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A

ReportOn

Practical Training

AtBHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED

SESSION 2010-2011

SUBMITTED BY :-

PRIYA GUPTA

B.Tech

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION

MAHARISHI ARVINDINSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

JAIPUR,RAJASTHAN(AFFILIATED TO RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,KOTA)



ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank from heart the technical team of BHARAT HEAVY

ELECTRICALS LIMITED who put their sincere efforts to realize us the

core concepts of telecommunication industry with blend of both practical

and theoretical knowledge.

I feel profound happiness in forwarding this training report to your esteemed

organization.

I would like to thank the honorable members as follows:-

Mr. Akshay Kumar Circle Head

Mr. Mahesh Singh Project Manager

Mr. B. C. Sharma Incharge/Vocational Training

Without all of them it is never being possible for me to accomplish my

whole Training Span in such a well reputated

Telecom company

Heartly thanks for your kind and humble support during the training time.



TTAABBLLEE OOFF CCOO N NTTEE N NTTSS

y Company profile About

Certifications

Contributions

Plants in BHEL

Vision and Mission

y Networking

Local Area Network Wide Area Network

y History of LAN

y OSI reference model Layers

OSI Model

y Protocols TCP/IP

UDPComparision between TCP and UDP

y IP Address Dynamic

Static

Domain names

y LAN Topologies

y Types of LAN Technology Ethernet

Fast Ethernet

Gigabyte Ethernet

10 Gigabyte Ethernet

Token Ring



y LAN Devices Modem

Server

UTP

Cable Grade Capability Network Interface Cards

Ethernet Switches

Repeaters

Hub

Bridges

Router

LAN Extender

y Conclusiony Bibliography



COMPANY PROFILE

ABOUT:-

BHEL is the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise in India in the

energy-related/infrastructure sector, today. BHEL was established more than

40 years ago, ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment

industry in India - a dream that has been more than realized with a well-

recognized track record of performance. The company has been earning profits continuously since 1971-72 and paying dividends since 1976-77.

BHEL manufactures over 180 products under 30 major product groups and

caters to core sectors of the Indian Economy viz., Power Generation &

Transmission, Industry, Transportation, Renewable Energy, etc. The wide

network of BHEL's 14 manufacturing divisions, four Power Sector regional

centres, over 100 project sites, eight service centres, 18 regional offices and

one subsidiary enables the Company to promptly serve its customers and

provide them with suitable products, systems and services -- efficiently and

at competitive prices. The high level of quality & reliability of its products is

due to the emphasis on design, engineering and manufacturing to

international standards by acquiring and adapting some of the best

technologies from leading companies in the world, together with

technologies developed in its own R&D centres.



Established in the late 50¶s, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) is,

today, a name to reckon with in the industrial world. It is the largest

engineering and manufacturing enterprise of its kind in India and one of the

leading international companies in the power field. BHEL offers over 180

products and provides systems and services to meet the needs of core sectors

like: power, transmission, industry, transportation, oil & gas, non-

conventional energy sources and telecommunication. A wide-spread

network comprising 14 manufacturing divisions, 8 service centres, 4 power

sector regional centres, 18 regional offices, besides a large number of project

sites spread all over India and abroad, enables BHEL to be close to its

customers and cater to their specialised needs with total solutions -

efficiently and economically. An ISO 9000 certification has given the

company international recognition for its commitment towards quality. With

an export presence in more than 60 countries, BHEL is truly India¶s

industrial ambassador to the world.

CERTIFICATIONS:-

BHEL has acquired certifications to Quality Management Systems (ISO

9001), Environmental Management Systems (ISO 14001) and Occupational

Health & Safety Management Systems (OHSAS 18001) and is also well on

its journey towards Total Quality Managementy Installed equipment for over 90,000 MW of power generation -- for

Utilities, Captive and Industrial users.

y Supplied over 2,25,000 MVA transformer capacity and other

equipment operating in Transmission & Distribution network up to

400 kV (AC & DC).

y Supplied over 25,000 Motors with Drive Control System to Power

projects, Petrochemicals, Refineries, Steel, Aluminum, Fertilizer,

Cement plants, etc.

y Supplied Traction electrics and AC/DC locos to power over 12,000

kms Railway network.

y Supplied over one million Valves to Power Plants and other



Industries.

y BHEL's operations are organised around three business sectors,

namely Power, Industry - including Transmission, Transportation and

Renewable Energy - and Overseas Business. This enables BHEL tohave a strong customer orientation, to be sensitive to his needs and

respond quickly to the changes in the market.

y BHEL's vision is to become a world-class engineering enterprise,

committed to enhancing stakeholder value. The company is striving to

give shape to its aspirations and fulfill the expectations of the country

to become a global player.

y The greatest strength of BHEL is its highly skilled and committed

42,600 employees. Every employee is given an equal opportunity todevelop himself and grow in his career. Continuous training and

retraining, career planning, a positive work culture and participative

style of management all these have engendered development of a

committed and motivated workforce setting new benchmarks in terms

of productivity, quality and responsiveness.

CONTRIBUTIONS:-

BHEL has joined the Global Compact of United Nations and has

committed itself to support it and the set of core values enshrined in its ten

principles. The Global Compact is a partnership between the United

Nations, the business community, international labour and NGOs. It

provides a forum for them to work together and improve corporate practices

through co-operation rather than confrontation.

BHEL s contributions towards Corporate Social Responsibility till date

include adoption of villages, free medical camps/charitable dispensaries,

schools for the underprivileged and handicapped children, ban on child

labour, disaster/natural calamity aid, Employment for handicapped, Widow

resettlement, Employment for Ex-serviceman, irrigation using treated



sewage, pollution checking camps, plantation of millions of trees, energy

saving and conservation of natural resources through environmental

management.

BHEL had organized three special sessions of Joint Committee in

Workshop format during the years 2004, 2006 and 2008. The themes of

these workshops were

y Enhancing organizational effectiveness

y Roadmap to excellencey Increasing effectiveness of the employees and Tackling

Business challenges.

Syndicate groups were formed on various topics like strengthening of

participative fora, percolation of discussions in the Joint Committee to Plant

level, multi-skilling, redeployment, effective utilization of critical machines,

enhancing the productive time of man and machines, reduction in rejectionand rework, maintenance and upkeep of machines, three shift working,

enhancing productivity of employees, dissemination of company

information, cost cutting measures at workplace and wastage control,

improving quality and bringing quality consciousness among employees,

reduction in cycle time, and sequential supplies from Units. During the Joint

Committee meeting held in August, 2009, a booklet compiling the

suggestions/recommendations given by the various syndicate groups during

various workshops was released.

At the Unit level, workshops with the theme of "Improving Production and

Productivity" were held wherein the participants were from all categories of

employees. They gave suggestions on cost reduction, meeting the production

targets, sequential deliveries and quality of goods. The involvement of all

the cadres in the workshop had a positive impact on the working in the units.



BHEL, ranking among the major power plant equipment suppliers in the

world, is one of the largest exporters of engineering products & services

from India. Over the years, BHEL has established its references in around

60 countries of the world, ranging from the United States in the West to

New Zealand in the Far East. BHEL's export range covers individual

products to complete Power Stations, Turnkey Contracts for Power Plants,

EPC Contracts, HV/EHV Sub-stations, O&M Services for familiar

technologies, Specialized after-market services like Residual Life

Assessment (RLA) studies and Retrofitting, Refurbishing & Overhauling,

and supplies to manufacturers & EPC contractors.

BHEL has assimilated and updated/adopted the state-of-the-art-technologies

in the Power and Industrial equipment sectors acquired from worldleaders. BHEL has successfully undertaken turnkey projects on its own and

possesses the requisite flexibility to interface and complement international

companies for large projects, and has also exhibited adaptability by

manufacturing and supplying intermediate products to the design of other

manufacturers and original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). The success

in the area of rehabilitation and life extension of power projects has

established BHEL as a reliable alternative to the OEMs for such power

plants.

PLANTS IN BHEL:-

THERMAL POWER PLANTS

Steam turbines and generators of up to 500MW capacity for utility and

combined-cycle applications; capability to manufacture steam turbines with

super critical steam cycle parameters and matching generator up to 1000

MW unit size.Steam turbines for CPP applications; capability to manufacture condensing,

extraction, back pressure, injection or any combination of these types.

GAS BASED POWER PLANTS

Gas turbines of up to 260MW (ISO) rating.



Gas turbine based co-generation and combined-cycle systems for industry

and utility applications.

HYDRO POWER PLANTS

Custom-built conventional hydro turbines of Kaplan, Francis and Peltontypes with matching generators, pump turbines with matching motor-

generators.

Mini/micro hydro sets.

Spherical, butterfly and rotary valves and auxiliaries for hydro station

DG POWER PLANTS

HSD, LDO, FO, LSHS, natural-gas/biogas based diesel power plants, unit

rating up to 20MW and voltage up to 11kV, for emergency, peaking as well

as base load operations on turnkey basis.

INDUSTRIAL SETS

Industrial turbo-sets of ratings from 1.5 to 120MW.

Gas turbines land matching generators ranging from 3 to 260MW (ISO)

rating.

Industrial stream turbines and gas turbines for drive applications and co-

generation applications.

BOILERS

Steam generators for utilities, ranging from 30 to 500MW capacity, using

coal, lignite, oil, natural gas or a combination of these fuels: capability to

manufacture boilers with super critical parameters up to 1000 MW unit

size.

Steam generators for industrial applications, ranging from 40 to 450t/hour

capacity using coal, natural gas, industrial gases, biomass, lignite, oil,

bagasse or a combination of these fuels.

Pulverized fuel fired boilers.Stoker boilers.

Atmospheric fluidized bed combustion boilers.

Circulating fluidized bed combustion boilers.

Waste heat recovery boilers.

Chemical recovery boilers for paper industry, ranging from capacity of 100

to 1000 t/day of dry solids.



Pressure vessels.

BOILER AUXILIARIES

Fan

Axial reaction fans of single stage and double stage for clean air

application, with capacity ranging from 25 to 800m3/s and pressure

ranging from 120 to 1,480 m of gas column.

Axial impulse fans for both clean air and flue gas applications, with

capacity ranging from 7 to 600m3/s and pressure up to 700 m of gas

column.

Single and double-suction radial fans for clean air and dust-laden hot

gases applications up to 400oC, with capacity ranging from 4 to 600m3/s

and pressure ranging from 150 to 1,800 m of gas column.

Air-Pre-heaters

Ljungstrom rotary regenerative air-pre-heaters for boiler and process

furnaces.

Large regenerative air-preheaters for utilities of capacity up to 1000 MW.

Gravimetric Feeders

Pulverizes

Bowl mills of slow and medium speed of capacity up to 100 t/hour.

Tube mills for pulverizing low-grade coal with high-ash content.

Pulse Jet and Reverse Air Type Fabric Filters (Bag Filters) Electrostatic Precipitators

Electrostatic precipitators of any capacity with efficiency up to 99.9% for

utility and industrial applications.

Mechanical Separators

Soot Blowers

Long retractable soot blowers (travel up to 12.2m), wall deslaggers, rotary

blowers and temperature probes and related control panels operating on

pneumatic, electric or manual mode.Swivel arm type soot blowers for regenerative air-preheaters.

Valves

High-pressure and low-pressure bypass valves for utilities.

High and medium-pressure valves, cast and forged steel valves of gate,

globe, non-return (swing-check and piston lift-check) types for steam, oil

and gas duties up to 600 mm diameter, 250 kg/cm2 pressure and 540oC



temperature.

High-capacity safety valves and automatic electrical operated pressure

relief valves for set pressure up to 200 kg/cm2 and temperature up to

550oC.

Safety relief valves for applications in power, process and other industriesfor set pressure up to 175 kg/cm2 and temperature up to 565oC.

Piping Systems, Constant Load Hangers, Clamp and Hanger components,

variable Spring hangers for power stations upto 850 MW capacities,

combined cycle plants, industrial boilers and process industries.

HEAT EXCHANGERS AND PRESSURE VESSELS

CS/AS/SS/Nonferrous shell and tube heat exchangers and pressure vessels.

Air-cooled heat exchangers.

Surface condensers.Steam jet air ejectors.

Columns.

Reactors, drums.

LPG/propane storage bullets.

LPG/propane store mounded vessels.

Feed water heaters.

PUMPS

Pumps for various applications to suit utilities up to a capacity of 660 MW.Boiler feed pumps (motor or steam turbine driven).

Boiler feed booster pumps.

Condensate pumps.

Circulating water pumps.

Emergency oil pumps.

Lubricating oil pumps.

Standby oil pumps.

POWER STATION CONTROL EQUIPMENT

Microprocessor-based distributed digital control systems.

Data acquisition systems.

Man-machine interface.



Sub-station controls with SCADA.

Static excitation equipment/automatic voltage regulator.

Electro-hydraulic governor control.

Turbine supervisory system and control.

Furnace safeguard supervisory systems.

Controls for electrostatic precipitators.

Controls for HP/LP bypass valves.

SWITCHGEARS

Switchgear of the various types for indoor and outdoor applications and

voltage ratings up to 400 kV.

Minimum oil circuit breakers (66K ± 132kV).

SF6 circuit breakers (132 kV ± 400 kV).

Vacuum circuit breakers (3.3 kV ± 33 kV).Gas insulated switchgears (36 kV).

BUS DUCTS

Bus-du cts with associated equipment to suit generator power output of

utilities of up to 500 MW capacity.

TRANSFORMERS

Power transformers for voltage up to 400 kV.HVDC transformers and reactors up to + 500 kV rating.

Series and shunt reactors of up to 400 kV rating.

Instrument transformers:

Current transformers up to 400 kV.

Electro-magnetic voltage transformers up to 220 kV.

Capacitor voltage transformers up to 400 kV.

Cast resin dry type transformers up to 10 MVA 33 kV.

Special transformers: earthing; furnace; rectifier; electrostatic precipitator;

freight loco and AC EMU and traction transformers.

INSULATORS

High-tension ceramic insulators.



Disc/suspension insulators for AC/DC applications, ranging from 45 to 400

kn electro-mechanical strength, for clean and pollute atmospheres.

Pin insulators of up to 33 kV.

Post insulators suitable for applications of up to 6 units.

Hollow porcelains of up to 400 kV.

Solid core insulators of 25 kV rating (both porcelain and hybrid) for

railways.

Disc insulators for 800 kV AC and HVDC transmission lines (BHEL is the

first Indian manufacturer to supply such insulators).

CAPACITORS

Power capacitors for industrial and power systems of up to 250 kVAr rating

for application up to 400 kV.

Coupling/CVT capacitors for voltages up to 400 kV.Low Tension Thyristor Switched Capacitors (LTTSC) for dynamic power

factor correction

ENERGY METERS

Single Phase, Poly Phase and Special-purpose electro-mechanical and

electrical meters.

Propagating Quality Management Systems and Total Quality

Management.

Formulating, implementing and monitoring, "Improvement Plans" with

focus on internal and external Customer Satisfaction.

Investigations and preventive actions on Critical Quality Issues.

Calibration and testing laboratories of BHEL are accredited under the

National Accreditation Board for Calibration and Testing Laboratories

(NABL) scheme of Laboratory Accreditation, which has got mutual

recognition with Asia Pacific Laboratory Accreditation Conference and

International Laboratory Accreditation Conference.

As a result of its thrust on quality and technology, BHEL enjoys national



and international recognition in the form of Product Certification by

International Bodies like ASME, API etc. and Plant Approvals by agencies

like Lloyds Register of Shipping, U.K., Chief Controller of Explosives

India, TUV Germany etc.

In its movement towards Business Excellence and with the objective of

achieving International level of Quality, BHEL has adopted European

Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) model for Business

Excellence. Through this model and annual self-assessment

exercise, BHEL is institutionalising continuous improvement in all its

operations.



VISION AND MISSION:-



NETWORKING

Computer networking is an integral part of business today. A network

is a group of computers, printers, and other devices that are connected

together with cables. Information travels over the cables, allowing network users to exchange documents & data with each other, print to the same

printers, and generally share any hardware or software that is connect to the

network.

Each computer, printer, or other peripheral device that is connected to

the network is called a node. Networks can have tens, thousands, or even

millions of nodes.

Local Area Networks (LANs):A network is any collection of independent computers that exchange

information with each other over a shared communication medium. Local

Area Networks or LANs are usually confined to a limited geographic area,

such as a single building or a college campus. LANs can be small, linking as

few as three computers, but can often link hundreds of computers used by

thousands of people. The development of standard networking protocols and

media has resulted in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business

and educational organizations

Wide Area Networks (WANs):Often elements of a network are widely separated physically. Wide area

networking combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This

is accomplished by connecting the several LANs with dedicated leased lines

such as a T1 or a T3, by dial-up phone lines (both synchronous and

asynchronous), by satellite links and by data packet carrier services. WANs

can be as simple as a modem and a remote access server for employees to

dial into, or it can be as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally

linked. Special routing protocols and filters minimize the expense of sending

data over vast distances.



HHIISSTTOOR R YY OOFF LLAANN

In the days before personal computers, a sight might have just one

central computer, with users acessing this via computer terminals over

simple low-speed cabling.The first LANs were created in the late 1970s and

used to create high speed links between several large central computers at

one site. Of many competing systems created at this time, Ethernet and

ARCNET were the most popular.

The growth of CP/M and then DOS based personal computer meant

that a single site began to have dozens or even hundreds of computers. The

initial attraction of networking these was generally to share disk space and

laser printers, which were both very expensive at the time. There was much

enthusiasm for the concept and for several years from about 1983 onward

computer industry pandits would regularly declare the coming year to be

³the year of the LAN´



OOSSII R R EEFFEER R EENNCCEE MMOODDEELL

The OSI reference model consists of seven layers, each of which can

(and typically does) have several sub layers. The upper layers of the OSI

reference model (application, presentation, session, and transport²Layers 7,

6, 5, and 4) define functions focused on the application. The lower three

layers (network, data link, and physical²Layers 3, 2, and 1) define

functions focused on end to end delivery of the data.

OSI Reference Model:-

The model was developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) in 1984. It is now considered the primary

Architectural model for inter-computer communications.

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is a

descriptive network scheme. It ensures greater compatibility and

interoperability between various types of network technologies.

The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from

application programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to another application programme located on

another network.

The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information

between computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and

more manageable problems.This separation into smaller more

manageable functions is known as layering.



OSI Layer

Name

Functional

Description

Examples

Application (Layer

7)

Interface between network

and application

software

Telnet, HTTP

Presentation(Layer

6)

How data is presented

Special processing, such as

encryption

JPEG, ASCII,

EBCDIC

Session (Layer 5) Keeping data separate from

different applications

Transport (Layer 4) Reliable or unreliable

delivery

Multiplexing

Network (Layer 3) Logical addressing, whichrouters use for path

determination

IP, IPX

Data link (Layer 2) Combination of bits into

bytes, and bytes into frames

Access to the media

using MAC address

Error detection and

error recovery

Physical (Layer 1) Moving of bits between

devices Specification of

voltage, wire speed, andcable pinouts

EIA/TIA-232, V.35

LAYER 7: APPLICATION The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user.

It provides network services to the user¶s applications.

It differs from the other layers in that it does not provide services

to any other OSI layer, but rather, only to applications outside the

OSI model.

Examples of such applications are spreadsheet programs, word processing programs, and bank terminal programs.

The application layer establishes the availability of intended

communication partners, synchronizes and establishes agreement

on procedures for error recovery and control of data integrity.



LAYER 6: PRESENTATION The presentation layer ensures that the information that the

application layer of one system sends out is readable by theapplication layer of another system.

If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data

formats by using a common format.

Provides encryption and compression of data.

Examples: - JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC, HTML.

LAYER 5: SESSION The session layer defines how to start, control and end conversations

(called sessions) between applications.

This includes the control and management of multiple bi-directional

messages using dialogue control.

It also synchronizes dialogue between two hosts' presentation layers

and manages their data exchange.

The session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer.

Examples: - SQL, ASP (AppleTalk Session Protocol).

LAYER 4: TRANSPORT The transport layer regulates information flow to ensure end-to-end

connectivity between host applications reliably and accurately.

The transport layer segments data from the sending host's system and

reassembles the data into a data stream on the receiving host's system.

The boundary between the transport layer and the session layer can be

thought of as the boundary between application protocols and data-

flow protocols. Whereas the application, presentation, and session

layers are concerned with application issues, the lower four layers are

concerned with data transport issues. Layer 4 protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and

UDP (User Datagram Protocol).



LAYER 3: NETWORK Defines end-to-end delivery of packets.

Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.

Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that the packets can be delivered.

The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller

packets to accommodate different media.

Routers operate at Layer 3.

Examples: - IP, IPX, AppleTalk.

LAYER 2: DATA LINK The data link layer provides access to the networking media and

physical transmission across the media and this enables the data to

locate its intended destination on a network.

The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical

link by using the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.

The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a hardware or data

link address in order for multiple stations to share the same medium

and still uniquely identify each other.

Concerned with network topology, network access, error notification,

ordered delivery of frames, and flow control.

Examples: - Ethernet, Frame Relay, FDDI.

LAYER 1: PHYSICAL The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of the

transmission medium.

It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional

specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the

physical link between end systems.

Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical

connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by physical

layer specifications.

Examples: - EIA/TIA-232, RJ45, NRZ.



IISSOO OOPPEENN SSYYSSTTEEMM IINNTTEER R CCOONNNNEECCTTIIOONN ((OOSSII)) MMOODDEELL



PPR R OOTTOOCCOOLLSS

After a physical connection has been established, network protocolsdefine the standards that allow computers to communicate. A protocol

establishes the rules and encoding specifications for sending data. This

defines how computers identify one another on a network, the form that the

data should take in transit, and how this information is processed once it

reaches its final destination. Protocols also define procedures for

determining the type of error checking that will be used, the data

compression method, if one is needed, how the sending device will indicate

that it has finished sending a message, how the receiving device will indicate

that it has received a message, and the handling of lost or damagedtransmissions or "packets".

The main types of network protocols in use today are: TCP/IP (for

UNIX, Windows NT, Windows and other platforms); IPX (for Novell

NetWare); DECnet (for networking Digital Equipment Corp. computers);

AppleTalk (for Macintosh computers), and NetBIOS/NetBEUI (for LAN

Manager and Windows NT networks)

TCP/IP:TCP/IP encompasses a lot of smaller protocols, the Transmission

Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol. TCP performs only part of thefunctions necessary to deliver the data between applications, and the role

that it plays is directed toward providing services for the applications that sit

at the endpoint computers.



TCP Functions:

Function Description

Multiplexing Function that allows receiving hosts to decide the

correct application for which the data is destined,

based on the port number.

Error recovery

(reliability)

Process of numbering and acknowledging data

with sequence and acknowledgment header fields

Flow control using

windowing

Process that uses window sizes to protect buffer

space and routing devices

Connection

establishment andtermination

Process used to initialize port numbers and

sequence and acknowledgement fields

Ordered data transfer Continuous stream of bytes from upper-layer

process that is ³segmented´ for transmission



USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP):UDP provides a service for applications to exchange messages. Unlike TCP,

UDP is connectionless and provides no reliability, no windowing, and no

function to ensure that the data is received in the order in which it was sent.

However, UDP provides some functions of TCP, such as data transfer andmultiplexing, and it does so with fewer bytes of overhead in the UDP

header. The only difference in UDP (compared to TCP) sockets is that,

instead of designating TCP as the transport protocol, the transport protocol is

UDP. UDP data transfer differs from TCP data transfer in that no reordering

or recovery is accomplished. Applications using UDP are tolerant of the lost

data, or they have some application mechanism to recover lost data. For

example, DNS requests use UDP because the user will retry an operation if

the DNS resolution fails. The Network File System (NFS) performs recovery

with application layer code, so UDP features are acceptable to NFS.

COMPARISON BETWEEN TCP AND UDP:

Function Description (TCP) Description (UDP)

Data transfer This involves a continuousstream of ordered data. This involves message(datagram) delivery.

Multiplexing Receiving hosts decide the

correct application for which the

data is destined, based on the

port number.

Receiving hosts decide

the correct application

for which the data is

destined, based on the

port number.

Reliable

transfer

Acknowledgment of data uses

the sequence and

acknowledgment fields in the

TCP header

This is not a feature of

UDP.

Flow control This process is used to protect

buffer space and routing devices.

This is not a feature of

UDP.

Connections This process is used to initialize

port numbers and other TCP

header fields.

DP is connectionless.



IP ADDRESS

An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique number that

devices use in order to identify and communicate with each other on a

computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol standard (IP). Any participating network device ² including routers, computers, time-servers,

printers, Internet fax machines, and some telephones ² must have its own

unique address.

DYNAMIC AND STATIC IP ADDRESSES:IP addresses may either be assigned permanently (for example, to a

server which is always found at the same address) or temporarily from a

pool of available addresses.

Dynamic IP address: Dynamic IP addresses are issued to identify non-permanent devices such as

personal computers or clients. Internet Service Providers (ISPs) use dynamic

allocation to assign addresses from a small pool to a larger number of

customers. This is used for dial-up access, WiFi and other temporary

connections, allowing a portable computer user to automatically connect to a

variety of services without needing to know the addressing details of each

network.

Static IP address:

Static IP addresses are used to identify semi-permanent devices withconstant IP addresses. Servers typically use static IP addresses. The static

address can be configured directly on the device or as part of a central

DHCP configuration which associates the device's MAC address with a

static address.

DOMAIN NAMES:A network lookup service, the Domain Name System (DNS), provides

the ability to map hostnames to an IP address. This allows humans to easily

remember a name and not a series of numbers. DNS allows multipleaddresses and names to point to one Internet resource.

Another reason for DNS is to allow, for example, a web site to be

hosted on multiple servers (each with its own IP address) provides for

rudimentary load balancing.



LLAANN TTOOPPOOLLOOGGIIEESS

LAN topologies define the manner in which network devices are

organized. Four common LAN topologies exist: bus, ring, star, and tree.

These topologies are logical architectures, but the actual devices need not be physically organized in these configurations. Logical bus and ring

topologies, for example, are commonly organized physically as a star.

A bus topology is a linear LAN architecture in which transmissions from

network stations propagate the length of the medium and are received by all

other stations.

A ring topology is a LAN architecture that consists of a series of devices

connected to one another by unidirectional transmission links to form a

single closed loop. Both Token Ring/IE

EE 802.5 and FDDI networks implement a ring topology.



A star topology is a LAN architecture in which the endpoints on a

network are connected to a common central hub, or switch, by dedicated

links. Logical bus and ring topologies are often implemented physically in a

star topology.

A tree topology is a LAN architecture that is identical to the bus topology,

except that branches with multiple nodes are possible in this case.



TYPES OF LAN TECHNOLOGY

ETHERNET: Ethernet is the most popular physical layer LAN technology in use

today. It defines the number of conductors that are required for a connection,

the performance thresholds that can be expected, and provides the

framework for data transmission. A standard Ethernet network can transmit

data at a rate up to 10 Megabits per second (10 Mbps). Other LAN types

include Token Ring, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, 10 Gigabit Ethernet,

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Asynchronous Transfer Mode

(ATM) and Local Talk.

Ethernet is popular because it strikes a good balance between speed,cost and ease of installation. These benefits, combined with wide acceptance

in the computer marketplace and the ability to support virtually all popular

network protocols, make Ethernet an ideal networking technology for most

computer users today.

The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers developed an

Ethernet standard known as IEEE Standard 802.3. This standard defines

rules for configuring an Ethernet network and also specifies how the

elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another. By adhering to

the IEEE standard, network equipment and network protocols can

communicate efficiently.

FAST ETHERNET: The Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3u) has been established for

Ethernet networks that need higher transmission speeds. This standard raises

the Ethernet speed limit from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps with only minimal

changes to the existing cable structure. Fast Ethernet provides faster throughput for video, multimedia, graphics, Internet surfing and stronger

error detection and correction.

There are three types of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX for use with

level 5 UTP cable; 100BASE-FX for use with fiber-optic cable; and

100BASE-T4 which utilizes an extra two wires for use with level 3 UTP



cable. The 100BASE-TX standard has become the most popular due to its

close compatibility with the 10BASE-T Ethernet standard.

GIGABIT ETHERNET: Gigabit Ethernet was developed to meet the need for faster

communication networks with applications such as multimedia and Voice

over IP (VoIP). Also known as "gigabit-Ethernet-over-copper" or 1000Base-

T, GigE is a version of Ethernet that runs at speeds 10 times faster than

100Base-T. It is defined in the IEEE 802.3 standard and is currently used as

an enterprise backbone. Existing Ethernet LANs with 10 and 100 Mbps

cards can feed into a Gigabit Ethernet backbone to interconnect high

performance switches, routers and servers.

10 GIGABIT ETHERNET: 10 Gigabit Ethernet is the fastest and most recent of the Ethernet

standards. IEEE 802.3ae defines a version of Ethernet with a nominal rate of

10Gbits/s that makes it 10 times faster than Gigabit Ethernet.

Unlike other Ethernet systems, 10 Gigabit Ethernet is based entirely on

the use of optical fiber connections. This developing standard is moving

away from a LAN design that broadcasts to all nodes, toward a system

which includes some elements of wide area routing. As it is still very new,

which of the standards will gain commercial acceptance has yet to bedetermined.

TOKEN RING: Token Ring is another form of network configuration. It differs from

Ethernet in that all messages are transferred in one direction along the ring at

all times. Token Ring networks sequentially pass a ³token´ to each

connected device. When the token arrives at a particular computer (or

device), the recipient is allowed to transmit data onto the network. Since

only one device may be transmitting at any given time, no data collisionsoccur. Access to the network is guaranteed, and time-sensitive applications

can be supported. However, these benefits come at a price. Component costs

are usually higher, and the networks themselves are considered to be more

complex and difficult to implement. Various PC vendors have been

proponents of Token Ring networks.



LAN DEVICES

MODEM:Modem is the short form for modulator-demodulator. A modem is a

device or program that enables a computer to transmit data over, for

example, telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally,

whereas information transmitted over telephone lines is transmitted in the

form of analog waves. A modem converts between these two forms.

SERVER:A computer or device is a network that manages network resources.

For example, a file server is a computer and storage device dedicated to

storing files. Any user on the network can store files on the server. A print

server is a computer that manages one or more printers, and a network server

is a computer that manages network traffic. A database server is a computer

system that processes database queries. Servers are often dedicated, meaning

that they perform no other tasks besides their server tasks. On

multiprocessing operating systems, however, a single computer can execute

several programs at once. A server in this case could refer to the program

that is managing resources rather than the entire computer.

UTP:Short for unshielded twisted pair, a popular type of cable that consists

of two unshielded wires twisted around each other. Due to its low cost, UTP

cabling is used extensively for local-area networks (LANs) and telephone

connections. UTP cabling does not offer as high bandwidth or as good

protection from interference as coaxial or fiber optic cables, but it is lessexpensive and easier to work with.



Cable Grade Capabilities

Cable

Name

Makeup Frequency

Support

Data

Rate

Network

Compatibility

Cat-5 4 twisted pairs

of copper wire -

- terminated by

RJ45

connectors

100 MHz Up to

1000Mbps

ATM, Token

Ring,1000Base-

T, 100Base-TX,

10Base-T

Cat-5e 4 twisted pairs

of copper wire -

- terminated by

RJ45

connectors

100 MHz Up to

1000Mbps

10Base-T,

100Base-TX,

1000Base-T

Cat-6 4 twisted pairs

of copper wire -

- terminated by

RJ45

connectors

250 MHz 1000Mbps 10Base-T,

100Base-TX,

1000Base-T



NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS: Network Interface Cards, commonly referred to as NICs, and are

used to connect a PC to a network. The NIC provides a physical connection

between the networking cable and the computer's internal bus. Different

computers have different bus architectures. PCI bus slots are mostcommonly found on 486/Pentium PCs and ISA expansion slots are

commonly found on 386 and older PCs. NICs come in three basic varieties:

8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit. The larger the number of bits that can be transferred

to the NIC, the faster the NIC can transfer data to the network cable. Most

NICs are designed for a particular type of network, protocol, and medium,

though some can serve multiple networks.

Many NIC adapters comply with plug-and-play specifications. On these

systems, NICs are automatically configured without user intervention, while

on non-plug-and-play systems, configuration is done manually through a set-

up program and/or DIP switches.Cards are available to support almost all networking standards. Fast

Ethernet NICs are often 10/100 capable, and will automatically set to the

appropriate speed. Gigabit Ethernet NICs are 10/100/1000 capable with auto

negotiation depending on the user¶s Ethernet speed. Full duplex networking

is another option where a dedicated connection to a switch allows a NIC to

operate at twice the speed.

ETHERNET SWITCHES: LAN switches link multiple networks together and have two basic

architectures: cut-through and store-and-forward. In the past, cut-through

switches were faster because they examined the packet destination address

only before forwarding it on to its destination segment. A store-and-forward

switch works like a bridge in that it accepts and analyzes the entire packet

before forwarding it to its destination.

Both cut-through and store-and-forward switches separate a network

into collision domains, allowing network design rules to be extended. Eachof the segments attached to an Ethernet switch has a full 10 Mbps of

bandwidth shared by fewer users, which results in better performance (as

opposed to hubs that only allow bandwidth sharing from a single Ethernet).

Newer switches today offer high-speed links, either Fast Ethernet, Gigabit

Ethernet, 10 Gigabit Ethernet or ATM. These are used to link switches

together or give added bandwidth to high-traffic servers



REPEATERS:

A repeater is a physical layer device used to interconnect the media

segments of an extended network. A repeater essentially enables a series of

cable segments to be treated as a single cable. Repeaters receive signals fromone network segment and amplify, retime, and retransmit those signals to

another network segment. These actions prevent signal deterioration caused

by long cable lengths and large numbers of connected devices. Repeaters are

incapable of performing complex filtering and other traffic processing. In

addition, all electrical signals, including electrical disturbances and other

errors, are repeated and amplified.

HUB:A hub is a physical layer device that connects multiple user stations,

each via a dedicated cable. Electrical interconnections are established inside

the hub. Hubs are used to create a physical star network while maintaining

the logical bus or ring configuration of the LAN. In some respects, a hub

functions as a multiport repeater.

BRIDGES: Bridges connect two LAN segments of similar or dissimilar types, such

as Ethernet and Token Ring. This allows two Ethernet segments to behave

like a single Ethernet allowing any pair of computers on the extended



Ethernet to communicate. Bridges are transparent therefore computers don¶t

know whether a bridge separates them.

ROUTER: A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks, and

determines which way to send each data packet based on its current

understanding of the state of its connected networks. Routers are typically

connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a

LAN and its Internet Service Provider¶s (ISPs) network. Routers are located

at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.

Routers filter out network traffic by specific protocol rather than by

packet address. Routers also divide networks logically instead of physically.

An IP router can divide a network into various subnets so that only traffic

destined for particular IP addresses can pass between segments. Network speed often decreases due to this type of intelligent forwarding. Such

filtering takes more time than that exercised in a switch or bridge, which

only looks at the Ethernet address. However, in more complex networks,

overall efficiency is improved by using routers.

LAN EXTENDER:

A LAN extender is a remote-access multilayer switch that connects toa host router. LAN extenders forward traffic from all the standard network

layer protocols (such as IP, IPX, and AppleTalk) and filter traffic based on

the MAC address or network layer protocol type. LAN extenders scale well

because the host router filters out unwanted broadcasts and multicasts.

However, LAN extenders are not capable of segmenting traffic or creating

security firewalls.



CONCLUSION

Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, as an organization is a very vast

center of electronics in itself. Today the telecommunicating world is getting

it¶s roots, grabbing the new era more firmly. We think that our training was

a success and we think that BHEL was an excellent training institute for

inquisitive emerging engineers. In BHEL, training is given to engineering

aspirant desiring to secure in the dynamic world of Electronics.

I once again whole heartedly thank BHEL for gving me this golden

opportunity for doing my implant training in it.



BIBLIOGRAPHY

y www.lantronix.com

y www.wikepedia.com

y www.google.com

y www.howstuffworks.com

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