transportation engineering report

8/9/2019 Transportation Engineering Report

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Economic evaluation

Economic Analysis Equity AnalysisEconomic analysis refers to the evaluation of economic impacts. These

impacts are not limited to market resources (goods traded in a conventionalmarket); they can be any scarce and valued resource, which may include money,land, time, health, safety, comfort, and environmental services such as clean airand water.

Economic analysis generally considers two types of objectives efciency andequity .Efciency assumes that policies should strive to ma!imi"e social wel are , that is,total bene#ts to everybody in society. Equity assumes that policies should insurethat bene#ts and costs are distributed in some way that is considered most fair.

Equity Analysis

There are several ways to evaluate e$uity . Horizontal equity assumes thateverybody should be treated e$ually. Vertical equity assumes that physically,economically or socially disadvantaged people should be favored compared withrelatively advantaged people. %elow are common e$uity objectives that can be usedfor evaluating policies and programs.& Treats everybody equally. ' policy does not arbitrarily favor one group overothers.& User-Pays Princi le. ndividuals bear the costs they impose unless a subsidy isspeci#cally justi#ed.& Pro!ressive wit" res ect to income. ower*income households bene#t relative tohigher*income households.& #ene$ts trans ortation disadvanta!ed. %ene#ts people with disabilities, non*drivers, people who cannot a+ord a car, etc.& %m roves basic mobility. elps satisfy basic mobility (travel that society considersvaluable).

Economic evaluation The general misconception that an economic evaluation must convert all outcomesand impacts of a program into monetary terms, stems from a lack of basicunderstanding about economics as a discipline (as opposed to a topic) and the type

of economic evaluations which are in common use. Economics as a discipline dealswith both inputs and outputs (costs and conse$uences) and it recogni"es that asresources are scarce, choices have to be made. -hoices are currently made basedon many di+erent criteria, some of which are objective and e!plicit and some of which are subjective and implicit. 'n economic evaluation attempts to present andmake e!plicit one set of criteria which may be used in the decision*making process.

The purpose is to provide as much relevant and useful information as possible.esults from an economic evaluation are not intended to, nor should they, be used

as the sole criterion upon which decisions are based.


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There are many types of evaluations which address costs, outcomes, or both.Evaluations which address only costs or only outcomes are considered to be partialeconomic evaluations. E/cacy or e+ectiveness studies are evaluations whichaddress only the outcomes of a program, service or intervention. 0imilarly, a costanalysis is an analysis which e!amines only the cost of a program. Either of thesetypes of evaluations can be $uite detailed and methodologically sound; however, inisolation they only consider one of two important dimensions of evaluation. 'nevaluation which considers both costs and outcomes, and which compares two ormore programs, is considered to be a full economic evaluation.

There are four main types of (full) economic evaluations cost*minimi"ation analysis;cost*e+ectiveness analysis; cost*utility analysis; and cost*bene#t analysis. ' cost*minimi"ation analysis (-1') compares alternative programs where all relevantoutcome measures are e$ual (i.e., e$ual e+ectiveness or e$ual patient $uality of life). ' cost*e+ectiveness analysis (-E') compares alternatives and measures (in

natural units) the primary objective(s) of the program (i.e., morbidity reduction, lifeyears saved, functional ability on a scale). ' cost*utility analysis (-2') comparesalternatives similar as in a -E', but uses a more generic outcome measured directlyon patients (i.e., $uality adjusted life years*3' 4s, healthy years e$uivalent* 4Es).

This type of analysis is preferred when there are multiple objectives of a program,when $uality of life is an important outcome, and when $uality of life and $uantityof life are both important outcomes. The primary advantage of a -2' is that theoutcome measure is more generic, and this is helpful when comparing the relativemerit of many di+erent types of health care programs.

The #nal type of analysis, cost*bene#t analysis (-%'), compares alternatives byusing a generic monetary outcome (i.e., dollars). The indications for using -%' aresimilar as for -2' (i.e., when there are multiple objectives of a program), the maindi+erence being that the subjective judgments regarding the value of healthoutcomes are made by techni$ues like willingness*to*pay (5T6) rather than byutilities (3' 4s, 4Es). 5ith this techni$ue, patients (or sometimes family members,service providers or even policy makers) are asked to e!press the ma!imum amountof money they would be willing to pay to guarantee the outcome of a program. Thisamount is interpreted as the 7value8 of outcomes of the program. 0ince all costsand bene#ts are measured and valued in commensurate units (dollars), the primaryadvantage of a -%' is that the desirability of the program can be determined.

6rovided the outcomes can be measured and valued appropriately, only a -%' can judge whether a program is worthwhile.9or the most part, these basic types of evaluation di+er only in how 7intangible8(unprimed) health outcomes of a program are measured and valued. 's shown in9igure :, there are common elements in all these evaluations. %oth resource inputs(economic costs) and downstream resource savings (economic bene#ts) aremeasured and included in all types of economic evaluations. t is only when thee+ects of a program are also measured and included (-E'), or when the values of 7intangible8 health outcomes are measured in monetary terms (-%') that the


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analyses are considered to be full*blown -E' or -%'. 'lthough the terms -E' and-%' have been used e!tensively in the mental health #eld, these terms have beenused primarily for a narrower de#nition of -E' or -%' (i.e., resources consumed andresources saved or created). 9or e!ample, none of these evaluations attempt tomeasure, in monetary terms, the value to patients of health outcomes per se (i.e.,which is re$uired for a full -%').

Typical Economic Evaluation.


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& 6erception of the real world,& nterpretation of the real world,& Ienerali"ation of speci#c conditions or environments,& 0impli#cation of the system,& 'bstraction of the given objectives, and& Translation of the system into a type of model, following the given objectives.

f a comple! system is being addressed, in which the application of a simple scale ordescriptive model is insu/cient in terms of a deeper e!planation of the real system,a $uantitative approach is often adopted, using a type of mathematical model. 'mathematical model employs the language of mathematics to interpret andrepresent a system and its behavior. The mathematical language used to e!pressthe comple!, real world must be highly abstract. 71athematical notation is a moreprecise language than English. %ecause it is less ambiguous, a mathematical modelis a description which has greater clarity than most verbal models ee FC=H.8

Dnce a mathematical model based on a $uantitative approach is applied in asystems conte!t, the approach is termed 7systems modeling.8 0ystems modelingcan be implemented by a single representative model, or by a combination of interrelated sub models. owever, in any case, either using a single model or usinga group of models, the identi#cation of interrelationships among the systemcomponents should be a prere$uisite for the modeling.

Conventional Transportation Planning

&onventional (also called traditional or business as usual ) transportation planningrefers to current practices for making transport policy, program and investmentdecisions.

'ulti-modal planning refers to decision making that considers various modes(walking, cycling, automobile, public transit, etc.) and connections among modes soeach can #ll its optimal role in the overall transport system. There are severalspeci#c types of transport planning for reJecting di+erent scales and objectives

& Trafc im act studies evaluate tra/c impacts and mitigation strategies for aparticular development or project.

& (ocal trans ort lannin! develops municipal and neighborhood transport plans.

& )e!ional trans ortation lannin! develops plans for a metropolitan region.

& *tate+ rovincial and national trans ortation lannin! develops plans for a large jurisdiction, to be implemented by a transportation agency.

& *trate!ic trans ortation lans develop long*range plans, typically :K*>K years intothe future.


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& Trans ortation im rovement lans ,T%Ps or action lans identify speci#c projectsand programs to be implemented within a few years.

& &orridor trans ortation lans identify projects and programs to be implementedon a speci#c corridor, such as along a particular highway, bridge or route.

& 'ode- or area-s eci$c trans ort lans identi#es ways to improve a particularmode (walking, cycling, public transit, etc.) or area (a campus, downtown, industrialpark, etc.).

A transport planning process typically includes the following steps:

& 1onitor e!isting conditions.

& 9orecast future population and employment growth, and identify major growth

corridors.

& dentify current and projected future transport problems and needs, and variousprojects and strategies to address those needs.

& Evaluate and prioriti"e potential improvement projects and strategies. &


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-onventional transportation planning tends to focus on a speci#c set of options(primarily automobile travel) and impacts (summari"ed in Table ). -ommonly*usedtransportation economic evaluation models, such as 'icro#en&ost , were designedfor highway project evaluation, assuming that total vehicle travel is una+ected andis unsuitable for evaluating projects that include alternative modes or demandmanagement strategies.&onventional trans ortation lannin! tends to ocus on a limited set o im acts.

t"er im acts tend to be overlooked because t"ey are relatively difcult to quanti y ,e.!.+ equity+ indirect environmental im acts + or sim ly out o tradition ,e.!.+

arkin! costs+ ve"icle owners"i costs+ construction delays .

-onventional transportation planning strives to ma!imi"e tra/c speeds, minimi"econgestion and reduce crash rates (generally measured per vehicle*mile) using awell developed set of engineering, modeling and #nancing tools. 1any jurisdictionscodify these objectives in concurrency requirements and trafc im act ees , whichre$uire developers to #nance roadway capacity e!pansion to o+set any increase inlocal tra/c. 'lternatives to roadway e!pansion, such as trans ortation demandmana!ement and multi-modal transport planning, are newer and so have feweranalysis tools.

's a result, conventional planning practices support automobile de endency , whichrefers to transport and land use patterns favoring automobile travel over alternativemodes (in this case, automobile includes cars, vans, light trucks, 02@s andmotorcycles). n recent years transportation planning has e!panded to include moreemphasis on non*automobile modes and more consideration of factors such asenvironmental impacts and mobility for non*drivers. Dne indication of this shift isthat over the last two decades, many "i!"way a!encies have been renamed


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trans ortation a!encies , and have added departments and e!perts related toenvironmental analysis, community involvement and non*motori"ed planning.

Transportation modeling techni$ues are improving to account for a wider range of options (such as alternative modes and pricing incentives) and impacts (such aspollution emissions and land use e+ects). n addition, an increasing portion of transport funds are Je!ible, meaning that they can be spent on a variety of types of programs and projects rather than just roadways.

1ost regions use our-ste models topredict future transport conditions (see9igure :). The region is divided intonumerous trans ortation analysis zones(T'Ls) each containing a few hundred toa few thousand residents. Tri

!eneration (the number and types of trips originating from each T'L) ispredicted basedon generic values adjusted based onlocal travel surveys that count "one*to*"one peak*period trips. These trips areassigned destinations, modes and routesbased on their !eneralized costs(combined time and #nancial costs), withmore trips assigned to relatively cheaperroutes and modes, taking into accountfactors such as travel speeds, congestiondelays and parking costs. Transport

models are being improved in various ways to better predict future travel activity,including the e+ects of various transport and land use management strategies.

Parts of a Four Step Model

Trip eneration 'nswers the $uestion 7how many trips per familyM8 Most important parameter ?umber of members per dwelling unit Trip 6urposes 0urveys to establish

?o of trips as a function of number of people per household, of numberof cars, type of dwelling, residential area


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Trip Distri!utionAnswers the "uestions:

7 ow many trips per familyM8 5here will be generated trips will go toM

nternal vs# E$ternal tripsnternal Trips * those whose origin and destination are con#ned

into a city limitE!ternal trips * those whose destination is beyond city or townlimits

Mode Choice 'nswers the $uestion 75hich transport mode will they chooseM8 1otori"ed vs. ?on*motori"ed trips

Trip Assignment

'nswers the $uestion 75 - D2TE 5 T E4 T'NEM8 Trip 'ssignment period :> hour assignment as '


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9igure = illustrates a typical model output a map showing D0 ratings of majorregional roadways.

Terms and Concepts

& Tra&c congestion can be recurrent (occurs daily, weekly or annually, making iteasier to manage) or non-recurrent (typically due to accidents, special events orroad closures).

' Design vehicle refers to the largest and heaviest vehicle a roadway is designedto accommodate. Passen!er &ar Equivalents (6-E) indicate the tra/c impacts of larger vehicles compared with a typical car.

& A queue is a line of waiting vehicles (for e!ample, at an intersection). ' latoon isgroup of vehicles moving together (such as after tra/c signals turn green).

& Capacity refers to the number of people or vehicles that could beaccommodated. (oad actor refers to the portion of capacity that is actually used.9or e!ample, a load factor of K.GA indicates that GAO of the ma!imum capacity is

actually occupied.

' typical transport planning process de#nes the minimum level*of*serviceconsidered acceptable (typically D0 - or


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consideration to travel conditions e!perienced by other modes. 's a result, it tendsto result in automobile dependency, reducing modal diversity.

& t de#nes transportation problems primarily as tra/c congestion, ignoring othertypes of problems such as inade$uate mobility for non*drivers, the cost burden of vehicle ownership to consumers and parking costs to businesses, accident risk, andundesirable social and environmental impacts.

& t ignores the tendency of tra/c congestion to maintain e$uilibrium (ascongestion increases, tra/c demand on a corridor stops growing), and the impactsof !enerated trafc (additional peak*period vehicle travel that results frome!panded congested roadways) and induced travel (total increases in vehicle travelthat result from e!panded congested roadways). 's a result, it e!aggerates thedegree of future tra/c congestion problems, the congestion reduction bene#ts of e!panding roads, and the increased e!ternal costs that can result from e!pandingcongested roadways.

& t can create a self*ful#lling prophecy by directing resources primarily towardroadway e!pansion at the e!pense of other modes (widening roads and increasingtra/c speeds and volumes tends to degrade walking and cycling conditions, andoften leaves little money or road space for improving other modes).

& 0hort trips (within T'Ls), travel by children, o+*peak travel and recreational travelare often ignored or undercounted in travel surveys and other statistics, resulting inwalking and cycling being undervalued in planning.

n recent years transportation planning has become more multi*modal andcomprehensive, considering a wider range of options and impacts. Transportplanners have started to apply evel*of*0ervice ratings to walking, cycling andpublic transit, and to consider demand management strategies as alternatives toroadway capacity e!pansion.

0ome urban areas have established atransportation hierarchy which statesthat more resource e/cient modes willbe given priority over single occupant

automobile travel, particularly oncongested urban corridors. Thisprovides a basis for shifting emphasisin transport planning, road spaceallocation, funding and pricing to favormore e/cient modes.


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1ulti*modal transportation planning is complicated because modes di+er in variousways, including their availability, speed, density, costs, limitations, and mostappropriate uses (Table >). They are not e$ual substitutes; each is only appropriatefor speci#c users and uses.

0uch analysis is even more comple! because each mode includes varioussubcategories with uni$ue characteristics. 9or e!ample, 7pedestrians8 includepeople standing, walking alone and in groups, using canes and walkers, jogging andrunning, playing, walking pets, carrying loads, and pushing hand carts. Their actualneeds, abilities, impacts and value to society can vary signi#cantly, as indicated in

Table A.

0imilarly, ublic transit (also called ublic trans ortation or mass transit ) includesvarious types of services and vehicles. Table B summari"es the performance of various types of public transit. 'ctual performance depends on speci#ccircumstances; for e!ample costs per trip can vary depending on which costs areincluded (for e!ample, whether major new road or rail improvements are re$uired,whether 6ark*and* ide facilities are included in transit budgets, construction andoperating costs, load factors and types of trips.

1ulti*modal transport planning re$uires tools for evaluating the $uality of eachmode, such as evel*of*0ervice standards which can be used to indicate problems


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and ways to improve each mode. Tables C and G indicate factors that can beconsidered when evaluating di+erent modes.


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Summary of Factors A%ecting Accessi!ility

The table below lists factors that a+ect accessibility and the degree to which theyare considered in current transport planning. 1ulti*modal transportation planningre$uires consideration of all of these factors.

(est Practices The following are recommendations for multi*modal transportation planning

& -onsider a variety of transportation improvement options, includingimprovements to various modes, and mobility management strategies such aspricing reforms and smart growth land use policies. -onsider various combinations


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of these options, such as public transport improvements plus supportive mobilitymanagement strategies.

& -onsider all signi#cant impacts, including long*term, indirect and non*marketimpacts such as e$uity and land use changes. This should at least include

-ongestionoadway costs

6arking costs-onsumer costs

Tra/c accidents3uality of access for non*driversEnergy consumption6ollution emissionsE$uity impacts6hysical #tness and health

and use development impacts-ommunity liability

& mpacts that cannot be $uanti#ed and moneti"ed (measured in monetary values)should be described.

& 1ulti*modal comparisons should be comprehensive and marginal, and shouldaccount for factors such as transit system economies of scale and scope.

& 0pecial consideration should be given to transport system connectivity,particularly connections between modes, such as the $uality of pedestrian andcycling access to transit stops and stations.

& 0pecial consideration should be given to the $uality of mobility options availableto people who are physically or economically disadvantaged, taking into accountuniversal design (the ability of transport systems to accommodate people withspecial needs such as wheelchair users and people with wheeled luggage) anda+ordability.

& ndicate impacts with regard to strategic objectives, such as long*range land useand economic development.

& 2se comprehensive transportation models that consider multiple modes,generated tra/c impacts (the additional vehicle tra/c caused by e!pansion of congested roadways), and the e+ects of various mobility management strategiessuch as price changes, public transit service $uality improvements and land usechanges.

& 6eople involved in transportation decision*making (public o/cials, planningprofessionals and community members) should live without using a personalautomobile for at least two typical weeks each year that involve normal travel


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activities (commuting, shopping, social events, etc.) in order to e!perience the non*automobile transportation system.

)A*+,A- *# .ature of )ailways


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CA lbPyd (=C.: kgPm)('0-E)

GA lbPyd (>:.: kgPm)('0-E)

FK lbPyd (>>.B kgPm)(' ')

KK lbPyd(>F.B kgPm) (' E')

KA lbPyd(A:. kgPm) ?ew 4ork-entral ailroad

A lbPyd(AC.K kgPm) (' E')

F lbPyd(AF.K kgPm) -olorado9uel and ron

:C lbPyd (B=.K kgPm) ?ew 4ork -entral ailroad

=: lbPyd (BA.A kgPm)(' E')

== lbPyd (BB.K kgPm)(' E')

=B lbPyd(BC.A kgPm) -olorado 9uel and

ron>K lbPyd (BF.> kgPm)

(' E')> lbPyd (BF.F kgPm)

(produced by ?ippon (Qapan))AA lbPyd (CB.F kgPm) (no

longerproduction) 6ennsylvania

ailroad

Australia0ome common 'ustralian rail si"es include

=K kgPm(BK.A lbPyd)

=B kgPm(C:.B lbPyd)

>K kgPm(GK.B lbPyd)

>C kgPm(F>.C lbPyd)

AK kgPm ( KK.G lbPyd)A= kgPm ( KB.G lbPyd)BK kgPm ( : lbPyd)BG kgPm ( =C. lbPyd) (no longer

production)

AK kg and BK kg are the current standard, although some other si"es are stillmanufactured.

0istory
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Fuel_and_Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Fuel_and_Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Fuel_and_Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Fuel_and_Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Fuel_and_Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Fuel_and_Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Central_Railroadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Fuel_and_Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Fuel_and_Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_Railroad


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9ish belly edge rails laid on stone blocks

-ross sections of early rails

Early rails were used on horse drawn wagonways , originally with wooden rails, butfrom the CBKs using strap1iron rails , which consisted of thin strips of cast iron#!ed onto wooden rails. These rails were too fragile to carry heavy loads, butbecause the initial construction cost was less, this method was sometimes used to$uickly build an ine!pensive rail line. 0trap rails sometimes separated from thewooden base and speared into the Joor of the carriages above, creating what wasreferred to as a Rsnake head.R owever, the long*term e!pense involved in fre$uentmaintenance outweighed any savings.

These were superseded by cast iron rails that were Janged (i.e. S S shaped) and withthe wagon wheels Jat. 'n early proponent of this design was %enjamin Dutram . ispartner 5illiam Qessop had pioneered the use of R edge rails R in CGF where thewheels were Janged and, over time it was reali"ed that these worked better.

The earliest of these in general uses were the so*called cast iron 2sh !elly railsfrom their shape. ails made from cast iron were brittle and broke easily. They couldonly be made in short lengths which would soon become uneven. Qohn %irkinshaw Ss

G:K patent, as rolling techni$ues improved, introduced wrought iron in longerlengths, replaced cast iron and contributed signi#cantly to the e!plosive growth of railroads in the period G:A*>K. The cross*section varied widely from one line toanother, but was of three basic types as shown in the diagram. The parallel cross*

section which developed in later years was referred to as (ullhead .

1eanwhile, in 1ay G= , the #rst Janged T rail (also called T*section) arrived in'merica from %ritain and was laid into the 6ennsylvania ailroad by -amden and'mboy ailroad . They were also used by -harles @ignoles in %ritain.

The #rst steel rails were made in GAC by obert 9orester 1ushet , who laid themat


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replaced iron for use on railway rail and allowed much longer lengths of rails to berolled.

The 'merican ailway Engineering 'ssociation ( ' E') and the 'merican 0ociety for Testing 1aterials ( '0T1) speci#ed carbon, manganese, silicon and phosphoruscontent for steel rails. Tensile strength increases with carbon content, while ductilitydecreases. ' E' and '0T1 speci#ed K.AA to K.CC percent carbon in CK*to*FK*pound*per*yard (=A to >A kgPm) rail, K.BC to K.GK percent in rail weights from FK to

:K pounds per yard (>A to BK kgPm), and K.BF to K.G: percent for heavier rails.1anganese increases strength and resistance to abrasion. ' E' and '0T1 speci#edK.B to K.F per cent manganese in CK to FK pound rail and K.C to percent in heavierrails. 0ilicon is preferentially o!idi"ed by o!ygen and is added to reduce theformation of weakening metal o!ides in the rail rolling and casting procedures. ' E'and '0T1 speci#ed K. to K.:= percent silicon. 6hosphorus and sulfur are impuritiescausing brittle rail with reduced impact*resistance. ' E' and '0T1 speci#edma!imum phosphorus concentration of K.K> percent.

The use of welded rather than jointed track began in around the F>Ks and hadbecome widespread by the FBKs

**# Classi2cation of )ailways

(ullhead )ail The 2nited Ningdom introduced a type of rail, which was not used elsewhere

*apart from a few 2N designed railways. This was known as R%ullheadR rail that sit inchairs. These were somewhat #gure*G in cross*section wider at top and bottom(known as the head and foot respectively) and smaller in the middle (the web).

n late G=Ks, railway lines in England had a vast range of di+erent patterns. Dne of the earliest lines to use double*headed rail was the ondon and %irmingham

ailway, which had o+ered a pri"e for the best design. f it were true that the railcould be turned over when the running surface became worn, the argument lost itsvalidity as it evolved into the bullhead rail, with a heavier pro#le to the top edge.

The lower edge also wore in patches where it was borne on the chairs. 'lthough itbecame the standard for the %ritish railway system until the mid*:Kth century, thereseems to be nothing in the literature about any other advantages it may have had.%ullhead rail was originally designed with reuse in mind. t was intended that itwould be turned over when the top had worn but this proved impossible becausethe underside also wore where it had been secured to the sleeper. This idea behindbullhead rails that because both the top and bottom of the rails were the sameshape, when one side of the rail became worn, the rail could be turned over to theunused side thus e!tending the railSs lifespan turned out wrong simply because thebottom head turned out to get dented, rendering the original idea useless. 0incenow the turning over re$uirement was no longer needed, bullhead rails came to
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Railway_Engineering_Associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_Internationalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_Internationalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Railway_Engineering_Associationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_Internationalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_International


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have a Jat base (narrower than Jat*bottomed rail), and the top part has curvededges that #t the pro#le of the train wheels. The standard design was an elasticspike with a sprung curved top, which secures the rail. %ullhead rail has to bemounted on a special cast iron RchairR and secured by a spring steel clip called aRkeyR wedged between the rail web and the chair. n traditional %ritish practiceusing bullhead rail, cast metal chairs were screwed to the sleepers. Neys (wedges of wood or sprung steel) were then driven in between chair and rail to hold it in place.

The chairs are secured to the sleepers by Rcoach screwsR. This was commonpractice on %ritish railways until the FAKs, but is now largely obsolete

Flanged T1)ail

ron*strapped wooden rails were used on all 'merican railways until G= . -ol.

0tevens conceived the idea that an all*iron rail would be better suited for building arailroad. e sailed to England, the only place where his Janged T rail (also called T*section) could be rolled. ailways in England had been using a similar rail that theironmasters had produced. n 1ay, G= , the #rst AKK rails, each A feet long andweighing =B pounds per yard, reached 6hiladelphia and were placed in the track,marking the #rst use of the Janged T rail. 'fterwards, the Janged T rail becameemployed by all railroads in the 2nited 0tates. The modern version is made of analloy of steel that is much heavier and stronger than the original rail. -ol. 0tevensalso invented the hooked spike for attaching the rail and the sill plate (tie plate) tothe crosstie (or sleeper). 6resently, the screw spike is being used widely in place of the hooked spike, perhaps because it is possible to install the screw spike by using alabor*saving machine that replaces salaried workers. 't the present time, crosstiesor sleepers constructed of concrete are in use in some places. The use of creosoteas a treatment for wooden cross ties has been declared to be detrimental to thehealth of people and plants. The crossties or sleepers are embedded in ballast inorder to provide stability and drainage.

3ignoles )ail

@ignoles rail is the popular name of the Jat*bottomed rail used internationally forrailway track, recogni"ing engineer -harles @ignoles who established it in %ritain.

-ol. obert . 0tevens, the 6resident of the -amden and 'mboy ailroad, #rstintroduced Jat*bottomed rail in 'merica in G=K. There were no steel mills in'merica capable of rolling long lengths, so it was manufactured in %ritain. -harles@ignoles observed that wear was occurring with steel rails and steel chairs uponstone blocks, the normal system at that time. n G=B he recommended Jat*bottomed rail to the ondon and -roydon ailway for which he was consultingengineer. is rail had a smaller cross*section to the 0tevens rail, with a widerbase than modern rail, fastened with screws through the base. Dther lines thatadopted it were the ull and 0elby, the ?ewcastle and ?orth 0hields, and the


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1anchester and %olton. 5hen it became possible to preserve wooden sleepers withmercuric chloride (a process called RNyanisingR) and creosote, they gave a much$uieter ride and it was possible to fasten the rails directly using clips or rail spikes.

Their use spread worldwide and ac$uired @ignolesS name. The standard form of railused around the world is the RJat bottomR rail. t has a narrower top or RheadR and awide base or RfootR that can rest directly on sleepers. t has a Jat base and canstand upright without support.

The photo below shows a Jat*bottomed rail secured by a 6androl clip to a base plateunder the rail on a concrete sleeper. 9lat bottom rails can also be RspikedR directlyto the sleepers. ' wide*headed nail is driven into the sleeper on each side of the railso that the heads of the spikes hold the foot of the rail. ong stretches of track werelaid in record times across the 20 in the pioneering days of railroad developmentusing this method of securing rails to RtiesR. ?owadays, heavier loads and fastertrains re$uire more sophisticated systems

1i!ure 234 5rassed Track 1i!ure 264 5rooved rail !auntlet track on a street tramway in

The AA track does not need a concrete raft foundation, so under*street utilitiesare still accessible and therefore do not need relocation. The AAis also $uicker tolay, and can be laid one rail at a time to minimi"e tra/c management problems Mannheim, Germany ' grooved rail , groove rail , or girder rail is a special grooved rail designed fortramway or railway track in pavement or grassed surfaces (grassed track or track ina lawn

MA)*A 3*.CE .*4A F+5)ES6 )EP5)T

Transportation forecasting is the process of estimating the number of vehicles orpeople that will use a speci#c transportation facility in the future. 9or instance, aforecast may estimate the number of vehicles on a planned road or bridge , the

ridership on a railway line, the number of passengers visiting an airport , or thenumber of ships calling on a seaport . Tra/c forecasting begins with the collectionof data on current tra/c. This tra/c data is combined with other known data, suchas population, employment, trip rates, travel costs, etc., to develop atra/c demand model for the current situation. 9eeding it with predicted data forpopulation, employment, etc. results in estimates of future tra/c, typicallyestimated for each segment of the transportation infrastructure in $uestion, e.g., foreach roadway segment or railway station.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groove_(engineering)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_surfacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freewayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seaporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groove_(engineering)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_surfacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freewayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seaporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_model


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Tra/c forecasts are used for several key purposes in transportation policy , planning ,and engineering to calculate the capacity of infrastructure, e.g., how many lanes abridge should have; to estimate the #nancial and social viability of projects, e.g.,using cost bene#t * analysis and social impact assessment ; and tocalculate environmental impacts , e.g., air pollution and noise .

F57) STEP M5DE+

@ariations on both the aggregate and disaggregate approaches (see discussionunder Types of 1odels) can be developed and applied as stand*alone travel demandforecasting methods, appropriate for speci#c purposes. 'lternatively, a set of methods can be applied in conjunction with each other to create a larger modelingframework. The four*step 2rban Transportation 6lanning 6rocess (2T66) (5einer,

FFC), #rst developed in the FAKs to forecast automobile travel and now applied inurban areas throughout the world, is an e!ample of such a framework. To predicthow travel patterns will change as a result of future changes in land use patternsand the transportation system, this framework integrates models of various aspectsof travel behavior (e.g., trip*making or mode choice) with spatial information onland use patterns and the transportation network.

The 2T66 is important to understand because it is widely used in transportationplanning. The basis for 2T66 models is the division of the urban area into tra/canalysis "ones (T'Ls), which may correspond to census tracts, and the de#nition of a network of transportation facilities connecting the "ones (9igure ). The network isdescribed by the time and cost of travel, for each mode, between each pair of "ones. nputs include proposed future transportation networks and forecastpopulation and employment characteristics by "one. ' four*step process is thenused to forecast travel

. Trip generation * Total trips generated by persons that start and end in each"one are predicted, based on the population, employment, householdcharacteristics, etc., of the "one;

:. Trip distribution * The trips are distributed among pairs of "ones, usuallybased on a gravity model which distributes trips in inverse proportion to thedistance between "ones;

=. 1ode choice * The trips are allocated among the available travel modes,based on relative characteristics (usually time and cost) of the modes; and

>. ?etwork assignment * The trips are assigned to speci#c links (road segments)in the transportation network, generally based on the shortest time pathbetween two "ones
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viability_studyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_degradationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noisehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_planninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viability_studyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_degradationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise


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. ?etwork


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.ET,5)8 DE3E+5PME.T

The Trans-'< computer model network is a representation of the actual roadwaysystem in place in Ienesee -ounty. oadways included in the model network are allroadways that are functionally classi#ed as collector, minor arterial, principalarterial and freeway. 0ome local streets may be included where more detail wasre$uired to make the model respond reasonably.

n the computer model, each of the streets is described by a series of link attributes.0ome of the attributes are listed below

& 9ree*Jow vehicle operating speed in miles per hour (16 ).

&


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& ?umber of tra/c signals per mile

T)*P E.E)AT*5.

De2nition of Trip Purpose

n this step, the travel forecasting process, the number of daily trips is $uanti#ed forthe study area and each of the T'Ls. 9or the 9lint*Ienesee -ounty study area, dailytrips were divided into four categories

. ome*based 5ork ( %5) * Trips with one end at the home place and one end atthe work place, without an intermediate stop #

:. ome*based Dther ( %D) * Trips with one end at the home*place and one end ata non*work place. ' trip from a personSs home to a shopping center, without anintermediate stop, is a home*based other trip.

=. ?on*home %ased (? %) * Trips with neither an origin nor a destination at apersonSs own home. ' trip from the o/ce to a restaurant for lunch is a non*homebased trip. f a person stops at the day care center on the way to work in themorning, the portion of the trip from home to the daycare center is a home*based other trip and the portion from the daycare center to work is a non*homebased trip. n this scenario, a non*home based trip occurred, even though theprimary origin was the home place and the primary destination was the workplace. 5ithout the intermediate stop, the trip would have been a %5 trip.

?on*home based trips can also be subdivided into ? % work trips and ? % othertrips. 9or e!ample, the trip from an o/ce to a restaurant for lunch would bede#ned as a ? % other trip. ' trip for a vendor from one client to another wouldbe de#ned as a ? % work trip.

>. E!ternal * Trips which have at least one end outside the study area boundary. These trips are further de#ned as

& nternal*to*E!ternal ( *E) * Trips which have a beginning or an ending point,

but not both, outside the study area of Ienesee -ounty.

& E!ternal*to*E!ternal * Trips which have both a beginning and an ending pointoutside Ienesee -ounty, but pass through the county.

Trip eneration )ates

Trip generation rates are factors which are applied to socio*economic data to predict


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the level of trip*making in the study area. The factors applied are derived throughsurveys of trip*making characteristics of various socio*economic data descriptorscompleted in various locations around the state and the country. Trip generationrates applied to each of the socio*economic data descriptors vary because thetravel intensity and characteristics of each descriptor vary. Ienerally

& 0ingle*family dwellings generatemore trips per unit thanmultiple*family dwellings

& etail employment generates more trips per employee than non*retailemployment categories

& etail employment trip generation is generally more intense than dwelling unittrip generation

Trip Distri!ution

Trip distribution is the process through which the productions in each "one areallocated to other "ones, becoming attractions in the study area. 6erson trips withinthe study area were distributed from their production "one to their attraction "onethrough application of the Iravity 1odel. The Iravity 1odel is based on ?ewtonSs

aw of Iravity, which states that the attractive force between two bodies is directlyrelated to the masses of the bodies and inversely related to the distance betweenthem. Translated into travel forecasting, ?ewtonUs law states that the level of tripinteraction between two T'Ls is directly related to the relative si"e of the T'Ls(measured in number of trips) and inversely related to the distance (measured intravel time) between the two "ones.

Ienerally, persons are more willing to travel a greater distance each day for worktrips than they are for daily shopping, school or recreational trips. Thus, a di+erenttrip distribution is completed for each of the trip purposes described previously. Thereasonableness of the Ienesee -ounty trip distribution is measured by comparingthe average trip length from the distribution to average trip lengths for similar*si"ed metropolitan areas.

9 9 Person Trip eneration Summary

Trip 9 9 9 9 9 9Percentag

ePurpose Productions Attractions Trip Ends of Total

ome %ased :FG,KKK :FG,KKK AFB,KKK :K.>O5ork


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ome %ased CB;,KKK CB;,KKK ,A::,KKK A:.KODther?one ome >K=,KKK >K=,KKK GKB,KKK :C.BO%asedTotals ;9< ;9< 9


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assignment is the process by which "one*to*"one trip interchanges are allocated toa speci#c route. The total tra/c on a speci#c roadway segment is a function of thelevel of "one *to*"one interchanges which use the segment to get from their origin"one to their destination "one. The travel paths (routes) are identi#ed as a functionof free Jow travel time and daily roadway capacity.

The Ienesee -ounty regional travel model uses a user*e$uilibrium assignmenttechni$ue, which results in a realistic multi*path assignment of tra/c betweenorigin* destination "one pairs. 'n e$uilibrium assignment replicates the idea thatmost drivers can use a number of routes to get from a speci#c origin to a speci#cdestination. 5hich particular route is selected for the particular trip is dependent onthe level of congestion generally found at the speci#c time that the trip is beingmade. Thus, over the course of a day, drivers may use two, three or four routes toget from a speci#c origin to a speci#c destination.

T)AFF*C *MPACT ASSESSME.T

;# *ntroduction The intention is to establish the minimum re$uirements for the conduct of tra/cimpact assessment(T ').

The consultant will determine the need to prepare a T ' based on an initialassessment of transportation impacts , tra&c generation , and par inggeneration .

9or tra&c generation , The threshold may be taken as KK or more new vehicle trips during the '.1. or 6.1.peak hour as generated by the project.

9or par ing generation , The threshold is a parking de#ciency of one or more parking spaces generated bythe project. Dr when a project might impact an already congested or high*accidentlocation, or when speci#c site access and safety issues are of concern.

'n analysis can be prepared for any type of developments such as residential,commercial, o/ce, industrial or mi!ed*use project. ' T ' usually needs to be

submitted by a developer before any changes in land use "oning, subdivision maps,site plan or new driveways are approved. f a T ' is not needed the -ityP1unicipal6lanning and


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Determination ofScope of ,orC

D a t a C o l l e c t i o n

* 6 r i m a r y d a t a ( e . g . , t r a / c s u r v e y s )

* 0 e c o n d a r y d a t a

Tra&c *mpactAnalysis

* (ntersection and 'rterial-apacity

analysis* 'ssessment of

infrastructure

Tra&c *mpactMitigation

1 *denti2cation ofmitigation measures

1 Tra&c managementplan

B# ,hen Should Transportation *mpact Analysis !e Prepared

B#; eneral' T ' should start in the earliest planning stages of a project, including at site

selection. This would assist in the preparation of a more responsive and cost e+ective siteplan.& 5hen a speci#ed amount of area is being re"oned.& 5hen development contains a speci#ed number of dwelling units or s$uarefootage.& 't the judgment or discretion of the sta+.& 5hen development will occur in a sensitive area.

& 5hen #nancial assessments are re$uired and the e!tent of impact must bedetermined.

' T ' is typically appropriate for the following local processes& Loning and re"oning application.& and subdivision application.& Environmental assessment.& 0ite plan approval.


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& 0pecial*purpose districts.&


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(ureau EM(G and the .ational Center for Transportation Studies .CTSG of the 2niversity of the 6hilippines as $uali#ed to prepare T ' may undertake impactassessment. -erti#cation re$uires that the person or persons undertaking the T 'will have the ade$uate background to conduct the study. 'de$uate background isde#ned as a person holding at least a masterUs degree in transportation or its

e$uivalent in terms of training and professional e!perience.

0imilarly, the same minimum $uali#cations must be true of the city ormunicipal T*A evaluator sG . These evaluators may comprise a committee formedby the local government to review andPor evaluate the tra/c impact of development proposals.

# Scope of ,or

#; eneral

The City or Municipal Planning and Development 5&ce CPD5 orMPD5G will evaluate and approve the proposed scope of work for a T '. 2ponapproval of scope of work, the consultant may proceed with the work and prepare a

T ' report.


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The CJMPD5 should designate and maintain maps of 0igh Tra&c *mpactAreas 0T*AG within their jurisdiction. T 's are those that have 7 specialsensitivity to tra&c condition changes due to e$isting congestionA to AA km per hour), but it is uncommon that acommercial ship will travel faster than :A knots due to energy re$uirements .

c. Speciali/ation of ships .Economies of scales are often linked with speciali"ation. %oth

processes have considerably modi#ed maritime transportation. n time, shipsbecame increasingly speciali"ed to include general cargo ships, tankers , graincarriers, barges ,mineral carriers , bulk carriers, i$ue#ed ?atural Ias ( ?I)carriers, D* D ships (roll*on roll o+; for vehicles) and container ships .

d. Ship design# 0hip design has signi#cantly improved from wood hulls, to wood hulls

with steel armatures, to steel hulls (the #rst were warships) and to steel,aluminum and composite materials hulls. The hulls of todayUs ships are theresult of considerable e+orts to minimi"e energy consumption, constructioncosts and improve safety. months (container and crude carriers) and year to build (cruise

ship).

e# Automation#


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=. 1' T 1E E-D?D1 -0 The main advantage of maritime transportation is obviously its economies of scale, making it the cheapest per unit of all transport modes, which #ts wellfor heavy industrial activities . Dn the other hand, maritime transportation has oneof the highest entry costs of the transport sector. Typically, a ship has an economic

life between A and :K years and thus represents a signi#cant investment that mustbe amorti"ed.

The operation of the maritime transport system re$uires #nancing that cancome from two sources

6ublic. The public sector is commonly responsible for guidance infrastructures(beacons and charts), public piers, dredging, and security and in severalcases of the administration of ports (under the umbrella of port authorities).

6rivate. The private sector is mostly concerned about speci#c facilities suchas piers, transshipment infrastructures and ships, which are commonly owned

by private maritime companies.

S0*P A.D CA) 5 T-PES;# S0*P

0ince the end of the age of sail a ship has been anylarge buoyant marine vessel . 0hips are generally distinguished from

boats based on si"e and cargo or passenger capacity. 0hips are usedon lakes , seas , and rivers for a variety of activities, such as the transport of people or goods , #shing , entertainment , public safety , and warfare .

istorically, a RshipR was a vessel with sails rigged in a speci#c manner.

T-PES 5F S0*PS'. -ommercial @essels

The global maritime shipping industry is serviced by about ::,KKK vessels. There are four broad types of ships employed around the world

;# Passenger vessels There are two types of passenger vessels

a# 6assenger ferries , where people are carried acrossrelatively short bodies of water in a shuttle*type service

!# -ruise ships, where passengers are taken on vacationtrips of various durations, usually over several days.

9# (ul s carriers1 are ships designed to carry speci#c commodities, andare di+erentiated into li$uid bulk and dry bulk vessels. They includethe largest vessels aJoat.
http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/lakersteelco.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_sailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_vesselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_shiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruise_shiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast_guardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warshiphttp://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/ferrylehavre.htmlhttp://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/lakersteelco.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_sailhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_vesselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_shiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruise_shiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast_guardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warshiphttp://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/ferrylehavre.html


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B# eneral cargo ships1 are vessels designed to carry non*bulk cargoes. The traditional ships were less than K,KKK dwt, because of e!tremelyslow loading and o+*loading. 0ince the FBKs these vessels have beenreplaced by container ships because they can be loaded more rapidlyand e/ciently, permitting a better application of economies of scale .

=# )oll on1)oll o% )5)5G vessels1 which are designed to allow cars,trucks and trains to be loaded directly on board. Driginally appearingas ferries, these vessels are used on deep*sea trades and are muchlarger than the typical a ferry. The largest are the car carriers thattransport vehicles from assembly plants to the main markets.

# Special1purpose vessels are not used for transport but for othertasks. E!amples include tugboats , pilot boats , rescue boats , ships,research, survey vessels , and icebreakers .

%. ?aval @essels?aval vessels are those used by a navy for military purposes. There

have been many types of naval vessel . 1odern naval vessels can be brokendown into three categories surface warships , submarines , and support andau!iliary vessels .

. Aircraft Carriers are ships out#tted with a Kight dec ** a runwayarea for launching and landing airplanes.

:. Cruiser is a fast, large warship with light armor and heavy#repower. -ruisers are designed to destroy other surface vessels,

submarines, and aircraft.=. Destroyer is a class of warship very fast relative to its length,generally e$uipped with torpedoes, antisubmarine e$uipment, and medium*caliber and antiaircraft guns.

>. Frigate< warship, usually of >,KKK to F,KKK displacement tons, thatis smaller than a destroyer and used primarily for escort duty.

A. Corvette< fast, lightly armed warship, smaller than a destroyer,often armed for antisubmarine operations.

B. Su!marine , vessel that is capable of operating submergedC. Amphi!ious Assault Ship< an assault ship which is designed for

long sea voyages and for rapid unloading over and on to a beach.

-. 9ishing @essels9ishing vessels are a subset of commercial vessels, but generally small in si"e

and often subject to di+erent regulations and classi#cation. They can be categori"edby several criteria architecture, the type of #sh they catch, the #shing methodused, geographical origin, and technical features such as rigging.
http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/containerships.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tugboathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_boathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rescue_boathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survey_vesselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icebreakerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_naval_vesselshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_naval_ship_classes_in_servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_submarine_classes_in_servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_auxiliary_ship_classes_in_servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_auxiliary_ship_classes_in_servicehttp://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch3en/conc3en/containerships.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tugboathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_boathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rescue_boathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survey_vesselhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icebreakerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_naval_vesselshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_naval_ship_classes_in_servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_submarine_classes_in_servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_auxiliary_ship_classes_in_servicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_auxiliary_ship_classes_in_service


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'llure of the 0eas is , GG feet (=B: m) long, has a tonnage of ::A,KKK grosstons, and carries around A,BKK people. The ship features telescoping funnels, a two*deck dance hall, a theatre with ,=GK seats, and an ice skating rink.

+argest (ul Carrier in the world M! (E$GE !TA'" o )%$*A+

The , :: ft or =>= meters long ship has a capacity of =B>,CBC metric tonsdeadweight (.= million


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-onsistency is the most important single rule in highway design. That is, bymaking every element of the roadway conforms to the e!pectation of every driver.

. ?umerous policy statements and guides

''0 TD publications are authoritative. eferences are made in these booksand periodic manuals. The association also publishes the ''0 TD $uarterly reportson current ighway and Transportations subject including trends in forecast andlegislation.

oads and ighways are de#ned as strips of land that have been cleared andfurther improved for the movement of people and goods.

)5AD# oad has somewhat broader application in usage while generally used todescribe a public thoroughfare. t can also refer to railways.0* 0,A-# The term was #rst used in England to describe a public road built bydigging ditches on both sides and heaping up the earth in the middle creating a wayhigher than the adjacent land. ighway now connotes, a higher state of development than road, but the words are almost interchangeable.


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E$pressway is a divided arterial highway for through tra/c with full or partialcontrol or access and generally provided with grade separation at majorintersections.Freeway is an e!pressway with full control of access.Control of Access is a condition where the rights of owners or occupants of adjoining land or other personUs access to light, air or view in connection with ahighway is fully or partially controlled by public authority.Full Control of Access Z The authority to control access is e!ercised to givepreference to through tra/c by providing access connections to selected publicroads only. -rossing at grade or direct private driveway connections is notpermitted.Partial Control of Access Z The authority to control access is e!ercised to givepreference to through tra/c. 'lthough in addition to access connections withselected public roads, there may be some crossings at grade and some privatedriveway connections allowed.Through Street or Through 0ighwa y Z every highway or portion thereof onwhich vehicular tra/c is given preferential right of way, and at the entrance towhich vehicular tra/c from intersecting highways is re$uired by law to yield right of way to vehicles on such through highway in obedience to either stop sign or yieldsigns erected thereon.Par way Z is an arterial highway for non*commercial tra/c, with full or partialcontrol of access usually located within a park or ribbon park*like development.Arterial Street Z is an arterial route that carries tra/c to the nearest access pointor through tra/c. t often serves as the most advantageous routes for relativelylong distance travel. 1ost arterial streets are e!isting highways of considerablelength along which cross tra/c is regulated by signals or stop but often withrestrictions on entry and e!it points. 'rterial street is considered as a 7make do8substitute for controlled access facilities when tra/c volume e!ceeds about :K,KKKvehicles per day.

(asic Considerations in Planning Arterial )oadways. 0election of the routes.

:. 0tudies of the tra/c volume.=. Drigin and destination.>. 'ccident e!perienced.A. 5idth should not be less than Ameters.B. 1ust carry at least one lane of tra/c in each direction.

C. 0hould be at least one kilometer in length.G. 0hould skirt neighborhood areas rather than penetrate them.F. Dn grid design system streets, arterials are spaced at about BKK to FKK

meters apart.K.5here accident ha"ard is not a factor, the minimum volume to justify arterial

road is =KK vehicles per average hour during the day, and >AK vehicleshourly during peak periods.


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0ometimes, peak hour tra/c volume on designated arterial road e!ceeds thecapacity of two way streets, and to increase the arterial capacity, the followingsolutions are enforced.

. . eft turns are eliminated on congested intersections.A. The direction of tra/c is reversed in the center lane to provide more lanes in

the direction of heavier tra/c Jow.

Collector Street from smaller mesh grid pattern where passengers are picks upfrom service streets and carried to the arterials. arge commercial enterprises oramusement facilities like drive in theatres are mostly fronting arterial roads.+ocal )oad is de#ned as street or road primarily to residences, business, or otheradjoining properties. t is also de#ned as a road constructed and maintained by the

local government.0ighway Capacity is de#ned as the ma!imum number of vehicles that arereasonably e!pected to pass a given point over a given period of time usuallye!pressed as vehicles per hour.

. 2nder ideal conditions, one freeway lane can accommodate about :,KKKpassengersU cars per hour.

:. Two Z lane road can carry up to ,KKK passengersU cars per hour in eachdirection.

There is an obvious relationship between vehicle speed and highway capacity. 'sthe volume of tra/c approaches capacity, the average speed is markedly reduced.

''


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maintained over a s eci$ed section o t"e "i!"way w"en weat"er and trafcconditions are so avorable t"at t"e desi!n eatures o t"e "i!"way !overns.9

%asic


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9'- T4 2 %'? NmPhr. 2 ' NmPhr.

9reeway'rterial

-ollectorsocal

GK*FA preferred

B>*FA but >G in built upareas

>G kmPhr. =:*>G kmPhr.

K*FA

mountainous GK* K

0ee Table :*: 0ee Table :*:

TA(+E 919 AAS0T5 M*.*M7M DES* . SPEED8M# J 0)# F5) )7)A+ C5++ECT5)S A.D +5CA+ )5ADS

(ASED 5. C7))E.T ADT

-lass

Terrain'verage KKBK>A=K

>KK*CAK

CABK>A

CAK*:KKK

CABK>A

:KKK*>KKK

CACABK

Dver>KKK

FKCABK

K*AK>A=K=K

AK*:AK>A>A=K

:AK*>KK

BK>A=K

Dver>KK

CABK>A

C)5SS SECT*5. 5F T-P*CA+ 0* 0,A- The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of variables to consider such as

;# The volume of tra/c9# -haracter of the tra/cB# 0peed of the tra/c=# -haracteristics of motor vehicles and the driver


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ighway design usually adopted cross section that is uniform in thickness fromend to end of the improvement. This is acceptable on high volume tra/c roadfacilities. 9or low volume tra/c facilities, modi#cations of the features like theshoulders width in rough areas are usually employed to reduce costs. ' cross

section design generally o+ers the e!pected level of service for safety and a recentstudy showed that

;# ' C.:K meters wide pavement has GO less accident compared withpavement narrower than A.AK meters wide.

9# ' C.:K meters wide pavement has >O fewer accidents than B.KK meters wideroadway.

B# 'ccident records showed no di+erence between the B.BK meters and the C.:Kmeters wide pavement.

=# 9or the B.KK meters, B.BK meters and C.:K meters wide pavement with :.CKto =.KK meters wide shoulder, recorded accident decreases by =KO comparedto K to .BK meters wide shoulder. 'nd :KO compared with a .FK to .:Kmeters wide shoulder.

t appears that, the above di+erence in accident potentials may not justifyhigher standard, particularly, when tra/c volume is low. ' driverUs instinct whenovertaking or allowing other cars to overtake or meeting oncoming vehicles is tolook at the surface width of the highway, and see the kind of surface where toposition his car.

Driginally, the total surface width of the roadway was only >.AK meters, butdue to the increased number of vehicles using the roadway, the width was adjustedto >.GK to A.>K meters. ately, the width of the road was standardi"ed to =.KKmeters for #rst class paved one lane highway, and now =.BK meters wide surfacewas adopted standard for freeway and major tra/c roadways, although there arestrong demand to increase it further from =.BK to >.:K meters.

9or Two +ane )ural 0ighways< a C.:K meters wide surface is re$uired tosafe clearance between commercial vehicles and is recommended for mainhighways.

9or Collector )oadway< B.KK meters wide surface is acceptable only for lowvolume tra/c including few trucks traveling thereon.

9or +ocal )ural )oadway< the minimum surface width is >.GK meters for a=K kmPhr. design speed.

9or 7r!an )oadway< the minimum design width is =.BK meters although=.KK meters is allowed where space is limited.


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C. 9or rural and urban arterials, G.KK meters median or wider is preferredbecause it allows the use of independent pro#les and at the same timeminimi"es cross over accident.

G. 1edians with B to G meters wide allow drivers to cross each roadwayseparately. ' >.: to B.BK meters median width provides protection for turning

vehicles.F. -urved median with .:K to .GK meters width serves as partition* separationof opposite tra/c control devices.

K.The width of a traversable median should be wide enough to prevent vehiclesrunning out of control from reaching the opposite tra/c.

.The A to :> meters distance between landed edges is favored, but speci#cvalue is not stipulated.

:.-ross slope of the median should not be greater than B but preferably K .=..

1or ;arrow 'edian+ t"ere are our means o reducin! cross median accidents4

. 6rovide deterring devices:. 6rovide non* traversable energy absorbing barriers=. 6rovide non* traversable rigid barriers>. 6rovide I.1. barriers

Deterring Devices Z Two sets of double strip painted on the e!isting pavement,raised diagonal bars, low curbing and shallow ditches..on1 Traversa!le Energy A!sor!ing Devices# The line chain link fence meterhigh supported by steel post augmented by cables at the bottom and midpoint. ;ontraversable ri!id barriers are metal !uard rail.

#M# (arriers . ' high non*mountain sloped face concrete barriers called ?ew Qersey. t is cast or e!truded in place or precast in section and set in position by

crane.

T0E )ADE +*.EIrade line is de#ned as the longitudinal pro#le of the highway as a measure

how the centerline of the highway rises and fall. The grade line appears on a pro#le taken along the road centerline. t is a

series of straight lines connected by parabolic vertical curves to which straightgrades are tangent.

n laying the grade line, the designer must consider the following. 5here earthwork is minimal and consistently meeting sight distances in

relation to grade line. Economy is one main consideration.:. n mountainous areas, the grade line must be considered balanced

e!cavation against embankments to get the minimum overall cost.=. n Jat area, the grade line is set almost parallel to the ground surface but

su/ciently above the ground for drainage purposes.>. 2ndesirable native soil should be provided with su/cient covering.A. Irade line elevations along the river or stream, is governed by the e!pected

level of water Jood.


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)EC5MME.DED P5+*C- 5. E5MET)*C DES* .

. The B slope ratio could be adopted on embankment, less than .:K metershigh and > ratio on a higher #ll.

:. The : slope is allowed to heights greater than B.KK m.=. -ut slope should not be steeper than : ratio e!cept on solid rock or special

kind of soil.

The ''0 TD policy stipulated that where cut or #ll slopes intersect the originalground surface, cross section must be rounded to blend the slope with the naturalground surface. 5hen the side slope re$uires embankment with suitable retainingwall, any of the following materials could be used depending upon the naturalconditions.

. and placed stones.:. -ement rubbles masonry.


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=. -oncrete blocks.>. -onventional reinforced concrete.A. T or counter forted designs.B. -ribs assembled from timber.C. 6recast concrete.G. 1etal elements.F. Tied back piling

K.Earth reinforced with metal or plastic bands.

.7M(E) 5F +A.ES

The number of lanes in a segment of the highway is determined from theestimated tra/c volume for the design year (''


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oad alignment should be consistent. 'n abrupt change from Jat to sharpcurve and long tangents followed by sharp curve should be avoided because it willonly create ha"ard and invite accident. 0imilarly, designing circular curves of di+erent radius from end to end or compounded curve is not a good practice, unlesssuitable transitions between them are provided.

To have a short tangent between two curves is also a poor practice. ' longJat curve is acceptable at all times. t is pleasing to loot at, with less probability of future obsolescence. 'lignment should be provided with tangent because there aredrivers who hesitate to pass on curves. ' short curve appears like links. ' long Jatcurve is preferred for small changes in direction.

*S+A.D

'n island is a de#ned area between tra/c for control of vehicle movementand for pedestrian refuge. 5ithin an intersection, median is considered an island.

This de#nition makes evident that an island is no single physical type.

t may range from an area delineated by barrier curb to a pavement areamarked by paint. Dn at*grade intersection in which tra/c is directed into de#nitepaths by island is termed as -hanneli"ed ntersections.

sland is included in the design of intersections for the following purposes

. 0eparation of vehicular Jows:. 0eparation of conJicts=. eduction in e!cessive pavement areas>. eduction of tra/c and indications of proper use of intersectionsA. 'rrangement to favor a prominent turning movementB. ocation of tra/c control devices

To con#ne vehicles in a de#nite location without proper route for vehicles andpedestrian, everyoneUs action could not be predicted by others and these are

usually the main cause of confusion which leads to accidents.

%y channeli"ation, the angle or route between intersecting streams of tra/ccan be smooth and favorable.


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5hen cross tra/c meets at Jat angle, head on collision could be moreserious. ' right angle at CA o to KA o is most favorable giving the driver thatopportunity to asses or calculate the position and speed of oncoming vehicles. %ychanneli"ation, funneling is also e+ective in preventing overtaking and passing inconJict areas. ' well studied super elevation is an important adjunct to

channeli"ation that regulates the vehicle speed and

. 6rohibited turns are prevented.:. efuge may be provided for turning or crossing vehicles and pedestrian.=. %y channeli"ation, refuge may be provided for turning or crossing vehicles

and pedestrians.>. The drivers has to face only one decision at a time, hence, conJicts can be

avoided.A. t provides location for the tra/c control devices like signs, signals and

refuge for pedestrians.


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9 I2 E :*:B IE?E ' T46E0'?< 0 '6E0 D9 '? 0 '?

transportation engineering report

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