:-c- pS'f cho l-o~3'1

GLOSSARY

absolute threshold-the weakest stímulus that pro-duces a sensation. [51

accommodation-( 1) reflexíve contraction of lens mus-cles to focus eyes on nearby objects. (2) the modifica-tion of existing schemes to incorporate new knowl-edge that does not fit them. [5. 151

acetylcholine (ACH)-neurotransmitter used by themotor neurons of the spínal cord. [3J

achievement motíve-s-the capacíty to derive satisfactionby attaining some standard of excellence. [l21

achievement tests-tests constructed to assess the ex-tent of an indívidual's knowledge about subjectstaught in school. [201

acquisition-( 1) the process by whích an organismlearns the assocíatíon ínvolved in class ícal condítíon-ing. (2) the process by whích. we initially perceíve,regíster. and recordinformation in our memory. [8.9J .

act frequency approach-an approach to personalitythat claims that we tend to add up all of a persori'sactíons thatfít a particular category, then assígn atraít to the person on that basts. [191

active phase-that stage in the course of schízophreníain which psychotíc symptoms predominate. [221

ad hoc categories-spur-of-the-moment categoríes con-structed to han dle particular functions. [l01

adaptatíon-i-adjustrnent in sensory capacity.[51··adaptive behavior-any behavior that makes an animal ..

functíon better in íts envíronrnent. [4 l' ". .adaptíve radíatíon-c-evolutíonary pattern in. which a"

group of organisms wíth a common ancestor díverst-fy so. that they can move into a' new erivironmentalruche ..[4L

additive. color miring-the combírung of colored Iíghts.[51

adjacency pairs-conversational conventíon in whíchan utterance by one person tells the other which sortof response ís appropriate; common paírs includequestícn/response. surnrnons/answer, etc ..[161

adverse impact-results when the proportion of mínorí-.r--.. ty applicants hired after takíngan employment test is

less than four-fífths of the proportion of majorítyapplicantshired. In such an instance .. the courtsconsíder that the test has an adverse impact onminorities. (281

affect-emotional response. [221affectíve diSorder-disturbance of mood. [22 Iafterímage-i-a sensory impression that persists. after

removal of the stímuíus. [51aggressfon-c-any act that ís intended to cause paín.

damage, or suffering to another. [271agnosia-an ínabilíty to recogníze sounds. [3Jalgorithm-a simple set of rules arranged in a logícal

order that wíll solve all ínstances of a particular set ofproblems. [101 .

altricial-helpless (referring to the young of a species)[141

altruism-prosocial behavíor showíng unselfish concernsprtngtng from a cornbínatton of emotional distress

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The numbers following the entries refer to the chapters of thetext in which each term or concept ís discussed in detall.

at anothers plight and an understandíng of her orhis needs. [l71

Alzheimer's disease-a debilitating brain disease char-)lcterized by increasingly serious memory disorderand deterioration of attentíon, judgrnerit, and per-sonalíty: most common among older adults. [31

amnesia-partial or total loss of memory. [3. 9. 221amplitude-intensity of a sound wave, usually ex-

pressed in decibels. [51amygdala-a structure in the limbic system. [31anal stage-the stage in psychosexual development dur-

ing whích the child's attention shífts to the anus andthe pleasures of holding in and pushing out feces.[17. 181

analogy-a parallel between two systems whose partsare related in a similar way. [l01

analytic psychology-a school of psychoanalysis found-ed in 1913 by Carl Jung. [181

anchoring-a bias ínjudgment. resultíng from the effectof the starting point frorn whích the dectsíon was

, made. [l01androgen insensitivity syndrome-the condition of a

genetically male fetus whose body cells fail to respondto androgen: the baby wíll be born genetically malebut wíth the external anatomy of a female. [13J

androgens-male sex hormones. [131androgynous-having gender roles that embrace char-"

. actertstícs of both sexes. [171.anterograde amnesia-a condition in whích people are

unable to lay down new memories. [91antisocial personality. [221See sociopath.anvil-s-one of the ossicles. [51an.xiety-in Freudian theory, a state of psychíc paín that

alerts the ego to danger: it is akin tofear. [18. 221anxiety disorder-a coridítíon in which severe and per-

sistent anxíety ínterferes with daily functíoníng. [221aphasia-an inability to speak or to understand spoken

language. [31 .apparent movement-the perception of motíon when a

rapíd successton of motionless stimuli mírníc thechanges that occur in true movement. '[61

applied scíence-i-the use of baste scíence to accomplishpractica! goa!s. [11

approach-avoidance conilict-a conflíct of two.motrves,so that satísfyíng one motive frustrates the. other.[191

aptitud e tests-tests destgned to find out aboutaníndívidual's talent or capacity for particular lines ofwork. [201

archetypes-in .Jungs terms, ancíent ideas or imagescommon to all human beíngs in all eras and allregíons of the world and that form the collectiveunconscíous. [l81

arousal-a series of phystologícal changes, primarily inthe autonomic system. that take place when an indi-vidual has an emotion. [11 I

artifical intelligence (AI)-computer programrníng thatsolves problems by followíng steps similar to those ahuman oetng would take. [lO]

.ri, ..'['

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727

728

assimilation-the tncorporatíon of new knowledgethrough the use of exístíng schemes. [151

association-a learned connectíon between two events.[SI

ataxia-a condition characterízed by severe tremors,drunken movernents, and loss of balance; due todamage to the cerebellum. [31

attachment-an emotional bond such as one which tsformed between the infant and her or his prímarycare gíver. [171 . »:

attitude-an attraction or averston toward an object. inwhích cognitive, affectíve, motivational, and behav-íoral processes are implicated. [251

attribution theories-theories that propose to explaínhow people attríbute personality traíts or intentionsto others to explaín theír behavíor. [261

audience inhibition-supression due to concern aboutothers' eva1uation of our behavior. (271

auditory cortex-the area in the temporal lobe of thebraín that p¡;ocesses auditory information. (31

auditory stream segregation-the auditory effect of twosimultaneous línes of melody, each wíth a dístínctívequality. [61

authenticity-living by personal values. (231autistic fantasy-a state on the continuum that stretch-

es from normal waking consciousness to dreamíng:it lacks any orientatíon toward reality. [71

autogeníc trainíng=-a relaxation procedure that de-pends on self-suggestion and imagery. [211

autokinetic movement-an illusion of movernentcaused by random eye movements, whích make astationary spot appear to .move in the dark. [61

. autonomic-ilervoussyslerii::"':'the divislonof the PNSthat regulates the internal environment and is gener-ally involuntary. [31 . "

availability-a heuristic in which predíctíons are basedon a comparison of the current sttuatíon wíth pastexamples that readily come to rnínd. (lOI .

aversion therapy-s-therapy in which the clíent's- éxpo-sure to stírnulí that elícit maladaptíve responses ísaccompanied by aversíve stírnulí. [241

aversive leanting-Iearning that relies on such tech-niques as puníshrnent. escape- and-the avoídance ofpuníshment. [SI

avoidance leanting-conditioning lnwhich an organ-ísrn prevents thearrival of an unpleasant stímulus by .:its response to a warning stimulus. [81

axon-a long fiber of a neuron that leads away from thecel! body. [31

II

basal ganglia-a group of braín structures that seem tocontrol movement and coordínate the motor cortexand thalamus .. [31

basic anx:iety-inHorney's terrns, anxiety arísíng out ofa chíld's sense of helplessness and ísolatíon, (lSI

basic hostdlíty-c-tn Horney's terms, hostility artsíng. from resentment over parental índífference, inconsis-

tency, and interference. (1SIbasic level-that leve1 in a hierarchy that seems the

most economical for cogmtíve znanípulatíon: the levelthat provídes the most information. [10J

basic needs-fundamental phystologícal needs and in-termedíate psychologtcal needs (such as safety andself-esteem). [121

GLOSSARY

basic science-fundamental prínctples that explain abroad range of facts. [1 J

basilar membrane-a membrane supporting the organofCorti. Movements ofthis membrane stimulate haírcells, which in turn trtgger electrical actívíty in theauditory nerve. [51

behavior-anyt:hing a person does or experiences, in-cluding thoughts, feelings, and dreams. (1J

behavior genetics-the study of inherited patterns ofbehavíor. [4J

behavior rehearsal-a procedure símílar to partiCipantmodeling, but applied to social behavíor. [24J

behavioral medicine. (11 See health psychology.behaviorism-the approach to psychology that limits its

study to observable, measurab1e responses to speciñcstímulí. iu

beliefs-knowledge structures about objects and events,.[25J

binocular disparity-difference in the retinal image re-ceived by each eye; source of ínformatton for depthperceptíon. [6J

biofeedback-the províston of a continuous flow of in-formatíon regarding some phystologícal function byelectrcníc devíces: a person can then learn to attaínvoluntary control over the monítored function. [7, 21 J

biogenic theory-the víew that mental disorder has aphysical, or organíc, cause. [23J

bipolar disorder-s-a disorder characterized by extrememoods, begtnníng with a maníc episode of euphoria,excitement, and a<¡:tivity,followed by a depressiveepísode. [22J .

birth order-the chíld's rank in the sequence ofbirths.[261 .-. . ...

blocking-a relíable phenomenon that occurs in al!specíes and .in most conditioning s ítuatíons , inwhich the conditioning normally caused by CS-UCSpaírtngs can be blocked entirely. [SI

. . brain stem-a part .of the central core of the braín. [31branchíng-c-evoluttonary pattem in whích one evolu-

tionary line splits off from another. [41Broca's aphasia-severe dísturbance of speech produc-

tíon. brought about by damage to the rear of the leftfrontal cortex. [31

cardinal trait-a single traít that directs a rnajor portionof a persons behavior. [19J

case study-a method of collecting data in which re-searchers conduct an mtensíve ínvestigatíon of oneor a few índívíduals. usually with reference to a singlepsychologícal phenomenon. [2J

catecholamine hypothesis-the hypothesis that depres-ston, results from low levels of noreptnephríne (acatecholamine)and manía results from hígh levels ofnorepinephrine in the braín. [23J

categorícal perceptíon-c-the- inbom tendency to hearspeech sourids in dístínct categoríes. (16J

celibacy -co mpiete abs tinence from sexual actíví ty. [131cell body-the part of a neuron containing the nucleus.

(3Jcenters=-clumps of neurons in the central nervous sys-

tem that function as uníts: also called nuclei. [31centrai core-the area of the brain that carries out

functíons necessary for survíval. [31central nervous system (CNS)-the rnajor control center

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GLOSSARY

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of behavíor. It consists of the braín and the spinalcord. [31

central traits-charaeteristic ways of dealing wíth theworld that can be captured by a traít name (honest,loving. gregartousj and that have marked effects onthe way other. related traíts are perceived. (19, 26]

cerebellum-the area of the braín that coordinates vol-untary movernent and maíntaíns physical balance.[31

cerebral cortex-the gray matter that covers the cerebralherníspheres. [31

cerebral hemispheres-the most prominent layer of thebraín: involved in information processing. [31

cerebrum-portion of the brain that allows us to plan,learn, and reason: includes the cerebral cortex andthe tissue beneath it. [31

chunks-c1usters of information that form familiar se-quences or patterns of elements; used to encodematerial in short-term memory. [91

clang association-in schizophrenia. the throwing to-gether of concepts, ideas, and symbols merely be-cause they rhyme. [221

classical conditioning-a process whereby a neutralstírnulus. when repeatedly presented wíth anotherstimulus that normal!y evokes a reflexíve response,comes to elícit that response when presented byitself. [81

client-centered therapy-a humanistic therapy inwhích the client learns to reíntegrate self and organ-ísrn. to accept al! experienees as genuíne. and toestablish an unconditional positive regard. [241

clínical psychologist-a mental-health professio'nal.who has earned a doctórate '(PhD"or-PsyD) in cítnfcaf'"psychology and has completed a one-year clínícal .internship. [241 "

clínícal psychology-the approach to psychology con-cerned with the study, diagnosis, and treatment ofabnormal behavíor ..[1] .

, closed gene tic' programs-s- ínnate genetic programe forbehavíor: the animal ís born wíth them and they canbechanged only slíghtly by experience. [4]

cochIea-theportion of the inner ear contaíntng recep-tors for convertíng acoustie energy into sound. [51

cognition-the process of knowíng. the hígher mentalproeesses that human beíngs engage in, includingproblem solving.· knowing,·· thinking, decision mak-íng, reasoning; judgíng, ímagíníng. [la 1

cognitive balance theory-s-the theory proposíng thatínformatíon about people's inconsistent relatíon-ships with each other leads to a conflíct that theíndívídual seeks to resolve. [121

cognitive cnntrol-c-the guidanee and maintenance ofbehavior through self-reínforcernent ..[191

cognitive dissonance theory-the theory proposmgthat contradietory thoughts cause a.state of psycho-logícal distress known as dissonanee; the indiVidualthen attempts to reestablish internal harmony. [121

cognitive map-an ínternal representatíon of the wayobjects and landmarks are arranged in theír envíron-ments. [81

cognitive restructuring-a process that foeuses on theclíent's ways of perceívíng the world and regardsself-defeating behavíor as a result of the clíent's falseassumptíons. [241

729

cognitive therapy-a method of cognitive restructuringthat aírns to show clients that what they think deter-mines how they fee!. [241

cohort-a group of people of the same age. [151collective unconscious-in .Jung's terms, a level of the

unconscious; a storehouse of memories and behaviorpatterns inherited frorn humaníty's remote ancestralpasto [18]

color cancellation-the phenomenon occurring when.eornplementary colors are cornbined and perceived ascolorless. [5]

common ground-the shared knowledge of speaker andlistener. [16]

common trait-a baste mode of adjustment that tsapproximately the same for all índívíduals. [191

community psychology-a branch of clinieal psyeholo-gy wíth the primary aim of preventing mental dísor-ders. [11

complementary colors-pairs of eolors Iying oppositeeach other on the color wheel.[5]

complexive thinking-ih cognítíve devélopment, achíld's tendency to jump from one idea to anotherwíthout coordinating them. [151- .

compulsion-an actíon that a person uncontrollablyperforms again and again, although she or he has noconscious desire to do so. [221

computerized tomography (CT) scan-technique thatuses multiple X-ray pictures to reconstruct singlecross-section píctures of the braín. [31

concrete-operational period-the period of cognitivedevelopment eharaeterized by logícal thought=-outonly in regard to concrete objects, [15]

concurrentvalídíty-c-the correlatíon of a test's scoreswíth other existing measures and standards. [20]

conditional positive regard-the withholdingof loveand praíse when a child does not conform to paren talor social standards. [19]

conditioned reinforcer-a stimulus that sígnaís that aprimary reínforcer wíll soon appear. [81

ccndítícned' response (CR)-a response to a CS. [81conditioned stimulus (CS)-a' new stimulus that

elícíts behavior after repeated association with theUC-S. [8]

conditions oí worth-extraneous standards whose at-taínrnenr ensures posítíve regard. [191

cones-receptor cel!s in the eyeoperatíng in brtght light.Cenes are responsible for detaíled vision and colorperception. [5]

conformity-the tendency to shíft one's víews or behav-íor closer to the norms that are expressed by otherpeople. [271

congruence-genuineness; the therapíst's ability toshare her or his own feelings wíth the client in. anopen and spontaneous manner. [24]

conjunction-c1assification rule in whích two attributes.determine membership in a group. [la]

conjunctíon fallacy-the fallacy of believing that anexample wíth both a common and a dístínctívefeature ís more representative than an example withonly the dístínctíve feature. [101

consciousness-an awareness of the thoughts, ímages.sensatícns. and emotions that flowthrough the mindat any gíven moment. [7]

conservation-the prtncíple that irrelevant changes in

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the external appearance of objects have no effect onthe objects' quantity. [15]

constituent-a major subdivision of a sentence. such asa noun phrase or a prepositional phrase. [16]

construct validity-a test's measurement of the traít ortheoretícal construct it c1aims to measure. [201

consumer psychology-a branch of industrial psycholo-gy concerned with preferences, buyíng habits, andresponses to advertising of consumers. [1]

content validity-a test's coverage of a representatíve-'sample of the measured attribute. [201

context-the setting in which stimuli appear; a retrievalcue for memory. [6]

continuity-a principie of grouping. [6]continuous reinforcement schedule-a schedule of re-

inforcement in which the subject ís rewarded forevery response. [8]

control condition-in an experimento the condition thatremains unchanged, the condition to which .the ex-perimental condition is compared. [21

conventional level-i-Kohlberg's stage of moral develop-ment in whích the child or adulL decides moral íssuesin terms of maíntamíng the social order and meetingthe expectations of others. [171

conversion disorder-disorder in whích an individualdevelops sorne physical dysfunction-such as blind-ness, deafness, paralys ís, or íoss of sensatíon in so mepart of the body-that has no organíc basís andapparently express es sorne. psychological conflict.[221

cooperative principle-the fundamental assumptíonthat speakers and listeners will cooperate in usinglanguage. [16]-"--

coping-the process of managíng external and internal .pressures that rníght otherwíse lead to stress ..[21]

cornea-the transparent ccveríng in front of the eye. [5]corpus callosum-a thick band of neural fibers that

carríes rnessages between the left and rtght sídes ofthe brain. [31

correlational coefficient-the descrtptíve statístíc indi-catíng the degree of linear relatedness. A perfectpositive correlatíon ís indicated by the coeffícíent+ 1; a perfect negative correlatíon is índícated by - 1.[21

correlational research-s tudies that ínvestígate the sys-tematic relatíonshíps between two (or more) charac-teristics of individuals. [21

counterbalancing-c-a, procedure for makíng sure thatvariables that are of no theoretical interest to theexpertmenter are evenly distributed across the varía-bles of interest. [21

covert sensítízatíon-c-a technique in which clientsareasked to vísuahze the behavíor they are tryíng toeliminate and then to conjure up the- image of anoextremely paínful or revoltíng stírnulus. [241

creativity-the combination of prevíously unconnectedelements in a new and useful way. [101

cued recall-retrieval process in which an assocíatedpiece of information guides the memory search, [91

culture-fair test-a test whose items or methods ofadministration do not depend on familiarity withthe cultural backaround. [201

curve of normal distribution-a smooth, symmetricalbell-shaped curve: the theoretícal curve that would

GLOSSARY

result íf an ínfiníte number of cases were represent_ed. [21

decay-erosion of mernory traces with the passage oftime. [91

decibel (dB)-a unít of measurement used to expressperceíved sound intensity. [51

deductive scale. [201 See rational scale.defense mechanism-an intrapsychic techruque to con-

ceal the source of anxíety frorn the self and from theworld. [181

deferred imitation-the ab ílity to rnímíc on one ceca-sion actions observed at an earlier time. [151

deficiency needs. [191 See basic needs.delusions-irrational beliefs that are maíntarned de-

spíte overwhelming evidence that they have no bastsin reality. [221

demand characteristics-a methodologícal problem inwhích a subjects response ís strongly determined bythe research setting. [21

. dendrites-short ñbers that branch out from the cel!body. [31 .

denial-defense rnechanísrn in whích a person refusesto recognize a threatening source of anxíety. [181

dependent variable-the event that ís being studied andthat ís expected to change when the independentvariable ts altered. [21

depressant-a drug that retards the action of the centralnervous system so that neurons fire more slowly. [71

developmental psychology-the approach to psycholo-gy that ís concerned wíth al! aspects of behavíoraldevelopment over the entire life span. [11

díathesis-stress model-the view thatgenes establish adíathests, orpredisposition, to schízophrenía, outthat the disorder will not develop unless the predis-position ís combined wíth certaín stressful envíron-mental factors. [231

dicho tic listening-a process in which a person wearingaset of earphones hears two different messagesplayed simultaneously, one in each ear. [71

dichromats-people who have difficulty díscrtrnínatíngwavelengths in certain regíons of the spectrum. (51

dífference threshold-the smal!est change in astímu-lus that produces a change in sensatíon. [51

diffusion of responsibility-spreading the responsibili-ty for intervening over al! the bystanders. [271

discreteness-a major characteristic of human lan-guage: the distinctness of the units that compose it.[161

discretionary stímulí-c-stgnals that groups send to anindividual member to either change or reínforcethatmembers behavior. [281

discrimination-(l) differentíauon among similar stím-ulí. wíth response to one and no response to others.(2) the behavioral express ion of prejudice. [8, 261

disjunction-classification rule in which eitiier of twofeatures determines category membership. [l01

dísplacement=-I 1) process in whích new items enteringshort-term memory seem to crowd out earlier iterns.(2) a major characteristic of Ianguage: transrnísstonof informatíonabout distant objects or events. (3) inFreud's terms, transference of psychíc energy fromthe original object to a varíety of substitute objects.[9, 16, 181

J

GLOSSARY

dispositional cause-cause of behavíorthat is attribut-ed to a specífíc person and to that persori's disposi-tion. [261

dissociative disorder-the dissociation, or splíttíng off,of certain aspects of mernory and identity. [221

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)-twisted strings of cherní-·cal building blocks that transmit the gene tic codeo [41

doctrine of specific nerve energies-sensory qualitydepends on the neural pathways actívated by stímuli.not on the physical propertíes of the stímulí. [51

dominant responses-the responses most likely to bemade by an organísrn in a given sítuatíon. (271

dopa:mine-a neurotransmitter thought .to regulateernotíonal response and complex movements. (31

dopamine hypothesis-the víew that schízophrenía ísasscciated wíth excesstve actívíty in those parts ofthe brain that use dopamine to transmít neuralimpulses. (231

double-bind hypothesis-the theory that rnutually con-tradictory messages from parent to child are a strongcausatíve agent in schizophrenia. (231

double-blind procedure-a method of avoídíng experi-menter bias in whích neither researcher nor subjectsknow which group is the experimental group andwhich the control group. [21

drive-an internal motivational factor. [121drug-any ínorgaruc substance that can interact wíth a

bíological systern. [71duplication hypothesis-a theory proposíng that people

are happiest when they re-create their bírth-orderposition in their marítaí relatíonshíp. (26] . ..

.dyslexía-e-dtsorder in whlch.childrenwtth.riormal íntel-;lígence and adequate environmental cpportunítíeshave extreme difficulty learning to read. (16] .

eardrum-membrane in the ear that vtbrates in re-sponse to sound ..[51

educatíonal psychotogy-c-the iapproach topsychologythat ínvestígates al] the psychological aspects of theleamíng process. [1]

efficacy expectatíons-i-peopte's belíefs that they cansuccessfully execute whatever behavíor ís requíred toproduce a desired outcome. (24]'" .

ego-according to Freud, a psychic component servíngas mediator between the id and reality. (18] .

ego identity-in Eríksons terms, an mtegrated, autono-mous, uníque "self." (18]

ego psychologist-a psychoanalytic ínvestígator whoconsiders herself or himself a Freudian but who.elaborates on Freud's theory, emphasizing ego func-:tions. [181

egocentrism-in cognitive development, a child's beliefthat others literally see thíngs as the child does. (15]

ejaculatii:m-the discharge of fluid duríng orgasmo (13]elaborative rehearsaí-s-a forro of rehearsal that trans-

fers information into .long-term mernoryso that itmay later be retrieved. (91

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)-"shock treatment":administering a series of br ief electrical shocks ofapproximately 70 to 130 volts, spaced over a period ofseveral weeks. The shock induces a convulsíon simi-lar to an epíleptíc seízure. (24] ,

731

electroencephalography (EEG)-technique used to re-cord the braíns electrical activíty as measured byelectrodes placed on a person's scalp. (3]

electromyographic recording (EMG)-measurements ofelectrical activity from muscles. (111

embryo-the developing organísm in the womb from thefourth to the eíghth week. (141

empathic understanding-the therapíst's ability to see~e world through the eyes of the clíent. (24]

empirical approach-an approach to scíentífic ínvestí-gatíon that employs expertmentatíon and dírect ob-servatíon. [2]

encoding. (91See acquisítion.encoding specificity-phenomenon in whích retrieval

wilJ be poor if the retrieval situation differs greatlyfrom the sítuatíon at the time of encodíng. [91

endocrine glands:""glands that produce hormones. [31endocrine system-a set of glands whích secretes hor-

mones carried in the bloodstream. They ínfluenceneural and muscular tissue in other parts of thebody. [31

endorphins-a varíety of neurotransrnítter 'similar instructuré to opíates: implicated in paín and pleasure,[31

environmental niche-the particular environmental sít-uatíon, including food supply, shelter. climate, andpressure from predators, to whích a species ís suíted,(41

environmental psychology-the approach. to psycholo-gy that studies the relationship between people andtheír physical settíngs. [11

epidemiology-the study of- the range of occurrenee.·distribution, and control of illness in a populatíon.[221·

epinephrine-neurotransmitter that plays a vital role inarousal of the sympathetic nervous system and thereticular actívatíng systems of the braín. [31

equílíbratíon-e-tn .cognttwe development, a continua!search for a balance between asstmilatíon and ac-cornmodatíon. [151

equity theory-c-cognttíve theory of work motívatíon stat-. ing that employees are rnotívated to remove any

. perceived ínequttíes. [281 .erectíle failure-a mari's inability to achíeve ormaín-

taín an erectíon. (131ERG theory-e-thecry of work motívatíon based on the

workers existente needs, relatedness needs, andgrowth needs. [281

erogenous .zone-an area of the body that is partícularlysensitive to touch; a focus of pleasure. [13, 171

escape Iearning-s-the learning of a specífic response thattermínates some unpleasant stimulus, enabling theorganism to escape from an unpleasantsituation. [8L

ethologists-scientists who try to explaín animal behav-íor in evolutíonary terms. [41

event-related potential (ERP)-changes in the braín'selectrical actívíty in response to stimulation pre-sented by a researcher. [31

evolution-the theory that each specíes developed fromearlier forms of lífe. [41

excitatory connection-a message that causes a receív-ing neuron to ñre. [31 .

excitement phase-the first phase of sexual response.[ 131

732

exhibitionism-sexual gratification obtaíned throughexhibiting the genitals to an ínvoluntary bystander.[22]

existential frustration-a -major source of abnormalbehavior arising frorn an inability to find meaníng in

'r' life. [231expectancy theory-cognitive theory of work rnotívatíon

stating that we are rnotívated not only by our goalsbut by how attainable we think they are. [2SI

experience (of an emotion)-the subjective feeling that ""accompanies an emotion. [11]

experiment-a method of collecting data in which re-'searchers actively control the presence, absence, orintensity of factors that may affect the behavíor understudy. [21

experimental condition-in an experiment, the condí-tion in which the factor under study is manipulatedto test its effect. [21

experimental psychology-the approach to psychologythat ínvestigates baste behavíoral processes that areshared by severa! specíes. [11

experimenter effects-biases that the experi.menter un-wttttngly introduces ínto the study. [2]

exposure effect-positive attitude produced by repeatedneutral encounters with an object. [25]

expression (of <in emotion)-behavioral acts that areuniquely elicited by an emotion. [11]

extinction-the slow decline and eventual dísappear-ance of a conditioned response. [S]

extrasensory perception [ESP)-the reception of knowl- .edge about the environment that does not arrivethrough a known sensory channel. [1] .

'~--- eitri1Ísic'nio'fivation- the 'i:iÍ'océss hywlilCli- external'·rewards lead anIndívidual to undertake el behavíor.D2]

extroversion-in Jung's terms, a rnajor personalíty orí-entation in whích theperson ís overly interested inthe external world and thus i~ioutgoing, sociable,and excítement-seekíng. [18] _

face validity-a test'sappearance of validity to the peo-pie taking ít. [201, ...

facial-feedback hypothesís=s the hypothesís that oursubjective experíence 'of emotíon comes from anawareness of.our facíalexpresstons. [11]

factor analysts-c-astatístícal method that analyzes re-sponses to a host of possible scale ítems and reducesthem to a few underlyi.ng factors. [20] .

false alarms-c-errors in which asubject detects a stgnalwhen none has been gíven, [5]

family resemblance-the more closely an instance (forexample, apple) resembles many other category mem-bers (other fruíts). themore typical it ísjudged to be.[101

fear of success-the motive to avoid success. [12]feature analysis-the process by which sensory ínfor-

mation ís identified according to its distinctive char-acteristics or features. [6]

feedback-reinforcement in the form of ínformatíonabout past performance that is used to alter futurebehavior. [8]

fetal alcohol syndrome-birth defect characterized bymental retardation and retarded growth in babíesborn to alcoholic mothers. [14]

GLOSSARY

fetishism-sexual gratification that is dependent oninanimate object or some part of the body other thanthe genítals. [22] an

fetus-the developing organísm in the wornb frorn theeíghth week to bírth. [14]

field experiments-studies in which researchers Canintroduce the independent variable but cannot con-trol other variables and often cannot assign Subjectsto the expenmental group. [21

, figure-in a scene, the regíon that represents an object.[61

figure-ground reversal-type of visual ambiguity thataríses when figure and ground altemate so thatperceptíon of the image shifts from one interpreta_tion to another. [61

fixation-( 1) an automatic apphcatíon of an inappropri_ate strategy and a rigid clinging to the obViouslymeffectíve approach. (2) a halt in psychosexual devel-opment caused by failure to resolve the conflict be-tween impulse and control. [101 .

fixed interval schedule-s-a partíal reinforcement sched-ule in which reínforcerrient comes for the first re-sponse after a specífied periodo (SI

fixed ratio schedule-a partíal reinforcernent schedulein whích the subject ís rewarded each time it makes aspeciñc number of responses. [81

fíxed-action patterns-genetic programa of behavíorthat take the form of relatively sterotyped and often-repeated patterns of movement. [41

flooding-an intensive extinction therapy. (241forensic psychology-the approach to psychology that ,

applíes psychologícal prtncíples to the problerns oL-''--lawenforéement' and thecourts. [1] -, . --,~=forrnal-operatíonal period-the culmination of cognt-

tíve development, characterized by abstract reason-ing and the ability to assume artificial prerníses that ,are known. to be false. (151

fovea-the retinal area that líes almost directly opposite.the pupil of the eye.. It contains only cone receptors 'and isthe area of the híghest visual acuity. (51

frame-the way a problern ís phrased. (101fraternal twins-twins who have developed from two

eggs, each fertilized by a dífferent sperm. [41free association-an indirect therapeutic techníque ern-

ployed to study unconscíous processes. The patientwíll say anything that comes to mind, makíng no. .attempt to produce logícal statements, and the psy-choanalyst will attempt to ínterpret the associati0TI?'(1, 1S] .

free (unaided) recall-retrieval process in which a rnem-ory search ís undertaken with only a weak cue or anentíre set of ítems. (9]

free-floating aruriety-an ínabtlíty to specífy the sourceof the fear. (221

frequency-the number of waves passing a given poíntin a gíven periodo [5]

frequency distribution-a representatíon that showsthe relationship between responses and the observed '.

. frequency of those responses. [2]frequency theory-pitch ts deterrníned by the frequency

per second of neural impulses sent to the braín. [5]frontal lobe-the area of the brain generally involved m

be havíor. (31frustration-interference wíth any form of goal-directed

behavíor. (271

··1·

. ,

¡ .

GLOSSARY

frustration-aggression hypothesis-the idea that "ag-gressíon is always a consequence of frustratíon" and,conversely, "frustratíon always leads to some form ofaggressíon" (Dollard, 1939). (271

fugue-a dissociative disorder in whích indívíduals fleefrom the home as well as from theself. (221

fully functionirig-psychologically adjusted, open to ex-perience, undefensive, accurately aware, uncondí-tionally posttíve in self-regard. harmonious in rela-tions wíth other people. [191

functional fixedness-the inability to use a familiarobject in an unfamiliar way. (101

fundamental attribution error-the tendency of observ-ers to attribute other peoples behavior to disposition-al factors. (261

11It

galvaníc skin response (GSR)-a decrease in the resíst-ance of the skin to electrical conduction. (111

ganglia-collections of neuron cell bodies found prínci-pally along thesptnal column. [3]

gender identity-the chíld's understandíng that she orhe is female or male and will always rernaín so. [l71

gender roles-attitudes and patterns of behavíor thatsoctety consíders acceptable for each gender. [171

gender schema-conceptual pattern for organizing newínformatíon on the basis 01'gender roles. [17]

generalization gradient-rate of decrease in an organ-ísm's tendency to respond as the resemblance be-tween a new stimulus and a conditioned stimulusbecomes faínter. [81

generalized anxiety disorder-anxiety disorder charac--tertzed-by díffuse and -generalized anxíety that ís- ,.C ..

impossible to manage by avoiding specíñc situations.[221

genes-basic units óf ínformatton on the DNA stringthat pass along spectfíc heredítary traits. [4]

. genital stage-the final stage of psychosexual develop-ment, In which the focus is on the pleasures of sexualIntercourse. [17, 181 .

gestalt-a meaníngful pattern or figure Into whichhuman beings group perceptual ínformatíon. [61

gestalt therapy-a blend of Freudian concepts withhumanistic phílosophy and. radícally dífferent thera-peutic techniques. [24]

given-new strategy-a decoding techníque, essential to. cornprehendíng speech, In which the lístener takes

the new Information In the utterance and íntegratesit wíth old information. [161

glands-organs that secrete hormones. [31glia-structural units of the nervous system: they pro-

vide nutríents and structural support to neurons andbar certaín substances from the bIoodstream. [3]

goal-setting theory-cognitive theory of work motiva-tion that víews workers as motívated. by' conscíousintentions to attaín a specífíc goaL [281

grammar-the structure of language. [16]ground-In a scene, the regíon that represents spaces

between objects. [61grouping-the organizing of sensory data. [61growth needs. [191See metaneeds.

733

hair cells-the receptors in the organ of Cortí, [51hallucinations-spontaneous sensory perceptions-

usually of sounds-that are unrelated to externalstírnulí. [221

hallucinogen-a drug wíth the ability to produce hallu-cinations. [71

hammer-s-one of the ossicles in the middIe ear. [51health belief model-a model that sees attítudes, val-

ues, and knowledge as paramount in maintaining/health. [211

health psychology-area of psychology that aírns atunderstanding the relationship between the mindand the individual's physical condition. [l. 211

heritability-the extent to which the observed vartatíonof a trait can be attributed to gene tic dífferencesamong a specífic group of índívtduals in a specíñcenvironment. [20]

heuristic-a rule of thumb that provides a general direc-tíon for solving probIems. [l01

hindsight-a bias in judgrnent resulting from lookingback on events after they have already occurred. lIOI

hippocampus-a structure In the limbic systern. [31homeostasis-a process of self-regulatíon to maíntaín a

balanced internal environment; a state of equilibri-um. [31

homosexual-a person whose prírnary source of sexualgratification is members of the same sexo [131

hormones-chemical substances used by the endocrinesystem to transmit messages. [31

hostile aggression-aggression that aims at hurtinganother persono [17]

human-factors ps~c~l0!ll:-=~_lJranch()fi~d~st!'~<l.J psy:,chology that considers the purpose of a particularmachine or envíronment, the capabílttíes ofthe prob-able user, and the most effícíent desígn that matchesthe two. (1]

humanistic-existential perspective-a psychogenic ap- .proach to psychological disorder that Includes bothhumanístíc and existential theoríes, [231

hypnagogíc state.-the state lying between waking andsleep. [7]

hypochondriasis-the preoccupation with bodily symp-LOIl1S as possible sígns of seríous illness. [221

hypotha1amus-a small structure in the braín thatmonitors changes in ínternal environment and sendsstgnals to maíntain equilibrium. [3]

hypothesis-proposition or belíef to be tested. (21 nJ~l

1

habituation-decrease in the strength of a response;occurs after a novel stimulus has been presented overa long time. (81

id-according to Freud, the bíologtcal dríves with whichthe infant is born. [181

identícal twlns-twins who are the product of a singlefertilized egg that dívíded early In the course ofprenatal development. (41

identity-an índívídual's sense of personal samenessand continuity. [171

identity crisis-an internal conflíct that requires theadolescent to develop a new seIf-concept. [17, 18]

ill-defined problem-e-a problem that has no agreed-upon steps or rules that will produce a productgene rally accepted as a soIution. [10]

illusion-a perception that does not correspond to a realobject or event; it ts produced by phystcal or psycho-Iogícal distortion. [61

illusory aftereffects oí motion-an Illusion of reverse

."

i

1;I

FI

II

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734

movement that occurs after gazing at some move-ment for a long time, then shíftíng the gaze to astationary object. [6]

impression management-displaying behavíor that willlead others to make favorable attributions of ourintentions, abihtíes, and feelings. [261

impression management theory-the theory that maín-tains that a persori's attitudes remain írnpervíous tothe eEfects of dissonance and that the insufficientreward affects only the express ion of attitudes to >"

others. [l2]imprinting-the process by whích some species of birds

and mammals form early social attachments. [41incentive-an external motívatíonal stimulus. [12]incest-sexual activíty between closely related persons.

[13,221inclusive fitness-the concept that the fitness of an

individual to survíve is a combinatíon of his or herown personal fitness .and the fitness of hís or herrelatives based on theír shared genes. [41

independent variable-any factor whose change is ex-pected to affect the event beíng studíed, [2]

individual psychology-the school of psychology found-ed by Alfred Adler in 1911. [181

individual trait-a untque way of organtzing the worldthat cannot be applied to all people. [191

individuation-in .Jung's terms, a process of developingall parts of the personality. [181

induced movement-an ílluston in whích a stationaryobject appears to move because íts relatíonshíp toasurrounding background changes. [6]

industrial/organizational (IIO) psychology-c-field of psy-. - - .chology conceri:ú!cfwíthhúrnari beIlavíor-in the worlC; -

place. [1, 28] .iníeriority complex-in Adlers terms. the feelíngs and

actíons that characteríze a person with an inabilityto overcome a childhood senseof incompleteness.[ 181

inhibited eJaculation-a condition in which men areunable to ejaculate during sexual actívíty. [13]

inhibitory connection-a message that prevents a re-ceiving neuron from ñríng. [3]

inoculation-process ofprovídíng a person wíth defens-es agaínst the effects of persuasion. [25]

insight-the sudden perception of a new relationshipthat leads to an innovative solutíon. [lO]

instrumental aggression-aggression that aims at ae-quírtng or retrieving objects, terrítory, or prtvíleges.[17]

instrumental conditioning. [8] See operant condition-ing.

intelligence quotient (IQ)-the ratío of mental age tochronologícal age. [201

intensity-the strength of a stimulus such as the amplí-tude of the air-pressure wave·. [5]

interference-process in whích other material in memo-ry blocks out material that is being sought. [9]

interjudge reliability-the extent to whích the scoringor interpretation of a test by dífferent judges willproduce the same results. [20]

internal consistency reliability-the extent to whichdifferent parts of a test produce the same results. [20]

internalization-the child's tncorporatíon of socíety'svalues to such an extent that víolatíon of thesestandards produces a sense of guilt. [17]

GLOSSARY

.Interneurous-c-neurcns that connect only sensory andmotor neurons, [31

interposition-a rnonocular depth cue in whích oneobject partíally blocks the víew of another object. [6]

intrinsic motivation-the process by which long-term. goals or preferences lead an individual to undertake a

behavíor. [12]introversion-in .Jung's terms, a rnajor personality orí-

entation in whích the person wíthdraws interestfrorn the external world and consequently is quíet,reserved, and cautíous. [181

iris-the pígmented portion of the eye that surroundsthe pupil of the eye. [5]

James-Lange theory oí emotion-the víew that emotionresults from the perception of bodily changes. [111

just noticeable difíerence (JND). [5] See differencethreshold.

key-word system-mnemonic system used in foreign-language learníng: an English word similar to theforeígn word to be learned ís used to cue the foreígnword. [9]

kinesthesis-the sense ofbody movement and position.[5]

latency period or stage-the period in psychosexualdeveloprnent in which libidinal dynamics are more orless stabilized; chtldren busy themselves explonngthe world and learning new thíngs. [17, 181

latent content oí dreams-according to Freud, the un-conscíous wtshes, primarily derived from unresolvedearly emotíorial conflicts, velfé-a by symboÜclm,i,ges-in dreams. [7, 181

.Jateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)-a grouping of cellbodies in the thalamus. [5]

lateralization-the establishment of functions in onehemisphere or the other. [3]'

learned helplessness-the acquired beliefthat one can-not exert any control over the envíronment. [21]

learníng-c-a change in behavíoral disposition that íscaused by experience and not explained on the basisofreflexes. maturatíon, OI ternporarystates. [8]

lens-a transparent structtíre béhind the pupíl of theeye. [5]

límbíc system- the layer of the braín ínvolved in.motiva-tional and emotíonal processes. [3]

linear- functícn. [21 See linear relationship.linear perspective- the apparent convergence of parallel

lines in the distance. [6]linear relationship-a relattonshíp between variables

that can be represented graphically as a straíght líne.[21

linguistics-the study of languages structure. [16]Iocalization of functíon-i-the idea that different parts of

the braín appear to be involved in different types ofbehavior. [31

locus oí control-degree to which persons believe thatthey are personally responsible for what happens tothem. [201

long-term memory-the type of memory storage capableof storing a limitless amount of ínformatíon in-defínrtely. [91

lucid dreams-dreams in which a person is aware thathe or she ís dreaming. [7]

, ,

··:0rI

I',1

,,1

. - .~..:

. :..~.._~..

/

~, -

IGLOSSARY

maintenance rehearsal-a form of rehearsal to maín-tain tnforrnatícn in short-term memory. [91

major depression-one or more major depresstve epí-sodes wíth no mtervernng episodes of euphoria. [221

manifest content oí dreams-according to Freud, thatlevel of content in dreams that ís a weaving of dailyevents, sensations during sleep, and memories; thesurface meaning. [7, 181 .

marital schism-a baste farníly pattern, thought to pro-duce. schizophrenía. in whích the parents of theschtzophreníc are bítterly dívíded.Tz Sl

marital skew-a basic family pattern.vthought to pro-duce schizophrenia,' in whích one parent of theschizophrenic totally dominates the other. [231

masochism-sexual gratification obtained through hav-ing paín ínflícted on oneself. [221

match=-to asstgn subjects to groups on the basís of acharacteristic, so that the subjects in each conditionhave the same amount of the charactertstíc, -f21

mean-the arithmetic average of a dístributíon ofscores. [2)

meaningfulness-a characteristic of human cornmuní-cation in which the relatíonshíp between a word andan object ís arbítrary, depending solely on agreernentamong a group of people as to meaníng, [161

means-end analysis-a problem-solvtng strategy inwhich the person trtes to reduce the distance be-tween the current posítíon and the goal, [101

measure of central tendency-a descríptíve statístícthat represents .the middle of a dístríbutíon ofresponses-the mode, mean. or median: [21

.medían-c-the score .that falls-ín -the-exact-rníddle of adístríbutíon, when all scores are arranged from hígh-est to lowest. [21

medícal model-a model of abnormal behavíor thatvíews psychologícal problems in the same way as it .views physícal problema-e-as díseases. [221 .

medítation-i-a retrammg of attention that induces ID ..altered state of consciousness. [7]

medUlla-the part ofthe braín stem involved in breath-ing, círculatíon, chewíng, salívatíon, andfactai move-.ments, [31 . . .. .. .... ¡

memory trace-a physíologicalchange theoretícallyformed in the braín torecord inforrnatíon: as timepasses. the trace decays. [9] . _ '. .

mental retardation-"significantly subaverage 'generalintellectual functioning existing concurrently wíthdeficíts in adaptíve behavíor, and manifested duringthe developmental períod" (American. Association onMental Deficiency. 1977). [2Ól

mental set-a tendency to keep repeatíng solutions thatworked in other situations. [10 1

metacognition-an understanding of the cognitive proc-esses. [15) .

metamemory-knowledge about how one's own memorysystem works. [91

metaneeds-the híghest motives. havíng to do wíthcreatívíty and self-actualization. (12. 19)

metapathologies-crises (such as alienation and apa-thy) that result when metaneeds are not fulfilled. (19)

method oí loci-mnemonic system that uses a series ofplaces along a familiar route to organíze and cueretrieval of ínformatíon to be remembered. (9)

midbrain-the part of the braín stem that contaínscenters for visual and auditory reflexes. (31

735

mild retardation-mental retardation in which the(Stanford-Bínet) IQ is between 52 and 67; mild retar-dates can hold undemanding jobs. rnarry, and havechildren. (201

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)-an empirically constructed peraonaltty-inventory,valuable for diagnosing certain mental illnesses. (201

mnemonic systems-systems that organíze material so-""hat it can be remembered. [91

mode-a measure of central tendency: the score thatmost frequently appears in a distribution. (2)

modeling-the process by which a person learns somenew behavíor by watching another person perform it.(24'1

models-persons from whom a pattern of behavíor islearned by observation. (81

moderate retardation-mental retardation in which the(Stanford-Binet) IQ ís between 36 and 51; althoughmoderate retardates can take care of thernselves. theymust líve in sheltered workshops. (201

monochromats-people who are totally color-blínd.Monochromats see the world in shades of gray. (51

monocular cues-information that does not requíre thecooperation ofboth eyes. (61

moral anxiety-( 1) in Freud's terms, anxiety over dangerthat comes frorn the superego. (2) gene rally, anxíetycaused by the superegos demands for moral behav-ior. (18, 231

morphemes-the smallest uníts of meaning wtthín aword. (161

motherese-the specíal ways in which adults speak to..- -- .. small-children. [161

·motion parallax-dift'erences that occur in the relatívemovement of retínal images when the observer movesor changes posítion. (61

·motivation- the process corresponding to the propertyof behavíor called "rnotíve.." (121

·motíve-i-the dynamíc property of behavíor that grves ítorganízatíon over time and that defines íts end states .[121

motor cortex-the area of the frontal lobes ínvolved in..._ regulation of voluntary movement. [31

-.motor neurons-neurons that carry messages from the'.' spínal cord to muscles or glands. [31multíple orgasms-a series of orgasms that women may· experíence wíthout going through the resolutíon

phase after each orgasmo (131multiple personality-a dívistcn into two or more com-

plete behavíor organízatíons. each well-defíned andhíghíy distinct from the others: a rare díssocíatívedíscrder. (221

myelin sheath-e-a fatty, whítísh substance that wrapsaround some axons and that serves as ínsulatíon. (31

,¡':,!

":1

·A

natural category-a category made up of some class ofobjects in the world. (10 1

natural selection-the tndívídual's reproductíve suc-cess. whích is made possible by íts genetic dífferen-ces from other members of its populatíon. (41

naturalistic observations-a rnethod of collecting datain whích researchers carefully observe and recordbehavíor in natural settings. (21

negative correlation-a relationship between two varia-bles in whích a rugh rank on one measure ts accorn-panted by a low rank on the other. (21

1;'~.

736

negative reinforcement-the strengthening of a re-sponse by the removal or termination of a stimulus.[81See also escape Iearníng.

neodissociation theory-a theory of hypnosís based onthe notion that conscíousness depends on multiplesystems that are coordinated through híerarchíes ofcontrol, and that during hypnosis the controls shíft.[71

nerves-bundles of neuron fibers. [31 »:

nervous networks-a system of communication chan-nels that spreads into every part ofthe body. [31

neurons-the specíahzed cells in the central nervoussystem that transmit tnformatíon by means of electro-chernícal impulses. [31

neuropsychology. [11See physiological psychology.neuroscience-area of psychology that investigates the

workings of the sensory systems; the effects of varí-ous brain chernícals on psychologícal phenomenasuch as memory, paín. and motívatíon: and theeffects of braín damage on behavíor. [1]

neurosis-any· ccndítíon in which a person developssome maladaptive behavior as a protectíon againstunconscíous anxíety. [221

neurotic anxiety-in Freud's terrns. anxiety over dangerthat comes from the id. [18, 231

neurotransmitter-a chernícal stored in sacs at the tipof the axon, that transmits rnessages across thesynapse. [31

nondirective counseling. [241See client-centered ther-apy.

non-REM (NREM) sleep-the stages of sleep other thanREM-sle'ep:t71--'-'· ... - - __o'-- __ ...__. 'O. •

norepinephrine-neurotransmitter that may be in-volved in arousal, pleasure, dreamíng, and mood.[31 .

norm-a normative distribution that shows the frequen-cy wíth, whích particular scores on a test are made.[141 .

normal.curve of distribution-a: bell-shaped, symmetrí-cal dístríbutíon, in whích. mean, median, and mode.are the same. [21

nox;ms-( 1) averages derived frorn observtng many indí-viduals',-(2} a socíety's rules that prescribe "ríght"and "wrong" behavíor. [20, 22,. 271

.nuclear.-magnetic resonance: (NMR)-technique that- uses radiowaves on a body enclosed in a magnetic

field to produce images oftíssue, bíochemícalactíví-ty,. and metabolismo [31

obedience-any behavíor that complies wíth the explicitcornmands of a person in authority. [27]

object concept-an understanding that objects have anexistence of theír own ..[15]

object permanence-the awareness that objects contin-ue to exíst when out of síght. [151

obsession-an involuntary, irrational thought that oc-curs repeatedly. [221

obsessive-compulsive disorders-disorders character-ized by rituals of orderliness or cleanliness, such ascontinual hand washing. [23]

occipital lobe-the area in the braín for reception andanalysís of visual information. [3]

Oedipal conflict-the most important conflíct in the

GLOSSARY

chíld's psycnologícal development, in whích childrenperceive themselves as rívals of theír same-sex par-ents for the affectíon of the parent of the opposite sexo[171

olfaction-the sense of smell. [51olfactory epithelium-the sense organ for olfaction. [51open gene tic program-a gene tic program that can be

modified by experience. thus permitting an animal tostore more information than can be transmitted in aclosed gene tic programo [4]

operant conditioning-conditioning in whích learnincris explained by the way the consequences ofbehavio~affect the organísmss behavíor in the future, [8]

oppouent-process theory-( 1) the theory of color vístonproposing the exístence of three antagonisticalIy or-ganized systerns. wíth two of the systems composedof paírs of opposíte colors. (2) the theory explainingacquired motívatíons as the result of two opposingprocesses. [5, 121

optic chiasm-the junctíon where the nerves meet andare rerouted. [51

optic disc-the "blínd spot" in the eye; the area on theretina through whích the optíc nerve passes. [5]

optic nerve-the nerve that relays visual information tothe braín. [51

optimal-level theories-theories proposing that áctívt.ties seerníngly unrelated to specífic primary needs arebased on a built-in tendency to maíntaín a certaínlevel of st ímulatíon. [121

oral stage-that stage in psychosexual development thatoccupíes the first year of !ife and durmg whích thebaby's mouth ts the.prtrnary source of sensual.pleas; _ure, [17, 181

organic brain syndromes-disorders directly traceableto the destruction of braín tíssue or to biochemicalimbalance in the braín. [221

organísm-i-the total range of a persori's possíble experí-ences. [191

organizational psychology. [11 see industrial/organ-izational (I10) psychology.-

orgasrn-c-the clímactíc phase of sexual response. [131orienting reñex-c-phystologícal reactíori to a novel stím-

ulus. [81ossicles-a series of bones in the middle ear. [5]oval window-the flexible membrane that divides the

middle ear from the tnner ear. [5]overextension-a chíld's tendency to extend the mean-

íngs of words to cover objects or actíons for whichthey have no words. [161

overinclusion-a Iooseníng of assocíatíons. so that eachsentence is generated from some mental stimulus inthe preceding sentence. [221

overregulation.-extension of a grammatical rule tocases where ít does not apply. [161

ovulation-retease of a mature egg from the ovary. (131

pain thresholds-points at which pains are first per-ce íved. [51

pair recognition-test of memory retrieval in which thesubject is asked to confirm whether a paired test itemmatches a prevtously leamed paír. [91

Pandemonium model-model of feature analysis pro-posíng that the brain identifies unknown letter stírn-

GLOSSARY

uli by weíghíng the various stimuli features that maladaptive personality traíts that írnpaír functíon-match the letter stored in memory, then summing ing. (22]those weíghted matches over all features available in personality psychology-the approach to psychology inthe pattem. (61 which individual differences in behavíor are studied.

panic attacks-episodes in which an already heíghtened (11state of tension mounts to an acute and overwhelm- personnel psychology-a branch of industrial psycholo-ing leve!. (22] gy. Personnel psychologísts screen job applicants,

panic disorder-panic attacks preceded by no specific evaluate job performance, and recommend employeesstimulus. (221 for prornotton. (11

paradoxical cold-the phenomenon of feeling a cold pef'suasive communication-a direct, overt attempt tosensatíon when a cold spot on the skín is stimulated change attitudes. (25]with a hot stimulus. (5] phallic stage-s-the third stage of psychosexual develop-

parapsychology-the study of ESP; the psychology of rnent, during which the chíld's attentíon ís focusedevents that go beyond what is probable. (11 on the genitals and the pleasures of fondling them.

parasympathetic nervous system-the dívíston of the [17, 18]autonomic nervous system that demínates in relaxed phenomenological approach-an approach in thesituations. (3] humantstic-extstentíal perspective that stresses the

parietal lobe-the area of the braín behind the central índtvidual's own perception of events as opposed to afíssure. [31 . .. therapists interpretation of hidden causes. [231 .

Parkinson"s disease-i-a chronic and often 'progresstve pheromones-chemicals that trtgger a behavíoral reac-:condition characterized by ínvoluntary shakíng of tíon in other anírnals of the same species. [51the Iímbs and head. [31 phi phenomenon-an example of apparent motion in

partial reinforcement schedule-a schedule of reín- which the íllusíon is created by rapidly flashing stillforcement in which the subject is rewarded after only pictures. [61some of íts responses. [81 phobia-an anxíety irrationally centered on a particular

participant modeling-a therapeutíc technique in objeet or situatlon. [22]which the therapíst models the feared actívíty and phonemes-the smallest sound units in the language.then helps the client to confront and master a gradu- (161ated series of threatening actívittes. [241 photopigment-a light-sensitive molecule. [51

pathway-"cable" made up of long, parallel axons that phyletic evolution-a straíght-Iíne pattem of evolutíon... transmit sígnals in the central nervous system.(3] [41

patt~rp.~ogp.itj.on-pmc-.e.ss_ through whích.we. ic;lepti:.__..~~physiological_psychology~the.appmach_to psychologyfya shape or sound as similarto something we have that attempts to untangle the connections betweenseen before. [3] the endocrine and nervous systems and behavíor. 111

. pedophilia-sexual gratíñcatíon obtained through sexu- physiological zero-the temperature at which there isal contacts wíth children. (22] no sensatíon. [51

peg-word system-mnemonic system based on _ten or pitch-the attribute of tones in terrns of whích they maymore simple words that act as rnernory pegs or hooks. be described as hígh or low. This attribute ís closely[91 related to frequency of the sound waves. [5]

percentile system-a system of scoríng tests in whích pituitary gland-the "master gland" of the endocrinethe group of seores is divided ínto one hundred equal system. [31parts. [201 place theory-the theory statíng that the stte of maxí- .

perception-an organísm's awarenesS of objects and -mum displacement on the bastlar membrane índí-.. ·events in the envíronment. brought about by stímu- cates to the brain, the spectfíc.frequency ofsound. [5]latíon of the organísrns sense organs. (6] placebo-a substanee that has no direet phystologícal ..

.perceptual constancy-the tendency to percetve objects effeet. [3, 51 - . .as havíng eertain constant or stable properties. [61 placebo effect-phenomenon in whích subjects' expec-

perceptuaI set-the' readíness to perceíve stímulí in a tatíons of the effect of a substance result in theirspecíñc way, ignortng some types of st írnulatíon and experiencing the effect, even though they are aetuallybecorníng sensttíve to others. [61 gíven an inert substance. [21

peripheral nervous system (PNS)-the relay system con- plastic-the characteristíc of hurnan behavíor thatnectíng the CNS and all parts of the body. [31 makes it capable of being molded by envíronmental

perseveratícn=-t 1) a verbal slip in whích a produeed influenees. [41sound is erroneously repeated later in the utteranee. plateau phase-the second phase of sexual response ..[2) a tendeney to dwell on the prírnary associatíon to [131a gtven stimulus. [16. 221 pons-the part of the braín stem that conneets the two

personal disposition. [191See individual trait. halves of the cerebellum and that aets as a relaypersonal unconscious-in .Jung's terrns. a leve! of the station. [31

unconseious similar to the unconscíous as depicted population-a group of interest identified by some par-by Freud. [18] tieular characteristie or group of charaeteristies. [2]

personality-the dífferences among people plus the sta- position emission tomography (PET) scan-teehniquebility of any índívídual's behavíor over long períods. that provides color eontour maps of brain actívíty[17, 18] through use of injeeted radíoactíve glucose. [3]

personality disorder-disorder ínvolvíng inflexible and positive correlation-a relationship between two varia-

737

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bles in which a hígh rank on one measure is accom-panied by a hígh rank on the other. [21

positive reinforcer-reward that increases an organ-ísrn's tendency to repeat a response that leads to it.[81

postconventional Ievel=-Kohíberg's stage of moral de-velopment at which an individual judges moral ís-sues in terms ofself-chosen príncíples and standardsbased on universal ethical principies and on theideals of recíprocity and hurnan equality. [17J

post-decision dissonance-state in whích an awarenessof the posttíve features of the rejected alternatíve andthe negatíve features of the chosen alternatíve createscognttíve inconsistency. [251

Pg4R method-mnemonic system used to improvememory for test material; consists of six steps. pre-víew, questíon. read, reflect, recite, and revíew. [91

pragmatics-the study of língutstic functíon. [l6]precocial-competent (referring to the young of a spe-

cíes). [l4]preconventionallevel-Kohlberg's stage of moral devel-

opment in whích children judge moral issues interms of paín or pleasure or of the physícal power ofauthority. [17]

predictive validity-a test's abíhty to produce scores'that show a relationship to future performance en ajob. [20]

prefrontal lobotomy-a surgícal procedure in which asurgícal ínstrurnent ís inserted ínto the braín androtated to sever nervefíbers connectíng the frontallobe (thought center) and the thalamus (emotional

. .center). [2~L __pregenital stage-a coll~~tivete¡ni-ror FreUdOS-flrs"E diree

psychosexual stages. (l8Jprejudice-negatively toned attitudesand opinions

about an entíre group, such as a racial minority orwomen, developed in the absence of sufficient knowl- __edge. [26] .

premature ejacufation-c-a conditionin which men ejac-ulate rapidly, before they or theír partners would like.[13]

preoperational period-the period of cognítíve develop-ment characterized by the development of language,elaborate symbolícplay, and the absence of logícr thepreschool years. [15]

primacy effect-c-a process in which the personalitytraits that are detected first influence subsequentinformation about the persono [26] -

primary appraiSal-a persori's ínítíal appraisal of new orchanging circumstances to determine what theymean to hírn or her. [211

primary colors-in additive color míxíng, the threebasic colors (blue, red, and green) that can be corn-bined to produce any other color. [5]

primary drives-internal motívatíonal factors that seekfulfillment of basic needs. [12]

primary erectile failure-the condition of a man whohas never been able to achieve or maintain an erec-tíon sufficíent for intercourse. [13]

primary orgasmíc dysfunction-the sttuatíon ofwomenwho have never experienced orgasm through anymeans. [13]

primary prevention-a method of maintaining health

GLOSSARY

by encouragíng peapie to develop a healthy lifestyle.[21]

primary reinforcer-a stímulus that fulfills some basicneed. [81

priming-presenting an ítem or an assoctatíon to an-ttem several seconds or mínutes before memory forthe ítem is tested, thus preparíng it for subsequentre trieval. [91

proactive interference-interference in whích earlierlearníng blocks out subsequent learning. (9]

problem reduction-problem-solving strategy in whícha large problem ís broken into a number of smaller,easíer-to-solve problems. [101

problem space-a persori's conceptíon of the posstbj-moves to be examined in solvíng a problem. [10]

prodromal phase-a phase of detertoratíon, in whích aperson beca mes increasingly withdrawn, eccentric in 'behavíor. and unable to carry out daily functions:,jbefore schízophrenía becomes active. [22] o;:

productivity-a majar characteristic of human lan-"guage: the capacíty to allow individual uníts to bé:combined ínto an unlírníted number of messages-.:(16] z.

profound retardation-mental retardatíon in whích the.(Stanford-Bínet) IQ is below 20; profoundly retarded .persons usually rernaín in institutions but can som~>times carry out a few tasks under close supervísíon."some cannot speak, although they may understand:simple communícatíon. [201

program evaluation-evaluation by psychologists of tnecost and effectíveness of applied programs. [11

progressive relaxation-a relaxatíon techníque iwhíchthe mdlvíüüaftenses and 'thenreleases díffer-ent muscle groups in sequence. (211.,.

projection-the unknowing attribution of ones owrrimpulses or fears onto others. [181

projective tests-tests whose overall assessment de~'.pends upon clínícal interpretation. [20] . __

proposítíon-i-the form in which a thought occurs in OUI}.conscíousness: it consísts of a subject (topic) wttha.predicate (comment about the topic). [161 - :

prosocial behavior-action intended to benefit another .:-.person, taken wtthout expectation of external re,ward. and generally ínvolvtng sorne cost to the indi-··vídual, [171

prototype-a hypothetical best--or most ryptcal=.example of a category. [101

proXimity-a principie of grouping; how close together-people live and work. [6, 26]'

psychiatric nurse-a regístered nurse who has specíal-,ízed in psychiatric nurstng. [241 _.

psychiatric social worker-a professional. who has.earned a master's degree in social work ando has-..specíalízed in psychiatric social work. [24] .

psychiatrist-a phystcían (lVID) who specíalízes in the.diagnosis and treatment of mental illness. [241

psychoactive drug-a drug that interacts with the cen-.tral nervous system to alter mood, perception, andbehavíor. [7] .

psychoanalysis-the process by which Freud atternpted-to bring unconscious material ínto the patíent's.awareness, where ít could be examined ratíonally..-;[ 18]

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GLOSSARY

psychoanalyst-a person wíth special traíning in thetechnique of psychoanalysis and who has been psy-choanalyzed as part of the traíníng. [241

psychodynamics-the interplay of ccnflictíng forceswithin the personality. [18J

psychogeníc theory-the view that mental disturbancesresult prtrnaríly from psychologtcal factors. [231

psychohistory-the applícatíonof psychoanalytíc prin-cipIes to the study of hístortcal figures. [181

psycholinguistics-the study of Ianguages functíon:how language ís used. [16 J

psychological test-an objectíve and standardízed mea-sure of a sample of behavíor that provides a systemat-íc basis for making inferences about people. [201

psychology-the study of behavíor. [11psychopharmacology-the study of the relatíonshíp be-. tween drugs and behavíor. [1 Jpsychosis-a condition in whích the person's percep-

tions of reality are' híghly distorted. [22Jpsychosocíal-caused by both.psychologícal and social

factors. [18Jpsychotherapy-a systernatíé series of interactions be-

tween a therapíst trained to aid in soívmg psychologí-cal problems and a person who ís troubled or who ístroubling others. [241

psychotic disorder-a disorder characterized by a gen-eralized failure of functioníng in all areas of a per-sori's life. [221

P300 wave-feature of the event-related potential thataríses when a persori's expectatíons are upset. [31

puberty-the períod of sexual maturation that trans-._forms.a child into .a physícal.adult.Ll.Zl. __..,-

punishment-a consequence that leads tó the suppres-síon of or to a decrease in the.frequency of a behavíor.[81

pupil-the openíng in th~ cent::r of the eye. [51._...

prevíously unexamined beliefs and then are aided inestablishing a more realistic cognitive frarnework: amethod of cognitive restructuríng. [241

rationalization-defense mechanism in which a persondevíses a plausible explanation for doing [or notdoingl something that in fact he or she ís doing fordilferent reasons. [181

reaction formation-the replacement of an 'anxtety-....-producing impulse by its opposite. [181

reaction range=-the uníque range of responses to theenvironment possible for the gene tic make-up of eachpersono [201

realistic fantasy-a state on the contínuum that stretch-es from normal waking conscíousness to dreamíng:it is most like normal consciousness. [71

realistic job preview [RJP)-an honest pícture of thepotential job, including its disadvantages. [28]

reality anxíety-i-tn Freud's terrns. anxíety over dangerthat comes frorn the outside world. [18,231

receptive field-the restricted regíon of the retina with-in whích a neural response may be generated byIíght. [5 J

receptor neurons-the specialized cells that receive sen-sory information frorn the environment. [31

recíprocal altruism-theory proposíng that when a per-son performs an altruísttc act, he or she increasesthe chanees that the person being helped will recípro-cate and may one day help either the helper or thehelpers kin. [4, 271

reconditioning-relearning of a conditioned responsethat has been extinguished by again pairing the es

- -andUS. [81- - ,---- - - -.referential-use of symbols to refer to objects. [161reflex arc-the baste functíonal unít of the nervous

system: a connectíon between sensory and motorsignals. [31

reflexes-nervous system responses that provide ímme-diate ínvoluntary reactions or responses to stírnulí.[31

refraetory period=-I 1) a short period after a cell hasfired, during whích it cannot transmít an impulse.(2) a per íod 01' time that must pass after a mari'sorgasm before he can become sexualIy aroused again.[3, 131

regression-defense mechanism in whích a person re-turns to an earlier stage of development in responseto some perceíved threat. [18 J

rehearsal-mental repetition of material we wish toretain in mernory. [91

reinforcement control-a way of regulatíng and rnaín-taining behavíor by rewarding an individual after heor she has behaved in a particular way. [191

reinforcement theory-theory of work motívatíon thatapplies the techniques ofoperant conditioning to theworkplace. [281

relative size-the relationship between the size of theretínal image produced by an object and the apparentdistance of that object from an observer. [6J

reliable-a test, measuring something consistently. [20JREM (rapid eye-movement) sleep-a stage of sleep asso-

cíated wíth dreams, in whích the eyes move rapidly, baek and forth under closed eyelíds, (7J

representational thought-thinking in which one men-

739

. j

qualitative change-c-change.Jn cognítíve developrnent.considered as tnvolvinga radícalrestructuríng of themínd, [15J .

qualíty-c-thekínd of sensatíon a stimulus produces. [5Jquantítative caange-c-change.tn cognitive deveiopment,

consídered as resulting;from'-theaccumulation ofknowledge. [151

quantítatíve psychology-s-the approach to psychologythat specíalízes in measurernent and statistics. (1 J

racísm-c-specífíc attítudes and behavíor based on. pea-ple's beliefs that theír ówn race ís superior. (26J

randomly assign-to assígn subjects lo a treatmentcondition in such a way that each subject has anequal chanee of being plaeed in either condition. [21

range-the dilference between the smallest and the largO'est scores in a statístícal dístríbutíon. [21

rape-nonconsenting sexual intercourse with anotherperson as the result of force, threat, or intimidation.[13, 221

rational scale-personality test developed by deñníngthe varíous constructs to be measured, then writingitems that appear to fit the definitions. [20J

ratíonal-ernotíve therapy-a therapy in which clientsare first led to, recogníze the irrational nature of

740

tally represents objects not directly in front of one.[15]

representativeness-a heuristíc in whích predictionsare based on resemblances between the predíctedevent and a typícal example. [101

repressíon=.the fundamental defense mechanísm, onethat keeps threatening thoughts and memories fromconsciousness and pushes thern back into the un-conscious. [18] ".-

residual phase-a period following the active phase ofschizophrenia in which behavior resembles that ofthe prodromal phase. [22]

resistance-a client's attempts to block the therapíst'streatment. [24]

resolution phase-the final phase of sexual response.[ 13]

resting rate-the rate at whích small spontaneous im-pulses are sent down the axon during a neurori'sresting phase. [3]

retention-the rnaíntenance of information in storage.[9]

retieular formation-the part of theibraín stem that. arouses higher braín areas to íncomíng information

and maíntaíns the sleep-wakíng cycle. [3]retina-the surface at the back of the eye cornposed of

receptors and neurons. [5]retrieval-the ability to get encoded informatíon out of

storage and back into awareness. [9]retrieval cue-a piece of information that helps us. to

retrieve information from long-term memory.[9]retroactive interference-interference in which subse-

quent.learníng. blocks outearlíer.Ieamtng.Fal .__.retrograde amnesia-a condition in whích people are

unable to remember events precedíng some kind ofbrain insulto [9]

reverie-a state on the contínuum that stretches fromnormal waking conscíousness to dreamíng: ít con-sísts of unrelated images, scenes, or memories. [7]

reversal-verbal slips in which sounds are- exchanged ..[16]

rhodopsin-a highly sensttíve photopígment found in- rods. [51 '

rods-receptor cells in the eye.responsfble for vísion indim líght. Rodsstgnaltnformation about bríghtness.[51

role enaetment theory-the theory that hypnosís íssimply a special case of role playing. [7]

role taking-being able- to imagine oneself in another'splace. [17]

Rorschach Inkblot Test_a test in which a person ishanded a series of symmetrícal inkblots. one at atime, and ís asked to report what she cr he' sees,using free association. [201

round window-a membranous spor on the cochlea. [5]

sadism-sexual gratíñcation obtaíned through ínflíctíngpaín on another persono [221

sample-a representative selectíon of mernbers of a de-fined populatíon, [2]

scatter plot-graph on whích a large number of data areplotted; used to show the range of possíble relatíon-ships. [2]

GLOSSARY

schedule of reinforcement-the basís on which a sub-ject is rewarded for a behavíor. [8]

schema-organized cluster of general lmowledge that wepossess about any general topic. [9, 101

schemes-i-actton patterns that consist ofwhatever in an"actíon can be repeated and generalized to othersituations. [15]

schizophrenia-a group of disorders characterized bythought disturbance that may be accompanied bydelusions, hallucinations, attention defictts. and bt-zarre motor activity. [22]

Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT)-':a test desígned to mea-sure "aptítude for college studíes" rather than schoolachievement or general íntellígence. [20J

sehool psyehology-the approach to psychology con-cerned with assessment of children with leaming oremotional problems. The school psychologist wíllthen work out ways for parents and teachers to helpthese chíldren. [1] .

scientific management-a system for the redestgn ofwork methods to make them more efficient. [28]

script-the schema of routíne events that typically occurin a particular sítuatíon. [161

search tree- the set of all poss íble moves that willlead to .soIution of a problem. [lO] .

secondary appraisal-a persori's assessment of whether..he or she has the resources and ability to cope wíth a:situation. [21] .'.:

secondary erectile failure-a condítíon in whích meri.who have experienced no erectile failure with apart-v-ner in the past are unable to achíeve or maintain an..erectton.in.sorne or.all.sexual.situatíons.J L3.]. :.

secondary (situational) orgasmic dysfunction-the siU~uation of women who experience orgasms sorne-.times, but not wíth theír pnrnary sexual partneror:not during sexual intercourse. [13]

secondary reinforcer. [8] See conditioned reínforcer:secondary trait-a charactertstíc mode of behavíor that. .

ís less prominent than a central trait and is seen mi:;;fewer sítuatíons. [191 2

second-order conditioníng-c-a phenomenon in which a::second neutral stimulus, when it repeatedly followsa"conditioned stimUlus,becomes capable of'elícifíng":the condítíoned response by itself. -[8] .

selective attentíoa-i-the process of controlling the selec-v,tíon of material from sensory memory. [9] . -. ,.

self--the parts of the total range of a persori's possible'.experíences that the individual recognízes and ac-".cepts. [19] .

self-actualization-fulfillment of an índivtdual's capa- o

bilities. [191 .self-fulñllíng prophecies-expectations about behavíor

that evoke a sttuatíon in whích the expectations are'confírmed; [26]

self-instructíonal training-a method of cognítíve re'structuring that gíves clients new ways of thínkíngand talking about theír problems. [241 .

self-monitoring-controlling our words, actions, andnonverbal dísplays of emotion so as to create a favor-able impression. [25, 26]

self-schemas-cIusters of generalizations about the selfbased on past experiences that organize, summaríze.and explaín OUT behavior. [261

GLOSSARY 741

t

I¡I,f

semen- the fluids díscharged by males in ejaculatíon. slow potential-change in voltage of a recervíng neuron.[131 [31

semicircular canals-the three fluíd-filled canals in the social behavior-any behavíor that involves the ínterac-inner ear that make up the vestíbular-organ. [51 tíon of two or more índívíduals. [41

sensorimotor period-the períod of cognitive develop- social cognition-the child's understanding of the so- .ment in which the ínfant relies on action schemes; cial world and the process by which the child comesthe fust two years of Me. [151 to understand why people behave as they do in social

sensory deprivation-alteration of consciousness by sttuatíons. [171sharp reductíon of al! sensory stimu1ation. [71 social facilitation-enhanéed performance in L.'1epres-

sensory memory-the momentary persistence of senso- ./ ence of others. [271ry information after stímulatton has ceased. [91 social impact theory-the theory that when social for-

sensory neurons-neurons that carry messages frorn ces affect a situation. the larger the group, the lessthe sense organs to the spinal cord. [3J pressure on any one mernber because the impact of

separation distress-an infant's protesting when parted the forces ís spread over the entire group. [271from the mother and expressmg joy when the mother social influence-waiting for others to define the sítua-returns. [171 tíon as an ernergeney. [21+

septal area-a structure in the lírnbíc system. [31 social interest-in Adlers terms, the inborn desire toserotonin-neurotransmltter believed to affect body strive for the public good. [181

temperature, sensory perceptíon, and the onset of· sociallearning theory-the theory proposing that learn-sleep. [31 .' ing is not sírnply a matter of reactíng to stímulí:

severe retardation-mental retardatíon in whích the rather. people apply cognitive processes to the stírnu-(Stanford-Binet)IQ ís. between 20 and 35; severe li they encounter, selecüng.rorganíaíng, and trans-retardates can learn to care for some of their physical forming them. [81needs. [201 social psychology-the approach to psychology con-

sexism-attitudes and behavíor based on the belíef that cerned with the study of the behavior of people inone's own sex is superior. [261 groups. In social psychology, special attentíon is paid

sex-typed behavíor-s-behavtor that is regarded as appro- to the influence of other people on índtvíduals. [11príate for only one sexo [171 social trap-a sítuatíon in whích as a result of personal

sexual dysfunction-any recurring .problern that pre- dectstons, people, organizattons. or socíetíes startvents an individual from engagíng ín sexual relations moving in some direction or initiate some relatíon-or from reaching orgasm during sexo[131 ship whose 'consequencesbecome collectivelyharm-

_s~!ip~g.::-it fQrrl1o( 9pe!..anJ.c()~d.i~iot1!Pg_~seaQn..!l"!~._ fui or lethal but that seems virtually impossible toreinforcernent of ever-closer approxírnattons of a de- . -- - stop:¡27] --- . _o.oo __ o._ -.-----

sired behavíor. [8J . socialization-the process of absorbing socíety's attí-short-term memory(STM)- the type ofrnernory storage tudes, values, and customs. [171

. capable of retaining information for about fifteen sociobiology-the study of the genetícbasts of socialseconds. [9J behavíor andorganízatlon. [4J

sign stimulus-a particular stímulus thattríggers the sociopath-one who is indifferent to the ríghts ofothers.appearance of fíxed-actíon patterns as well as some [221 ' ..more complex behavíor. [41 solo situation-phenomenori in whích a single outsider

signal detectíon theory-the theory proposíng that enters a group of otherwíse homogeneous índívídu-there ís no single absolute threshold for a stímulus, als. [261[51 o somatic nervous system-s-the dívíston, of the PNS relat-

similarity-a principie of groupíng. ¡6J ed to the external world andgerieraüy.under volun-simplicity-the concept mtegratíng al! the principies of tary control. [31

grouptng. [61 somatoform dísorder-c-dísorder- whose dístínguíshíngsimplification-problem-solVing strategy in whích a so- feature is the persístence of symptoms that have a

lutíon to a similar but relatívely simple problem is somatic or physical form, but in which there is noworked out in order to generalize .the solutíon meth- phystologícal malfunctíon. [221od to a more cornplex problem. Llar somatosensory cortex-s-the areaof the parietal lobe

single feature-s-the classiñcatíon rule that depende on tnvoíved in reception and interpretation of touch andjust a single attríbute (for example, doctor). [101 . posttíonal information. (31

single-item recognition-test of mernory retríeval in source credíbility-i-the extent to which the prestíge ofwhich subject ís asked to confírrn whether an ítern the source affects a messages belíevabílíty. [25Jwas on a prevíously Iearned; líst., [9J· source trait-an underlying root or cause of a surface

síngle-unít recording-placement of an electrode to traít, [191allow researchers to record the electrícal actívíty of a species-a group of índívtduals who can mate wíth eachsingle neuron. [3J other and produce offspring under natural ccndí-

situational cause-cause of behavíor that is attributed tíons. [4J .to condítíons in the environment. [261 species-specific behavior-behavior typical of a partícu-

size constancy-the tendency to perceíve the size of an lar species whose members share a common geneticobject as constant regardless of its 'dístance and, background and a common environment that pro-hence, the síze of its retinal image. [61 vides similar influences and experiences. [41

742

speech act-an utterance. (16]spermatogenesis-the process of sperm production. (131spinal cord-column of neurons that bring information

from the skin and muscles to the braín and sendmotor commands back to muscles. (3]

spontaneous recovery-temporary reappearance of anextinguished response when an organísrn is reíntro-duced to the experimental situation. (81

stages-c-cogrntrve períods of development in which achilds thinking patterns are radícally dífferent frorn>those of an earlier periodo (151

standard deviation (S.D.)-the preferred measure ofvartab ílíty. If shows how much figures in a gíven setof data vary from the mean. [2]

standard seore system-a system of scoring tests inwhích standard scores represent points on a bell-shaped curve that reflects the normal pattern ofdistribution of scores on almost any test. [201

standardlz.atiorrgroup-i--a large andwell-defined. groupofpeople to which a test is gíven to establish the test'snorms. (20]

. Stanford-Binet Test-a revision of Binet's test of intelli-gence; devísed at Stanford Uníverstty, (201

state-dependent memory-memory more easily recalledwhen a person is in the same phystologícal state aswhen she or he acquired the ínformatíon. (91

stereopsis-perception of depth based on binocular dís-parity. (61

stereotype-to rigidly asstgn to a person al! the stand-ardízed attributes that we ordinarily assígn to thegroup, makíng no allowances for Indívídualíty. [261

stimulant-a drug that íncreases heart rate, blood pres-- -- - '-sure~atfd"müsclé Tension' by stünuranrtg the'e-entral

nervous svstern. [71sttmulus-e-any form of energy tbat can evoke a response -Ó.

(51stimulus control-a particular .behavíor taking place

only when a particular stírnulus ínthe' envíronmentevokes it at the appropriatetíme.q l O¡

stimulus genúáJ.ization-the tendency for a responselearned in one sttuatíon to occur in response to otber .similar strrnulí or sítuatíons. (81' .

-stirrup-oneof the ossicles. ,[5] ,,--,". . "Stockholm syndrome-s-the attachmentvthat develops

between a hostage and his or her captor. [251stress~a, term .wíthout .precise ,¡n.e¡uüng;· sometimes

defined asany stírnulus that placesa. .straín on apersori's physical or psychologícal capacity to adjust:sometímes defíned as an ínternal response to somedísruptíve or dísquietmg si tuation. (211

subjective contours-s-Itnes or shapes that appear to bepart of a figure but are actually not physícally pres-ent. (6]

subjects-human beíngs orother animals that are thesource ofresponses in an experimento [21

sublimation-the dívers íon of emotional energy from ítsoriginal source to a socially constructive 'use. (181

subliminal perception-the regístration of sensory in-formation that influences behavíor wtthout produc-ingany conscious experience of the stimulus. (61

superego-according to Freud, that part of the personal-íty that represents the moral standards of the socíetyas conveyed to the child by the parents, [181

GLOSSARY

superstítíous beliavior-the increase of a responseowing to a coíncídental relationship between thebehavíor and a reinforcer. (81

surface traits-clusters of behavíor that tend to gotogether. (191

survey-method of collecting data in whích researchersobtain tnformatíon about people's characteristicsattítudes, optníons. or behavíor by asking them ques,tioris. (21

sympathetic nervous system-the dívistcn of the auto-nomic nervous system that dominates in emergen-cies or stressful situations. [31

synapse-a small gap between neurons. [31synergistic-a combined actíon of drugs. For examDle

the effect of two depressants taken together is gre~te~than the sum of the two drugs' effects. (71

syntax-the rules for combining words to form senten-ceso [161

systematic desensitization-a procedure aiming at thegradual extínctíon of anxíety, in which the relaxedclient 'is gradually exposed to anxiety-producingstimuli. (241

systematic relationship-correlatíon between two setsof phenomena that happen together that ís stgniñ.cantly hígher than chanceo (21

tardive dyskinesia-a muscle disorder in whích patientsgrimace and smack theír lips uncontrollably. (241

taste buds-the structures in the mouth and tonguethat contain receptor célls for taste stimuli. (51

telegraphic speech-a chtld's utterances in thelanguage-acquísttton stage, characterízed by two-'wordsentences. [161.-"- --, ... ,--

temperament-":the mdívídual's pattern of actívtty, sus-ceptibility to emotional stimulation, response tostimuli, and general mood. (171

template matching-theory of pattern recognition pro-posing tbat tbe braín recognizes pattems such asletters by comparing fue stímulí to standard patternsít has sto red in mernory. -(61

temporallobe-the area in the braín involved in audíto-ry reception and processíng of visual information. (31

test-retest reliability-the extent to whích repeated ad-ministration of a test to the same group of peopleproduces the same results. (201'

texture gradient-the graduated dífferences in texturethat occur as distance increases. (61

thalamus-a paír of structures in the braín that pro-vides a link between the cerebral hemispheres andthe sense organs. [3i . '

the tragedy oi the commons-an example of a socialtrapo (27] See social. trap.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)-a test consisting ofa series of cards depicting ambíguous scenes ínvoiv-tng one. two, or threepeople. The subject ís asked, totell a story about eachpícture. (201

theory-a system of rules or assumptíons about natural.phenornena that can be used to predíct future eventsor to explaín how these phenomena work. [21

theory oí multiple intelligences-a theory in whichequal weíght is gíven to seven different kinds ofintelligence. (201 '

theory of psychosexual :development-Freud's theory

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GLOSSARY

that from earlíest infancy people are motivated bypowerful bíologícal ínstíncts to seek pleasure andthat at different ages, dífferent parts of the body arethe focus of this pleasure. [171 .

típ-of-the-tongue phenomenon-the condition ofknow-ing that the tnforrnatíon ís known, while retríe-val cues fail to produce the ínformatíon. [91

token economy-a therapeutíc techníque, used primar-ily in institutions. in whích a wide range of appropri-ate behavíor ís rewarded with tangible conditionedreínforcers. or "tokens." [241

trait-"any relatively enduring way in which one individ-ual díffers from another" (Guilford. 1959). [l91

transference-a client's transfer to the analyst of child-hood feelings toward important people in his or herIífe, particularly the parents. [241

transference neurosis-the stage of therapy in whichthe client reenacts wíth the analyst childhood con-flícts wíth the parents, [241

transsexualism-gender ídentíñcatíon withthe oppositesexo [13. 221

transvestism-sexual gratification obtained thrciughdressing in clothing of the opposíte sexo [22 I

traumatic-psychological!y damagíng. us Itrichromatic theory-the theory proposing that color

vtsíon is based on three types of cones thought to bemmgled in a mosaíc pattem throughout the centralretina. [51

trimester-one-third of the períod of pregnancy, [141Turner's syndrome-the condition of a fetus that has

recerved only a single X chromosome and nó Y chro-mosome. [131

. funi:takIñg-conveñiions="sigilalS tháiiñdicatéw"hci'wÜlbe next to speak in a conversation. [161

two-factor theory of emotion-the theory that the expe-ríence of an emotíon ís basecl.on a' physíologícalchange plus a cognitive interpretation of thatchange. [111_ .. . '.

Type A behavior-a personality pattem;: people who ñtthis pattem are híghly cornpetítíve, hostile whenthwarted, and their behavior shows the urgency ofworking against the pressures of time: [21 I

743

vaginismus-a condition in which involuntary musclespasms cause the vagina to shut tíghtly so thatpenetratíon by the penis ís extremely painful orimpossible. [131

valid-of a test. measuring what it purports to measure.[201 . _

variability-the degree to which a group of responsesspreads out from the mean or median. [21

v~ble interval schedule-a partial reinforcementschedule in whích reinforcement comes at unpredíct-able times. [SI

variable ratío schedule-a partíal reinforcement sched-ule in which .reínforcement comes after an unpredict-able number of responses. '[81

verbal encoding-naming or verbal!y descríbíng materi-al to be stored into short-term rnemory. [91

vestibular sense-the sense of balance. [51. visual cortex-area of braín most involved in recetvíng

and analyztng visual information; located in occipitallobe. [31

visual depth perception-the ability to tel! how far away. an object 1S'. [6 I

voyeurism-sexual gratification obtaíned through se-cret observations of another persori's sexual actíví-tres or genitals. [221

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ultimate attribution error-c-the tendencyto fina díspo-sttíonal causes for the misdeeds of an outgroup andosttuatíonal causes for the mísdeeds of aningrdup.[261

unconditionaf positive regard-i-contínued support of aperson (by the self or others) regardless of what theperson says 01' does. [19. 241 '

unconditioned response. (UCR)-an unleamed re-sponse to a stímulus .. [81

unconditioned: silinulus (UCS)-a stímulus that evokesa response wíthour havíng been leamed. [81

unconscious-an aspect of personality unknown to themind of the subject. [181

uniformity-cornmon features or behavíor shared byalmost al! rnembers of a grven group. [271

wariness of strangers-a baby's responding to strangerswíth. for example, fear or wíthdrawal. [171

wavelenth-s-a unit of scale of the electromagnetic spec-trum. [51

Weber's law-the law stating that the amount of stimu-_,_..tu:=¡l}ee<;ls;,.dJº--p.mducea,just.I1Q.ticeab.le.differenceis.a...

constant fractíon of the Intensíty of the stírnulus. [51Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAlS)-a test for

adults that measures both performance and verbalability. [201

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)-a': test of children thatmeasures both verbal and perfor-

mance ability. [201 •Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale oflntelligence

[WPPSI)-a test. that measures both verbal and per-formance ability of children from four to six and ahalf years old. [201

'weÜ:defined problem-aproblem with a clearstructure;one in whích there is always a clear standard for

. '>cieciding whetherthe problem has been solved. [101Wernicke's aphaaía-e-Ioss of ability to cornprehend lan-

guage, brought about by damage to the left temporalcortex. [31

'working backward-a specíal form of means-end analy-sts consisting oí devísíng a plan by working back-ward fram the goal state. [101 1,

Young-Helrnholtz hypothesis-color víston relíes ononly three baste kinds oí color cenes, sensitíve to thethree primary colors of red. blue, and green. [5I

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