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Fundamentals of Geologicaland Environmental

Remote Sensing

Robert K. VincentBowling Green State University

Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

Contents

• • • • • • • • • • • • •

Preface xi

Acknowledgments xiii

Chapter 1 Introduction and Overview 1

From the Human Eye to the Multispectral Scanner 1Organization of Presented Material 6Cited References 7

Chapter 2 Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with NaturalMaterials on Earth's Surface 8

Electromagnetic Radiation and the Search for CompositionalInformation 8

The Effect of Single-Grain Indices of Refractionand Absorption on the Reflectance Properties of a Beach 11

The Effect of Grain Size on the Reflectance Properties of a Beach 16Separation of Compositional and Grain Size Effects and Extrapolation

from Beaches to Soils and Rocks 22Review 26Exercises 27Cited References 27Additional References (Uncited) 28

vi Contents

Chapter 3 Spectra of Earth Materials 29

Vegetation, Water, and Snow 29Minerals and Rocks 34

Examples of Silicate Minerals 36Examples of Ferric Oxide and Ferric Hydroxide Minerals 47Examples of Carbonate Minerals 49Examples of Sulfate and Sulfide Minerals 51Examples of Igneous Rocks 54Examples of Sedimentary Rocks 55Examples of Metamorphic Rocks 68

Review 74Exercises 76Cited References 76Additional References (Uncited) 78

Chapter 4 Spectral Radiance from Earth's Surface and Its Measurementby Electro-Optical Multispectral Sensors 80

Reflected and Emitted Radiance Available for Detection 80Multispectral Electro-Optical Sensors for Remote Sensing 84

Splitting the Light 85Hyperspectral Imaging Devices 90Radiometric and Geometric Corrections 93

Measured Spectral Radiance 95Review 97Exercises 98Cited References 98Additional References (Uncited) 98

Chapter 5 Multispectral Image Processing Methods 100

Introduction 100Elimination of Atmospheric Path Radiance and Additive

Electronic Offset 102Histogramming and Dark-Object Subtraction 102Calibration of Thermal Infrared Spectral Bands 108

The Electronic Display and Human Perception of Color 110Spectral and Temporal Ratioing 112

Spectral Ratioing in the Reflective Wavelength Region 113Temporal Ratioing and Vegetation Indices 116Thermal Infrared Spectal Ratioing 121Imaging of Gases 127

Principal Component Transformation and MultispectralClassification 131Principal Component Transformation 13 JMultispectral Classification 135

Review 144

Contents vii

Exercises 146Cited References 146Additional References (Uncited) 148

Chapter 6 Spatial Image Processing Methods 150

Introduction 150Automatic Linear Feature Mapping 151Geophysical Imaging 155Digital Photogrammetry 163Integration of Remote Sensing Data and Geographic Information

Systems 169Review 178Exercises 178Cited References 179

Chapter 7 Remote Sensing Applications to Mineral Exploration 181

Introduction 181The Use of Remote Sensing in Exploration for Metals 182

Uranium Exploration 182Copper Exploration 184Lead, Zinc, Silver, and Tungsten Exploration 189Gold Exploration 190Geobotanical Remote Sensing for Metal Exploration 195

The Use of Remote Sensing in Exploration for Diamonds and Rare EarthMinerals 199Exploration for Diamonds 199Exploration for Rare Earth Minerals 202

The Use of Remote Sensing in Exploration for IndustrialMinerals 203

Review 208Exercises 210Cited References 211Additional References (Uncited) 213

Chapter 8 Remote Sensing Applications to Petroleum and Ground WaterExploration 214

Introduction 214The Use of Remote Sensing for Petroleum Exploration 215

Struc tural Mapping 216Remote Sensing Exploration for Ancient Hydrocarbon Seeps 225Geobotanical Remote Sensing and Oil Slick Mapping for Petroleum

Exploration 234The Use of Remote Sensing for Ground Water Exploration 241

Ground Water Exploration in Igneous, Metamorphic,and Sedimentary Karst Terrain 243

viii Contents

Ground Water Exploration in Nonkarst, SedimentaryTerrain 245

Review 251Exercises 252Cited References 253Additional References (Uncited) 256

Chapter 9 Remote Sensing Applications to Environmental Studiesand Geological Engineering 257Introduction 257Remote Sensing Applications for Solid Waste Landfills

and Open Pit Mines 258High-Resolution Topographic Mapping for Landfills

and Open Pit Mines 259Mapping Chemical Indicators Around Landfills

and Open Pit Mines 260Remote Sensing Applications for Forests and Wetlands 270Remote Sensing Applications for Farm Land and Coastal Erosion 274Remote Sensing Applications for Pipelines and Highways 281Review 284Exercises 286Cited References 287

Chapter 10 Remote Sensing Applications to Global Monitoring 291Introduction 291Global Monitoring of Geological Hazards 293

Flooding and Mass Wasting 294Volcanic Eruptions 301Earthquakes 304

Monitoring of Human Contributions to Global Changes 315Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols Added to the Atmosphere by

Human Activities 315Ozone-Destroying Gases Added to the Atmosphere B;y Human

Activities 318Monitoring of Natural Contributions to Global Changes 320

Changes in Ice and Snow Coverage 320Changes in Sea Surface Temperature 322Changes in Plate Tectonic Activity 324

Review 329Exercises 332Cited References 332

Epilogue 337

Contents ix

Appendix A Integral Equations 339

Appendix B Multispectral Sensor Systems 342

Appendix C LANDSAT TM and MSS Brightness and Ratio

Codes of Minerals, Vegetation, and Snow 345

Index 359

Color Plate Captions 367