Types of Sources: Primary and Types of Sources: Primary and Secondary Secondary ((Keys for WritersKeys for Writers by Ann Raimes) by Ann Raimes)

• PrimaryPrimary: Firsthand, raw, or original materials that : Firsthand, raw, or original materials that researchers study and analyze.researchers study and analyze.

• Involves consulting historical documents, visuals, Involves consulting historical documents, visuals, journals and letters, autobiographies, memoirs, journals and letters, autobiographies, memoirs, government statistics and studies, and speeches.government statistics and studies, and speeches.

• Involves examining works of art, literature, and Involves examining works of art, literature, and architecture or watch or listen to performances architecture or watch or listen to performances and programs.and programs.

• Involves study or initiating case studies or Involves study or initiating case studies or scientific experiments and take extensive field scientific experiments and take extensive field notes. Conduct interviews and use data collected notes. Conduct interviews and use data collected from questionnairesfrom questionnaires

Secondary SourcesSecondary Sources

• Analytical works that comment on and Analytical works that comment on and interpret other works, such as primary interpret other works, such as primary sources. Examples include reviews, sources. Examples include reviews, discussions, biographies, critical discussions, biographies, critical studies, analysis of literary or artistic studies, analysis of literary or artistic works or event, commentaries on works or event, commentaries on current and historical events, class current and historical events, class lectures, and electronic discussions.lectures, and electronic discussions.

Evaluating SourcesEvaluating Sources

• Read sources critically. Read sources critically. – Ask questions about the credentials and reputation of Ask questions about the credentials and reputation of

the author and the place of publication.the author and the place of publication.– What do you learn about the writer’s purpose and the What do you learn about the writer’s purpose and the

audience whom the author is addressing?audience whom the author is addressing?– Ask questions about the ideas you read: an easy way to Ask questions about the ideas you read: an easy way to

do this is to write your annotations in the margins, do this is to write your annotations in the margins, and/or if you get a sense of doubt, make a note of what and/or if you get a sense of doubt, make a note of what troubles you.troubles you.

– Be on the lookout for assumptions that may be faulty. If Be on the lookout for assumptions that may be faulty. If you are reading an article on home-schooling and the you are reading an article on home-schooling and the writer favors home-schooling because it avoids writer favors home-schooling because it avoids subjecting students to violence in schools, the unstated subjecting students to violence in schools, the unstated assumption is that all schools are violent places.assumption is that all schools are violent places.

– Make sure the writer’s evidence is adequate and accurate. Make sure the writer’s evidence is adequate and accurate. For example, if the writer is making a generalization about all For example, if the writer is making a generalization about all Chinese students based on a study of only three, you have Chinese students based on a study of only three, you have cause to challenge the generalization as resting on cause to challenge the generalization as resting on inadequate evidence.inadequate evidence.

– Note how the writer uses language. Which terms does the Note how the writer uses language. Which terms does the writer use with positive—or negative---connotations, signaling writer use with positive—or negative---connotations, signaling the values the writer holds? Does the writer flamboyantly the values the writer holds? Does the writer flamboyantly denigrate and dismiss the views of others with such phrases denigrate and dismiss the views of others with such phrases as “a ridiculous notion” or “laughably inept policies?”as “a ridiculous notion” or “laughably inept policies?”

– Be alert for sweeping generalizations, bias, and prejudice: Be alert for sweeping generalizations, bias, and prejudice: “Women want to stay home and have children.” “Men love “Women want to stay home and have children.” “Men love to spend Sundays watching sports.”to spend Sundays watching sports.”

Recognize scholarly articlesRecognize scholarly articles

• Scholarly articles are not usually found in Scholarly articles are not usually found in magazines in a dentist’s office.magazines in a dentist’s office.

• Scholarly articles are peer reviewed—that is, other Scholarly articles are peer reviewed—that is, other scholars read all the articles and approve them for scholars read all the articles and approve them for publication.publication.

• These articles have section headings, abstracts, These articles have section headings, abstracts, and “summary” and/or “conclusion” headings. and “summary” and/or “conclusion” headings. They determine the author’s main idea.They determine the author’s main idea.

• They refer to works of other scholars (Reference They refer to works of other scholars (Reference Page, in-text citations, author credentials, notes, Page, in-text citations, author credentials, notes, in depth analysis, uses academic or technical in depth analysis, uses academic or technical language for informed readers, appears in journals language for informed readers, appears in journals that don’t include colorful advertisements, etc.that don’t include colorful advertisements, etc.

Evaluating Web sources: Evaluating Web sources: Developing junk antennaeDeveloping junk antennae

• If you find an article in a subscription If you find an article in a subscription database (database (InfoTrac, LexisNexisInfoTrac, LexisNexis, etc.) you will , etc.) you will know that the article has been published in know that the article has been published in print. print.

• If the article has been published in a If the article has been published in a reputable periodical or in an online journal reputable periodical or in an online journal sponsored by a professional organization or sponsored by a professional organization or university, you can assume that it is a valid university, you can assume that it is a valid source for a research paper.source for a research paper.

• For works devised specifically for the Web, For works devised specifically for the Web, use the following strategies to separate the use the following strategies to separate the information from the junk:information from the junk:

• Scrutinize the domain name of the URL. Scrutinize the domain name of the URL. Reliable Reliable information can be found on .gov and .edu information can be found on .gov and .edu addresses that are institutionally sponsored. addresses that are institutionally sponsored. With .com or .org sources, always assess whether With .com or .org sources, always assess whether the source provides factual information or the source provides factual information or advocates a specific point of view on an issue.advocates a specific point of view on an issue.

• Assess the originator of an .edu source.Assess the originator of an .edu source. Check Check that the institution or a branch of it is sponsoring that the institution or a branch of it is sponsoring the site. A tilde (~) followed by a name in the the site. A tilde (~) followed by a name in the URL indicates an individual posting from an URL indicates an individual posting from an academic source. Try to ascertain whether the academic source. Try to ascertain whether the individual is a faculty member or a student. individual is a faculty member or a student. Increasingly, though, individuals are setting up Increasingly, though, individuals are setting up websites under their own domain name.websites under their own domain name.

• Check the About page or the home page. Check the About page or the home page. Always Always take the link from a Web site to its “About” page or take the link from a Web site to its “About” page or its home page, if you are not already there. These its home page, if you are not already there. These pages often provide more information about the pages often provide more information about the author, the sponsor, the purpose, and the date of author, the sponsor, the purpose, and the date of posting.posting.

• Determine the author, and discover what you can Determine the author, and discover what you can about him/her.about him/her. Look for a list of credentials, a Look for a list of credentials, a home page, a resume, or Web publications. In home page, a resume, or Web publications. In Google or Google Scholar, use the author’s name Google or Google Scholar, use the author’s name as a search term to see what the author has as a search term to see what the author has published on the Internet or who has cited the published on the Internet or who has cited the author. If no individual author or institutional author. If no individual author or institutional author is to be found anywhere, check the purpose author is to be found anywhere, check the purpose and sponsor of the site.and sponsor of the site.

• Investigate the purposes of a Web page author or sponsorInvestigate the purposes of a Web page author or sponsor. . Objectivity and rationality are not necessarily features of all Objectivity and rationality are not necessarily features of all Web pages. The sponsor of a site may want to persuade, Web pages. The sponsor of a site may want to persuade, convert, or sell. Even if the message is not obviously convert, or sell. Even if the message is not obviously biased and extreme, be aware that most authors write from biased and extreme, be aware that most authors write from some sense of conviction or purpose. (Note, though, that a some sense of conviction or purpose. (Note, though, that a Web site can be oriented toward a specific view without Web site can be oriented toward a specific view without necessarily being irresponsible.)necessarily being irresponsible.)

• Evaluate the quality of the writingEvaluate the quality of the writing. A Web page filled with . A Web page filled with spelling and grammatical errors should not inspire spelling and grammatical errors should not inspire confidence. If the language has not been checked, the confidence. If the language has not been checked, the ideas probably haven’t been given much time and thought, ideas probably haven’t been given much time and thought, either. Don’t use such a site as a source. Exceptions are either. Don’t use such a site as a source. Exceptions are discussion lists and Usenet postings. They are written and discussion lists and Usenet postings. They are written and posted quickly, so even if they contain errors, they can also posted quickly, so even if they contain errors, they can also contain useful ideas to stimulate thinking on your topic.contain useful ideas to stimulate thinking on your topic.

• Follow the linksFollow the links. See whether the links in a site . See whether the links in a site take you to authoritative sources. If the links take you to authoritative sources. If the links no longer work (you’ll get a 404 message: “Site no longer work (you’ll get a 404 message: “Site Not Found”), the home page with the links has Not Found”), the home page with the links has not been updated in a while—not a good sign.not been updated in a while—not a good sign.

• Check for dates, updates, ways to respond, and Check for dates, updates, ways to respond, and ease of navigationease of navigation. A recent date of posting or . A recent date of posting or recent updating; information about the author; recent updating; information about the author; ways to reach the author by e-mail, regular ways to reach the author by e-mail, regular mail, or phone; a clearly organized site; easy mail, or phone; a clearly organized site; easy navigation; up-to-date links to responsible sites navigation; up-to-date links to responsible sites are all indications that the site is well managed are all indications that the site is well managed and current.and current.

• Corroborate informationCorroborate information. Try to find . Try to find the same information on another the same information on another reliable site. Also look for reliable site. Also look for contradictory information elsewhere.contradictory information elsewhere.

Basics in citing using APA:Basics in citing using APA:

• In-Text Citation:In-Text Citation:

Book:Book:The speed at which we live is The speed at which we live is

seen as cause for concern seen as cause for concern and derision (Gleick, and derision (Gleick, 1999).1999).

The renowned scholar of The renowned scholar of language, David Crystal, language, David Crystal, has promoted the idea of has promoted the idea of “dialect democracy” “dialect democracy” (2004, p. 168).(2004, p. 168).

• Entry in Reference Entry in Reference Page:Page:

Gleick, J. (1999). Faster: Gleick, J. (1999). Faster: The The acceleration of just about acceleration of just about everything. everything. New York: New York: PantheonPantheon..

Crystal, D. (2004).Crystal, D. (2004). The stories of The stories of English. English. Woodstock, NY: Woodstock, NY: Overlook PressOverlook Press..

Print ArticlePrint Article

• In-Text CitationIn-Text CitationAmbition is seen as an Ambition is seen as an

impulse that “requires an impulse that “requires an enormous investment of enormous investment of emotional capital” (Kluger, emotional capital” (Kluger, 2005, p. 59). 2005, p. 59).

OrOr

Kluger (2005, p. 59) sees Kluger (2005, p. 59) sees ambition as an impulse ambition as an impulse that “requires an that “requires an enormous investment of enormous investment of emotional capital.”emotional capital.”

• Reference PageReference PageKluger, J. (2005, Kluger, J. (2005,

November 14). November 14). Ambition: Why some Ambition: Why some people are most likely people are most likely to succeed. to succeed. TimeTime, , 166166, , 48-59.48-59.

(Volume and pg. #’s.)(Volume and pg. #’s.)

Article in Online Database:Article in Online Database:

• In-Text CitationIn-Text Citation

Research has shown that Research has shown that cross-cultural identification cross-cultural identification does not begin before does not begin before eight years of age (Sousa, eight years of age (Sousa, Neto, & Mullet, 2005).Neto, & Mullet, 2005).

• Reference PageReference Page

Sousa, R.M., Neto, F., & Sousa, R.M., Neto, F., & Mullet, E. (2005). Can Mullet, E. (2005). Can music change ethnic music change ethnic attitudes among children? attitudes among children? Psychology of MusicPsychology of Music, , 3333, , 304-316. Retrieved 304-316. Retrieved December 15, 2005, from December 15, 2005, from Sage Psychology, CSA Sage Psychology, CSA database.database.

Document on Web Site:Document on Web Site:

• In-Text CitingIn-Text Citing

Contributing to global Contributing to global warming in the past warming in the past century is a century is a considerable rise in considerable rise in sea levels (Coren, sea levels (Coren, 2006). [See Source 2006). [See Source Shot 4 on p. 185.]Shot 4 on p. 185.]

• Reference PageReference Page

Coren, M. (2006, February Coren, M. (2006, February 10). 10). The science debate The science debate behind climate change.behind climate change. Retrieved April 13, 2006, Retrieved April 13, 2006, from from http://www.cnn.com/2005/http://www.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/04/08/earth.TECH/science/04/08/earth.science/index.htmlscience/index.html