCentralregionsfromtheWesternregionitwoulddemonstratethattheEasternandCentralregionshave40percentofthelandareaand94percentofthepopulationwhiletheWesternregionhas60percentofthelandareabutonly6percentofthepopulationThis illustrates theacutedifferences indemographicsacross thedifferent regionsandprovincesofChinaTheareasofdensepopulationarealsoamongthemosturbanizedandindustrializedpartsofthecountry
78 Catherine Montgomery
Figure 1 MapofChinashowingtheprovinces(Shen2015)
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
London Review of Education 79
Figure 2 ThenumberofChinesenon-eliteuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Figure 3 ThenumberofChinese211groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
ThedatapresentedaboveillustratethatthereisanintenselyunequaldistributionofeliteuniversitiesacrosstheprovincesandregionsofChinaItisimportanttonotethatthescaleofruralndashurbanmigrationishugeinChinawiththeChineseNationalBureauofStatisticsestimatingthatbytheendof2009therewere145millionruralmigrantsincityareasofChinawith50
80 Catherine Montgomery
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Figure 4 ThedistributionofChinese985groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
London Review of Education 81
notontheperspectivesofthoseinvolvedinthepartnershipsTheythereforerepresentonlyoneviewofthenatureofthecollaborations
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ECNUhas114formalpartnershipswithinstitutionsinseveralcontinents21inEurope3inAustralia43inAsia45inAmericaand2inAfrica(wwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp)TheconcentrationofECNUrsquospartnershipsreflectitshistoricalcolonialpastandtheuniversityrsquosmostdevelopedandlong-standingpartnershipsarewithFrancetheUSAandAustraliaWithregardtoFranceECNUhasastrongrelationshipwiththeEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresthathaslastedforovertwentyyearsinvolvingjointprogrammesprofessorialexchangeandclosecollaborationinarangeofdisciplinesbutparticularlyinscienceandbusinessdisciplines(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987)ECNUrsquospartnershipwithLaTrobeUniversityinAustraliaissimilarlylong-standingandhasspanned14yearsinvolvingresearchcollaborationandalsotransnationalprogrammepartnershipswherestudentsstudyforthefirsttwoyearsatECNUinChinaandthencompletetheirundergraduateprogrammesatLaTrobeinAustralia
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
ItisworthnotingthatECNUarealsodevelopinganewformofpartnershipandcooperationwithdevelopingcountriesinAsiaLatinAmericaandAfricaIn2015theyestablishedanEducationMasterrsquosProgrammeforDevelopingCountriestargetinguniversitiesinTanzaniaEthiopiaJordanandChileECNUhasastatedaimtoformcloserbilateraltieswiththeemergingAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)ECNUhasanambitiontodevelopitsroleasahubforhighereducationprovisionfordevelopingcountrieschallengingtheWestforitsdominanceineducatingdevelopingnationsandextendingChinarsquosrangeoflsquosoftpowerrsquo(Nye1990)
Xiamen University Reaching out to Asia
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
82 Catherine Montgomery
coastofFujianprovincesouth-eastChinaandishometolargenumbersofoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaThecityislocatedclosetoTaiwanandhistoricallyhasbeenthesiteofconflictbetweenChinaandTaiwanalthoughthishasdevelopedintoamorepeacefulrelationshipwiththeNovember2015historicmeetingbetweentheChinesePresidentXiJinpingandTaiwanrsquosPresidentMaYing-jeou(BBCNews2015)
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina
thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous
(Yang20141)
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible
Notes on the contributor
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
References
AltbachPGandBassettRM(2014)lsquoNixtheBRICsAtleastforthehighereducationdebatersquoInternational Higher Education772ndash5
BBC News (2015) lsquoChina andTaiwan leaders hail historic talksrsquo Online wwwbbccouknewsworld-asia-34742680(accessed8February2016)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
78 Catherine Montgomery
Figure 1 MapofChinashowingtheprovinces(Shen2015)
There is a significant relationship between the density of the population in China and theconcentration of provision of higher education institutions The data gathered from theChineseMinistryof Educationwebsite (wwwmoeeducn) shows that the extreme variationin demographics from theWest to the East of the country is reflected in the location andconcentrationofhighereducation institutionsMostsignificantly forthisstudy it isalsoclearfromthedatathattheeliteuniversitiesofChina(thoseincludedintheC9211and985groups)areconcentratedintheEasternandCentralregionsofthecountrytoagreaterextentthanthenon-eliteinstitutions(universitiesnotincludedintheC9211or985groups)Thenon-elitehighereducationinstitutionsaremorewidelyspreadacrosstheregionsalthoughthereisstillaconcentrationofnon-eliteinstitutionsaroundtheEasternandCentralregionsFigure2showsthenumberofnon-eliteuniversitiesinthedifferentprovincesofChinaillustratingthatthereisanunequalspreadofuniversitiesingeneralacrosstheprovinces
When contrasted with the spread of the elite 211 group of universities however it isapparentthatthespreadisevenmoreunequalintheelitegroupwiththenumberof211-rankeduniversities intensely concentrated in the regions of Beijing Jiangsu and Shanghai Figure 3illustrates that incomparisonwith the spreadandnumberofnon-elite institutions theeliteinstitutionsareevenmoreintenselyconcentratedaroundtheurbanizedandwealthyregionsofthecountry
London Review of Education 79
Figure 2 ThenumberofChinesenon-eliteuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Figure 3 ThenumberofChinese211groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
ThedatapresentedaboveillustratethatthereisanintenselyunequaldistributionofeliteuniversitiesacrosstheprovincesandregionsofChinaItisimportanttonotethatthescaleofruralndashurbanmigrationishugeinChinawiththeChineseNationalBureauofStatisticsestimatingthatbytheendof2009therewere145millionruralmigrantsincityareasofChinawith50
80 Catherine Montgomery
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Figure 4 ThedistributionofChinese985groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
London Review of Education 81
notontheperspectivesofthoseinvolvedinthepartnershipsTheythereforerepresentonlyoneviewofthenatureofthecollaborations
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ECNUhas114formalpartnershipswithinstitutionsinseveralcontinents21inEurope3inAustralia43inAsia45inAmericaand2inAfrica(wwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp)TheconcentrationofECNUrsquospartnershipsreflectitshistoricalcolonialpastandtheuniversityrsquosmostdevelopedandlong-standingpartnershipsarewithFrancetheUSAandAustraliaWithregardtoFranceECNUhasastrongrelationshipwiththeEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresthathaslastedforovertwentyyearsinvolvingjointprogrammesprofessorialexchangeandclosecollaborationinarangeofdisciplinesbutparticularlyinscienceandbusinessdisciplines(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987)ECNUrsquospartnershipwithLaTrobeUniversityinAustraliaissimilarlylong-standingandhasspanned14yearsinvolvingresearchcollaborationandalsotransnationalprogrammepartnershipswherestudentsstudyforthefirsttwoyearsatECNUinChinaandthencompletetheirundergraduateprogrammesatLaTrobeinAustralia
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
ItisworthnotingthatECNUarealsodevelopinganewformofpartnershipandcooperationwithdevelopingcountriesinAsiaLatinAmericaandAfricaIn2015theyestablishedanEducationMasterrsquosProgrammeforDevelopingCountriestargetinguniversitiesinTanzaniaEthiopiaJordanandChileECNUhasastatedaimtoformcloserbilateraltieswiththeemergingAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)ECNUhasanambitiontodevelopitsroleasahubforhighereducationprovisionfordevelopingcountrieschallengingtheWestforitsdominanceineducatingdevelopingnationsandextendingChinarsquosrangeoflsquosoftpowerrsquo(Nye1990)
Xiamen University Reaching out to Asia
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
82 Catherine Montgomery
coastofFujianprovincesouth-eastChinaandishometolargenumbersofoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaThecityislocatedclosetoTaiwanandhistoricallyhasbeenthesiteofconflictbetweenChinaandTaiwanalthoughthishasdevelopedintoamorepeacefulrelationshipwiththeNovember2015historicmeetingbetweentheChinesePresidentXiJinpingandTaiwanrsquosPresidentMaYing-jeou(BBCNews2015)
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina
thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous
(Yang20141)
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible
Notes on the contributor
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
References
AltbachPGandBassettRM(2014)lsquoNixtheBRICsAtleastforthehighereducationdebatersquoInternational Higher Education772ndash5
BBC News (2015) lsquoChina andTaiwan leaders hail historic talksrsquo Online wwwbbccouknewsworld-asia-34742680(accessed8February2016)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
London Review of Education 79
Figure 2 ThenumberofChinesenon-eliteuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Figure 3 ThenumberofChinese211groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
This picture is consistent across the 985 group institutions and Figure 4 demonstrates thatBeijingandShanghaihavemostofthisgroupofeliteuniversitieswiththemajorityofinstitutionsbeingsituatedinthosetwoareasThespreadofthese985groupinstitutionsismoreintenselyconcentratedintheurbanizedregionscomparedtothenon-eliteinstitutions
ThesedatashowthatthereisanoveralldifferenceinthespreadofuniversitiesgenerallyacrossEasternCentralandWesternChinabutthattheunequalspreadofelitehighereducationinstitutionsismoreacutethanthatofthenon-eliteinstitutionswith60percentand72percentrespectivelyofthe211and985groupuniversitiesbeingintheEastcomparedto48percentofthenon-eliteinstitutionsThepictureofunevengeographicaldistributionissimilarfortransnationalhighereducationpartnerships(institutionsthatarereceiversofTNHE)(Hou et al2014)
ThedatapresentedaboveillustratethatthereisanintenselyunequaldistributionofeliteuniversitiesacrosstheprovincesandregionsofChinaItisimportanttonotethatthescaleofruralndashurbanmigrationishugeinChinawiththeChineseNationalBureauofStatisticsestimatingthatbytheendof2009therewere145millionruralmigrantsincityareasofChinawith50
80 Catherine Montgomery
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Figure 4 ThedistributionofChinese985groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
London Review of Education 81
notontheperspectivesofthoseinvolvedinthepartnershipsTheythereforerepresentonlyoneviewofthenatureofthecollaborations
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ECNUhas114formalpartnershipswithinstitutionsinseveralcontinents21inEurope3inAustralia43inAsia45inAmericaand2inAfrica(wwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp)TheconcentrationofECNUrsquospartnershipsreflectitshistoricalcolonialpastandtheuniversityrsquosmostdevelopedandlong-standingpartnershipsarewithFrancetheUSAandAustraliaWithregardtoFranceECNUhasastrongrelationshipwiththeEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresthathaslastedforovertwentyyearsinvolvingjointprogrammesprofessorialexchangeandclosecollaborationinarangeofdisciplinesbutparticularlyinscienceandbusinessdisciplines(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987)ECNUrsquospartnershipwithLaTrobeUniversityinAustraliaissimilarlylong-standingandhasspanned14yearsinvolvingresearchcollaborationandalsotransnationalprogrammepartnershipswherestudentsstudyforthefirsttwoyearsatECNUinChinaandthencompletetheirundergraduateprogrammesatLaTrobeinAustralia
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
ItisworthnotingthatECNUarealsodevelopinganewformofpartnershipandcooperationwithdevelopingcountriesinAsiaLatinAmericaandAfricaIn2015theyestablishedanEducationMasterrsquosProgrammeforDevelopingCountriestargetinguniversitiesinTanzaniaEthiopiaJordanandChileECNUhasastatedaimtoformcloserbilateraltieswiththeemergingAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)ECNUhasanambitiontodevelopitsroleasahubforhighereducationprovisionfordevelopingcountrieschallengingtheWestforitsdominanceineducatingdevelopingnationsandextendingChinarsquosrangeoflsquosoftpowerrsquo(Nye1990)
Xiamen University Reaching out to Asia
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
82 Catherine Montgomery
coastofFujianprovincesouth-eastChinaandishometolargenumbersofoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaThecityislocatedclosetoTaiwanandhistoricallyhasbeenthesiteofconflictbetweenChinaandTaiwanalthoughthishasdevelopedintoamorepeacefulrelationshipwiththeNovember2015historicmeetingbetweentheChinesePresidentXiJinpingandTaiwanrsquosPresidentMaYing-jeou(BBCNews2015)
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina
thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous
(Yang20141)
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible
Notes on the contributor
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
References
AltbachPGandBassettRM(2014)lsquoNixtheBRICsAtleastforthehighereducationdebatersquoInternational Higher Education772ndash5
BBC News (2015) lsquoChina andTaiwan leaders hail historic talksrsquo Online wwwbbccouknewsworld-asia-34742680(accessed8February2016)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
80 Catherine Montgomery
percentofthesebeingyoungpeople(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)Howeverthemajorityoftheseruralmigrantsarelargelyuneducatedwith70percenthavinglessthanahighschoollevelofattainment(NationalBureauofStatistics2011Chianget al2012)GiventhecharacteristicsoftheruralversusurbandivideinChinathisshowsthattheprovisionofhighereducationinChinamirrorstheunequaleconomicdistributionintheurbanEasternandCentralareasofthecountryandsuggestsasociallydifferentiatedaccesstohighereducationandanincreasinglydifferentiatedaccesstoeliteinstitutions(Chianget al2015Marginson2015)ThissupportsthesuggestionofalinkbetweenthedevelopmentofelitegroupsofuniversitiesandeconomicallyadvantagedregionsandpopulationsMarginson(2015)makesalinkbetweeneconomic inequality social ordering and higher education noting that access to elite highereducation islsquosharply stratified by social grouprsquo (Marginson 2015 4)The data included hereonChinaunderlinethispointbyillustratingthatthereisarelationshipbetweengeographicalconcentrationsofeliteinstitutionsinurbanizedareasaccentuatingtheurbanndashruralortoputitcrudelyrichndashpoordivideinChinaandindicatingthatthisisreflectedintheprovisionofelitehighereducation
Figure 4 ThedistributionofChinese985groupuniversitiesindifferentprovinces
Diversity of partnership in the elite Chinese universities Two illustrative cases
ThissectionofthearticleconsiderstwoChineseuniversitiesatcloserrangefocusingoneachindividual institutionrsquosdistinctiverangeandnatureofpartnershipsandcollaborativelinksasameansof illuminating thediversityandcomplexity inpartnershipwithin theelite institutionsofChinaEachuniversityrsquosoverallstrategyisinterpretedfromthepartnershipdataandsomepossible themes that emerge from the range of partnerships are drawn outThe two casesunderlinetheinfluenceofhistoricalgeopoliticalandsocioculturalcontextsonthedevelopmentof international partnershipsAs the data are taken from publicly available documents theuniversitiesarenotanonymizedThelimitationsofthedatashouldbenotedastheseprofilesrelyonthewebpagesoftheuniversitiesandtheuniversitiesrsquodescriptionsoftheformalpartnerships
London Review of Education 81
notontheperspectivesofthoseinvolvedinthepartnershipsTheythereforerepresentonlyoneviewofthenatureofthecollaborations
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ECNUhas114formalpartnershipswithinstitutionsinseveralcontinents21inEurope3inAustralia43inAsia45inAmericaand2inAfrica(wwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp)TheconcentrationofECNUrsquospartnershipsreflectitshistoricalcolonialpastandtheuniversityrsquosmostdevelopedandlong-standingpartnershipsarewithFrancetheUSAandAustraliaWithregardtoFranceECNUhasastrongrelationshipwiththeEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresthathaslastedforovertwentyyearsinvolvingjointprogrammesprofessorialexchangeandclosecollaborationinarangeofdisciplinesbutparticularlyinscienceandbusinessdisciplines(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987)ECNUrsquospartnershipwithLaTrobeUniversityinAustraliaissimilarlylong-standingandhasspanned14yearsinvolvingresearchcollaborationandalsotransnationalprogrammepartnershipswherestudentsstudyforthefirsttwoyearsatECNUinChinaandthencompletetheirundergraduateprogrammesatLaTrobeinAustralia
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
ItisworthnotingthatECNUarealsodevelopinganewformofpartnershipandcooperationwithdevelopingcountriesinAsiaLatinAmericaandAfricaIn2015theyestablishedanEducationMasterrsquosProgrammeforDevelopingCountriestargetinguniversitiesinTanzaniaEthiopiaJordanandChileECNUhasastatedaimtoformcloserbilateraltieswiththeemergingAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)ECNUhasanambitiontodevelopitsroleasahubforhighereducationprovisionfordevelopingcountrieschallengingtheWestforitsdominanceineducatingdevelopingnationsandextendingChinarsquosrangeoflsquosoftpowerrsquo(Nye1990)
Xiamen University Reaching out to Asia
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
82 Catherine Montgomery
coastofFujianprovincesouth-eastChinaandishometolargenumbersofoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaThecityislocatedclosetoTaiwanandhistoricallyhasbeenthesiteofconflictbetweenChinaandTaiwanalthoughthishasdevelopedintoamorepeacefulrelationshipwiththeNovember2015historicmeetingbetweentheChinesePresidentXiJinpingandTaiwanrsquosPresidentMaYing-jeou(BBCNews2015)
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina
thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous
(Yang20141)
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible
Notes on the contributor
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
References
AltbachPGandBassettRM(2014)lsquoNixtheBRICsAtleastforthehighereducationdebatersquoInternational Higher Education772ndash5
BBC News (2015) lsquoChina andTaiwan leaders hail historic talksrsquo Online wwwbbccouknewsworld-asia-34742680(accessed8February2016)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
London Review of Education 81
notontheperspectivesofthoseinvolvedinthepartnershipsTheythereforerepresentonlyoneviewofthenatureofthecollaborations
East China Normal University Bringing the world to Shanghai
EastChinaNormalUniversity (ECNU) is located in Shanghaion the coastof theurbanizedwealthyeastofthecountryShanghaidevelopedinthelateQingDynasty(1644ndash1912)asoneofChinarsquosmajortradingportsandbecameafocalpointofmodernChinaTheBritishAmericansandFrenchestablishedconcessionsinShanghaiinthelate1840sandthecityhadinternationalsettlements thatwereoutofChinese government control (Mitter 2008)As a result of thishistoryShanghaiisamulticulturalcitythathasacolonialatmosphereECNUisthetoplsquonormalrsquo(education)universityinChinaandispartofboththe985and211projects
ECNUhas114formalpartnershipswithinstitutionsinseveralcontinents21inEurope3inAustralia43inAsia45inAmericaand2inAfrica(wwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp)TheconcentrationofECNUrsquospartnershipsreflectitshistoricalcolonialpastandtheuniversityrsquosmostdevelopedandlong-standingpartnershipsarewithFrancetheUSAandAustraliaWithregardtoFranceECNUhasastrongrelationshipwiththeEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresthathaslastedforovertwentyyearsinvolvingjointprogrammesprofessorialexchangeandclosecollaborationinarangeofdisciplinesbutparticularlyinscienceandbusinessdisciplines(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987)ECNUrsquospartnershipwithLaTrobeUniversityinAustraliaissimilarlylong-standingandhasspanned14yearsinvolvingresearchcollaborationandalsotransnationalprogrammepartnershipswherestudentsstudyforthefirsttwoyearsatECNUinChinaandthencompletetheirundergraduateprogrammesatLaTrobeinAustralia
ThemostnotablecharacteristicofECNUrsquospartnershipshoweveristheestablishmentoflargenumbersofresearchandteachingcentresbyinternationalpartnersonoraroundECNUrsquoscampus in Shanghai In 2006 ECNU opened anlsquointernational education parkrsquo that aimed toattractlsquoworld-famousuniversitiestoestablishoverseascampusesandteachingcentresrsquo(wwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987) Since its inception it has attracted more than onethousandinternationalstudentstheEacutecolesNormalesSupeacuterieuresgrouphasestablishedajointgraduateschoolEMLYONBusinessSchool(France)hasestablishedacampusinthegroundsofECNUandcollaborationwiththeUSAhasintensifiedwiththeopeningofNewYorkUniversityShanghaithefirstSinondashUSAjoint-ventureuniversityECNUrsquosapproachtopartnershipistobringtheworldtoShanghaiandthehistoryofthecityanditsmulticulturalpastandpresentmakesthiseasier
ItisworthnotingthatECNUarealsodevelopinganewformofpartnershipandcooperationwithdevelopingcountriesinAsiaLatinAmericaandAfricaIn2015theyestablishedanEducationMasterrsquosProgrammeforDevelopingCountriestargetinguniversitiesinTanzaniaEthiopiaJordanandChileECNUhasastatedaimtoformcloserbilateraltieswiththeemergingAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)ECNUhasanambitiontodevelopitsroleasahubforhighereducationprovisionfordevelopingcountrieschallengingtheWestforitsdominanceineducatingdevelopingnationsandextendingChinarsquosrangeoflsquosoftpowerrsquo(Nye1990)
Xiamen University Reaching out to Asia
XiamenUniversity (XMU) is a research-intensive institutionwith a veryhigh reputation andrankandamemberofboththe985and211groupsItwasfoundedin1921byTanKahKeean overseas Chinese entrepreneur and philanthropist of SoutheastAsia and was the firstChinesehighereducationalinstitutionestablishedbyanoverseasChineseXiamenisontheeast
82 Catherine Montgomery
coastofFujianprovincesouth-eastChinaandishometolargenumbersofoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaThecityislocatedclosetoTaiwanandhistoricallyhasbeenthesiteofconflictbetweenChinaandTaiwanalthoughthishasdevelopedintoamorepeacefulrelationshipwiththeNovember2015historicmeetingbetweentheChinesePresidentXiJinpingandTaiwanrsquosPresidentMaYing-jeou(BBCNews2015)
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina
thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous
(Yang20141)
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible
Notes on the contributor
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
References
AltbachPGandBassettRM(2014)lsquoNixtheBRICsAtleastforthehighereducationdebatersquoInternational Higher Education772ndash5
BBC News (2015) lsquoChina andTaiwan leaders hail historic talksrsquo Online wwwbbccouknewsworld-asia-34742680(accessed8February2016)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
82 Catherine Montgomery
coastofFujianprovincesouth-eastChinaandishometolargenumbersofoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaThecityislocatedclosetoTaiwanandhistoricallyhasbeenthesiteofconflictbetweenChinaandTaiwanalthoughthishasdevelopedintoamorepeacefulrelationshipwiththeNovember2015historicmeetingbetweentheChinesePresidentXiJinpingandTaiwanrsquosPresidentMaYing-jeou(BBCNews2015)
Like ECNU XMU has an extensive list of partnerships with international institutionsXMUrsquoswebsite indicatesthat ithas157 formalpartnerships47 inEurope9 inAustraliaandNewZealand68 inAsia 29 inNorthAmerica and4 inAfrica (wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33)TheconcentrationofXMUrsquospartnershipsareinAsia(with68AsianpartnershipscomparedtoECNUrsquos43)whichappearstoreflectboth itsgeographicpositionin the south-east of China close to the borders of SoutheastAsian countries and also itsdemographicsbeinghometomanyoverseasChinesecommunitiesfromSoutheastAsiaXMUappears to face itself towardsAsia alongside the strengthof its partnershipswith EuropeaninstitutionsXMUalsohasfewerlinkswithAmericathanECNUIt isalsointerestingtonotethat XMU has 22 partnerships withTaiwanese universities reflecting the significance of thegeographicalpositionofthecityinrelationtoTaiwanThisagainunderlinestheroleofgeopoliticsinthedevelopmentofcollaboration
AdistinctiveelementofXMUrsquospartnershipisitsapproachtoreachingouttoSoutheastAsiaXMUisthefirstChineseuniversitytosetupaninternationalbranchcampusabroadIn2014XiamenUniversityopeneditsMalaysiabranchlocatedinthesouth-westofKualaLumpurAswiththebranchcampusopenedbyNottinghamUniversityinNingboinChinathearchitectureof the new campus reflects that of XMU inXiamenThe programmemodules and degreesareconsistentwiththoseatXMUandallcourseswillbetaught inEnglishThestudentswillcomemainlyfromChinaMalaysiaandotherAsiancountries(wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy)XMUissettingahugeprecedentinitscollaborationwithMalaysiaintransnationalhighereducationThisisalsoalandmarkeventinChinesehighereducationpolicyandillustratesagainChinarsquoschanginghighereducationlandscapeparticularlyinitsrelationshipswithothercountries
Concluding remarks
While some characteristics of globalization are promoting common trends across highereducationgloballyitalsoappearstobethecasethatlocaldifferentiationinHEiscontinuing(Ng2012)DespitebeingdrivenbythemarketandglobalrankingsitappearsthatHEpartnershipsare also influenced by a complex combination of geographical and sociocultural contextsUniversitiessuchasEastChinaNormalandXiamenUniversityareinfluencedbytheirhistoryand their communities building partnerships on traditions that support the development oftheircollaborationsThepictureisthusconflictingwhileChinastillretainsastronglsquocatch-uprsquomentalityandaims for itselite institutions topartnerwithdominantWesternpeers suchasOxfordandYale(YangandXie2015)localsocialandculturalfactorswillcontinuetohaveanimpactonthedevelopmentofpartnerships
Whiletheopen-doorpolicyhasenabledmorestudentsfromruralareasinChinatoaccesshighereducationresearchshowsthatyoungpeoplefromruralareasareinamuchlessprivilegedposition in terms of education than those in urbanized areas with access to the universityentranceexaminationtheGaokaobeingeasierforurbanpopulations(Chianget al2015)Themosteliteuniversitiesareinthemosturbanizedandwealthyareasofthecountrysuggestingtheneedforenforcedmobilityforpopulationsinruralareas(Yang2014)WhileaccesstoeducationparticularlyschoolsinruralareasofChinahasexpandedveryrapidlyinrecentyears(Chiang
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina
thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous
(Yang20141)
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible
Notes on the contributor
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
References
AltbachPGandBassettRM(2014)lsquoNixtheBRICsAtleastforthehighereducationdebatersquoInternational Higher Education772ndash5
BBC News (2015) lsquoChina andTaiwan leaders hail historic talksrsquo Online wwwbbccouknewsworld-asia-34742680(accessed8February2016)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
London Review of Education 83
et al2012)geographicmobilityandmigrationisseenasbeinglsquocompulsoryrsquoforaccesstohigh-quality university education (Yang 2014Kong 2010)Theunequal spreadof elite universitiesacrossthedifferentprovincesandregionsofChinamaythusplayaroleinthecontinuanceofinequalityalthoughitisacknowledgedthatthismaybeattributedtoamuchbroaderrangeofcomplexsocialculturalpoliticalandeconomicfactorsthanarecoveredinthisarticle
ItisimportanttonotethatthechangingrelationshipsandpartnershipsbetweenuniversitiesgloballyisnotjustamatterofsystemsandinstitutionalcompetitionbutasMarginson(2014)notesithasanimpactonpeoplersquossocialstatustheireducationalaspirationsandtheirlivesmorebroadlyAsYangpointsoutinthecontextofChina
thehierarchicalstructureoftheeducationalsystemcoupledwiththearduousyetcompulsorymobilityentailedineducationalparticipationshapesthesocialandpoliticalimaginariesofcitizenslivingintheperipherywhoseconnectionswiththecentralstateareotherwisetenuous
(Yang20141)
Acknowledgements
IwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofShanshanGuanJieMaandLuWanginaccessingandtranslatingdatafromtheChineseMinistryofEducationwebsiteAllthreearedoctoralstudentsintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversityofHullstudyingontheChineseScholarshipSchemewiththeuniversityWithouttheirhelpthisstudywouldnothavebeenpossible
Notes on the contributor
CatherineMontgomeryisProfessorofInternationalHigherEducationintheFacultyofEducationattheUniversity ofHull Catherine is a specialist in international and comparative educationwith particularinterestininternationalandtransnationalhighereducationinChinaHongKongandVietnamHermostrecentpublicationsincludeaspecialissueoftheJournal of Education for Teaching (JET)entitledlsquoTransnationalandtransculturalpositionalityinglobalisedhighereducationrsquo(seewwwtandfonlinecomtoccjet20403)which appeared as an edited book published byRoutledge in 2015 and a co-authored article entitledlsquoUnderstandingthetransnationalhighereducationlandscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquointheJournal of Learning and Teaching in the Social Sciences(2015)
References
AltbachPGandBassettRM(2014)lsquoNixtheBRICsAtleastforthehighereducationdebatersquoInternational Higher Education772ndash5
BBC News (2015) lsquoChina andTaiwan leaders hail historic talksrsquo Online wwwbbccouknewsworld-asia-34742680(accessed8February2016)
Bennell P and PearceT (2003) lsquoThe internationalisation of higher education Exporting education todevelopingandtransitionaleconomiesrsquoInternational Journal of Educational Development23(2)215ndash32
CaruanaV and Montgomery C (2015) lsquoUnderstanding the transnational higher education landscapeShiftingpositionalityandthecomplexitiesofpartnershiprsquo Learning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences 8(1)5ndash29
ChiangT-HMengFYeFandYanL(2015)lsquoGlobalisationandeliteuniversitiesinChinarsquoInZantenABallSandDarchy-KoechlinB(eds)World Yearbook of Education 2015NewYorkRoutledge111ndash26
ChiangYHannumEandKaoG(2012)lsquoWhogoeswhostaysandwhostudiesGendermigrationandeducational decisions among rural youth inChinarsquo International Journal of Chinese Education 1 (1)106ndash31
ChinaAlumniNetwork(2014)lsquoChineseUniversitiesEvaluationReportrsquo(2014nianZhongguoDaxuePingjiaYanjiuBaogao)Onlinewwwcuaanet(accessed26May2015)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
84 Catherine Montgomery
DjerasimovicS(2014)lsquoExaminingthediscoursesofcross-culturalcommunicationintransnationalhighereducationFromimpositiontotransformationrsquoJournal of Educationfor Teaching 40(3)204ndash16
EastChinaNormalUniversitypartnershipdataOnlinewwwiedecnueducnlist_enaspclass=7987andwwwiedecnueducnindex_enasp(accessed16November2015)
FangW (2012)lsquoThe development of transnational higher education in ChinaA comparative study ofresearchuniversitiesandteachinguniversitiesrsquoJournal of Studies in International Education16(1)5ndash23
FilippakouOandTapperT(2015)lsquoMissiongroupsandthenewpoliticsofBritishhighereducationrsquoHigher Education Quarterly69(2)121ndash37
GunnAandMintromM(2013)lsquoGlobaluniversityalliancesandthecreationofcollaborativeadvantagersquoJournal of Higher Education Policy and Management35(2)179ndash92
HESA(HigherEducationStatisticsAgency)(2015)Onlinewwwhesaacuk(accessed10January2016)HortaH(2009)lsquoGlobalandnationalprominentuniversitiesInternationalizationcompetitivenessandthe
roleoftheStatersquoHigher Education58(3)387ndash405HouJMontgomeryCandMcDowellL(2014)lsquoExploringthediversemotivationsoftransnationalhigher
educationinChinaComplexitiesandcontradictionsrsquoJournal of Education for Teaching40(3)300ndash18Huang F (2006) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Huang F (ed) Transnational Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific
Region (RIHE International Publication Series no 10 vndashvi) Online wwwacademiaedu11790070Transnational_Higher_Education_in_Asia_and_the_Pacific_Region(accessed10January2016)
mdash(2007)lsquoInternationalizationofhighereducationinthedevelopingandemergingcountriesAfocusontransnationalhighereducationinAsiarsquoJournal of Studies in International Education 11(3ndash4)421ndash32
Kehm B (2014)lsquoGlobal university rankings ndash Impacts and unintended side effectsrsquoEuropean Journal of Education49(1)102ndash12
KongPA(2010)lsquoldquoTowalkoutrdquoRuralparentsrsquoviewsoneducationrsquoGansu Survey of Children and Families PapersOnlinehttprepositoryupennedugansu_papers28(accessed28July15)
LockeW (2014) lsquoThe intensification of rankings logic in an increasingly marketised higher educationenvironmentrsquoEuropean Journal of Education 49(1)77ndash90
MarginsonS(2014)lsquoUniversityrankingsandsocialsciencersquo European Journal of Education 49(1)45ndash59mdash(2015)lsquoIsthisthedeathoftheequalopportunityerarsquoUniversity World NewsMay1Issue365Online
wwwuniversityworldnewscomarticlephpstory=2015042917124158(accessed10January2016)MinistryofEducationofthePeoplersquosRepublicofChina(MoE)(2013a)lsquoCurrentsituationofChinesendashforeign
transnationaleducationsincetheimplementationoftheNationalMediumandLongTermProgramforEducationReformandDevelopmentrsquoOnlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes7598201309156992html(accessed13January2014)
mdash (2013b) lsquoNumber of higher education institutionsrsquo Online wwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes8494201412181729html(accessed26May2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo211Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo211 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoeeducnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoemoe_84620080433122html(accessed25March2015)
mdashlsquoIntroductionofldquo985Projectrdquorsquo (lsquo985 Gongchengrsquo Jianjie)Onlinewwwmoegovcnpublicfilesbusinesshtmlfilesmoes6183201112128828html(accessed25March2015)
MitterR(2008)Modern China A very short introductionOxfordOxfordUniversityPressNationalBureauofStatisticsofChina(2011)lsquo新生代農民工的數量結構和特點rsquoOnlinewwwstatsgov
cntjfxfxbgt20110310_402710032htm(accessed30October2011)NgSW(2011)lsquoCanHongKongexportitshighereducationservicestotheAsianmarketsrsquoEducational
Research for Policy and Practice10(2)115ndash31mdash (2012)lsquoRethinking themissionof internationalizationofhighereducation in theAsia-Pacific regionrsquo
Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education42(3)439ndash59NyeJS(1990)Bound to Lead The changing nature of American power NewYorkBasicBooksOleksiyenkoA (2014)lsquoReconciling tensionsbetweenexcellence access andequity inmultilateralRampD
partnershipsACanadiancollaboratorsrsquoperspectiversquoHigher Education Policy28(2)197ndash214mdash (2015)lsquoInternationalization legacies and collaboration challenges Post-imperial hybrids and political
falloutsinRussianhighereducationrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)23ndash45mdashandYangR(2015)lsquoNixtheBRICsCompetitiveandcollaborativeforcesintheostensiblyldquoblocalizedrdquo
highereducationsystemsrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)1ndash6ShenJ(2015)lsquoMapofChinarsquosprovincesrsquoOnlinewwwgrmcuhkeduhk~jfshen(accessed27July2015)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
London Review of Education 85
Trahar S (2015)lsquoLearning and teaching on transnational higher education programmes inHongKongrsquoLearning and Teaching The International Journal of Higher Education in the Social Sciences8(1)95ndash112
Travel China Guide (2015)lsquoMap of China Provinces amp Citiesrsquo Online wwwtravelchinaguidecommapchina_maphtm(accessed24January2016)
WaughD(2009)Geography An integrated approach4thedCheltenhamNelsonThornesXiamen University Webpages (2014) wwwicexmueducnenglishshowinfoaspxinfo_id=33 And
wwwnewsengxmueducns212t702a153660infojspy(accessed16November2015)YangP(2014)lsquoEmpireatthemarginsCompulsorymobilityhierarchicalimaginaryandeducationinChinarsquos
ethnicborderlandrsquoLondon Review of Education12(1)5ndash19YangRandXieM(2015)lsquoLeaningtowardsthecentersInternationalnetworkingatChinarsquosfiveC9league
universitiesrsquoFrontiers of Education in China10(1)66ndash90
Related articles in London Review of Education
ThispaperwaspublishedinaspecialissueentitledlsquoHighereducationpolicy-makinginaneraofincreasingmarketizationrsquoeditedbyOuraniaFilippakouTheotherarticles inthat issueareasfollows(linksunavailableattimeofpublication)
AinleyP(2016)lsquoTheBusinessStudiesUniversityTurninghighereducationintofurthereducationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
CaruanaV (2016)lsquoResearching the transnational higher education policy landscape Exploring networkpoweranddissensusinaglobalizingsystemrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
DennisCA(2016)lsquoFurthereducationcollegesandleadershipCheckingtheethicalpulsersquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
FilippakouOandTapperT(2016)lsquoPolicy-makingandthepoliticsofchangeinhighereducationThenew1960suniversitiesintheUKthenandnowrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Marginson S (2016)lsquoForewordThepartial shift frompublic toprivate goods inUKhigher educationrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
PalfreymanDandTapperT (2016)lsquoThemarketizationofEnglishhighereducationandthefinancingoftuitionfeesrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
ParryG(2016)lsquoCollegehighereducationinEngland1944ndash1966and1997ndash2010rsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
Salter B Filippakou O andTapperT (2016) lsquoExpanding the English medical schoolsThe politics ofknowledgecontrolrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePCallenderCGroveLandKershN(2016)lsquoManagingthestudentexperienceinEnglishhighereducationDifferingresponsestomarketpressuresrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)
TemplePandcolleagues(2016)lsquoDavidWatson1949ndash2015Alifeinhighereducationrsquo London Review of Education14(1)
WilliamsG(2016)lsquoHighereducationPublicgoodorprivatecommodityrsquoLondon Review of Education14(1)