U10a1 Integrative ProjectPsy-5201Dr. Klein. / Dr.KramerThora WilliamsTrauma and Psychological Distress of Domestic Abuse On Low-income African American WomenTable of ContentsChapter I- Introduction ----------------------------------------4 ------6Chapter II- Literature Review------------------------------------6------13Chapter III- Methodology Description -----------------------------13----19Chapter IV- Expected Results/Findings ------------------------------19----22Chapter V- Discussion ---------------------------------------------------22-----31Chapter VI- References- -------------------------------------------------32-------36

AbstractThe proposed study compares domestic violence between low-income African American, Asian, Latina, and Caucasian women. It includes the psychological distress and trauma resulting from the effects of the pathology of domestic abuse. The findings and results of the participants experiences and perceptions points to a need for better understanding of the issue by society. The project also explores the necessity for medical and mental health practitioners to become knowledgeable of various treatment strategies to affect diverse populations. Finally, the paper concludes with recommendations for further research to improve treatment and coping skills for the target population.

Key words: Domestic abuse, Psychological Distress, Trauma, Diverse Populations.

Chapter IIntroductionDomestic violence against women is a serious global problem within society. In addition, a human rights issue increasingly equalizes as major public health problem (WHO, 2002) .Partner violence among African American women from low socioeconomic backgrounds consists of forms of social-emotional, poor self-esteem, physical, psychological, sexual, and financial abuse. Domestic abuse manifest for one purpose only to gain and maintain control over another (Smith, 1992). Abuse against women is a serious issue, there is no justification for violent behaviors in any relationship, and the problem needs support from all institutions to address and alleviate the disease. Violence against women is an international predicament that has been documented to occur among many racial, ethnic, and cultural groups (Krug, Dahlberg, Mercy, Zwi, & Lozano, 2002).The proposed research centers around the experiences and understanding of domestic abuse perpetrated on women from specific cultural groups. The problem statement investigates the vulnerability that low income African American women suffer from higher rates of trauma and psychological distress in abusive relationships than women from other racial groups do. According, to the California Black Womens Health Project, 90% of black women between the ages of 40-59 stated that violence had negatively affected their health (CBWHP, 2002).Over 30% of all black women are hospitalized because of an assault, which was five times more than Latinas, seven times more than white women, and eight times more than Asian women. Subsequently, the report also found that violence is likely to occur in situations characterized by substance use and abuse (Ford, 2002).Research suggests that black womens marginalized status makes them particularly more vulnerable to domestic violence than other ethnic groups (West, 2004).To advance on the issue in the area of research the learner asks the problem question for analysis. How do low-income black women who suffer from psychological distress and trauma, experiences and describe domestic abuse? The proposed study is significant in highlighting the sensitivity and cultural components of domestic abuse against women. The qualitative research study explores the scope, characteristics, and linkages of psychological distress and trauma attached to abuse.Partner abuse is not an isolated event for African American women, however, multiple traumatic experiences often compound the negative physical and psychological effects associated with partner abuse (West,2004).The expected research design utilizes a phenomenological format which focuses on a mixed racial group as sample participants. A phenomenological study is one that attempts to understand peoples perception, perspectives, and understandings, of a particular situation (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010).The research thesis is broad and open-ended, while the method of analysis captures the essence of the participants and their experiences of abuse for reliability and validity. The researcher undertakes the task with face-to-face developed interview questions to address the measures for support in helping the victims.Future researchers must be aware that domestic abuse is not only gendered, but also influenced by racism, classism, and other forms of discrimination, such as homophobia (Thomas, Witherspoon, & Speight, 2008). The advancement of future research in the area of domestic abuse is imperative for society. Within a broad spectrum of the population, especially the medical and mental health disparities among the African American communities are in need of examination. Women respond to domestic abuse in different ways. A recent study shows that African American and Hispanic women had a higher rate of violence reporting 83% and 82.6% respectively, culturally, with Asian women, only 10% were likely to report or leave their abuser (Zeta & Bunton, 2007).Conclusively, there are multifaceted differences on how women from different cultures deal with the issue of domestic violence. The right to be free from domestic violence or the threat of domestic violence is a fundamental and universal human right (United Nations, 1993).Ultimately; the use of coping strategies helps to minimize stress, and bases its findings on cultural and contextual factors when in imminent danger within the situation of DV.Chapter IILiterature ReviewScope and Cycle of Domestic AbuseDomestic abuse as an international problem has been documented among many racial, ethnic, and cultural groups (Krug, Dahlberg, Mercy, Zwi, & Lozano, 2002).However, in nationally representative studies conducted in the US, when compared to their white counterparts, African American women consistently reported higher rates of abuse (West, 2004). The problem of trauma and psychological distressful experiences of low-income black females is an important issue for further research. There are disparate variables of low public and community information offered to victims to contribute to healing.The proposed research investigates the higher rates of trauma and distress suffered by low-income African American women in abusive relationships compared with women from other identified racial groups. The preferred groups are namely, Hispanics, Caucasians, and Asian. Trauma and psychological distress affects the mind and the senses in reference to mind/body responses to abusive situations. The literature review attempts to support the hypotheses of the study. Historically the legacy of trauma as a reality of abuse against black women is an issue attributed to violence during slavery. Furthermore, the manner in which contemporary society respond to victims of DV, makes some black women reluctant to report abusers for fear of discrimination and shame (West, 2002b).The research article by Bent-Goodley (2004), the impact and scope of abuse against black women from low economic status points to their perceptions of abuse together with the range of experiences suffered at the hands of their batterers (p.307). The result of the review documents that although domestic abuse cuts across race, socioeconomic status, education, and income distinctions, estimates show that the African American experience is in disproportionate amounts of violence compared with white American women and others (Bent-Goodley, 2004). Domestic abuse and poverty connects on a human level, especially within dysfunctional environments.Factors and Characteristics Related to Domestic Abuse:There are many factors, which connect the challenges and circumstances of victims to the problem of domestic abuse. The factors range from racism, inequality, sexism, low self-esteem, sexual promiscuity, and social isolation (Hill, Markowski, & Angel, 2007). Perpetuation of incidences of domestic violence exhibits the experiences in a variety of forms. Victimization, especially on multiple levels is characteristic of illogical behaviors, emotional, mental, and physical hostility toward others. Seemingly, Caucasian women and those from some other groups often seek help from shelters and other resources as a way out of an abusive relationship (Hill, et al, 2007). However, African American women due to a sense of race loyalty and shame allow control by the abuser. The peer reviewed evidence based literature correlates with the thesis by adding research information to the project on the experiences of the defined ethnic group of women. The study compares incidences of abuse by African American, Caucasian, Hispanic and Asian women. One research study shows that African American and Hispanic females more often do not leave their abusers, 83% and 82.6% respectively, while only 10% of Asian women were likely to leave their abuser. Furthermore, Caucasian women had the lowest recurrence rate of domestic violence (Zetawos & Bunton, 2007).Values usually answer questions of why do people do what they do? It is conceivable that a therapist is a human being with personal values and biases. Cultural values play a large role in stereotypical attitudes reflective within cultural identification. People of particular ethnic groups follow a unique set of qualities, morals, and specific views within their world. Consequently, it is important to create atmospheres of cultural safety, for the research discussion to offer support and trust to the group. The reviews reflect practices which when compounded with the issue of trauma and abuse on women illuminates the psychological and emotional consequences, wholly affective within mental health institutions on a wide-ranging scale.The theoretical orientation for the study defines approaches for qualitative research on the topic. The sample for the project consists of 10 female participants, 5 African American, 2 Caucasian, 2 Hispanics, and 1 Asian. The inquiry attempts to understand the participants perspectives and experiences in abusive relationships. During the screening and interaction, the researcher is able to make generalizations of what the incidences feel like from an insiders point of view (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). . Research consistently suggests that black women of low economic status continue to exhibit higher rates of victim victimization than their counterparts (Hill et al, 200, Notably, to address the problem of DV, cultural factors and culturally competent orientation toward family and communities must become a central approach for further study.Roles of Professionals and Community Responsibilities:Recent research and best practices toward violence in racial/ethnic communities are beginning to shift the focus from an individual woman to a problem that involves the community and other elements within the environment (Anderson, 1993). Notably, psychologists and other professionals need to become culturally competent to extend help to the targeted group of women. The assistance in finding ways for safety support varies; one solution is spirituality, which is common among African American women, and its useful recommendations for others suffering from abuse. Models of integrated treatment styles aim to synthesize traditional mental health counseling as a general approach to philosophical underpinnings and psycho-educated educational content (Krantzler, Richard, & Rosenthal, 2012). Knowingly, there is a causal link between physical complaints and traumatic experiences of psychological distress. However, there is an absence of treatment programs, which addresses the correlation of both risks. In low-income black communities specifically, domestic abuse frequently goes undetected, and in a classic study of an urban American emergency room medical records find that up to a quarter of women represented with an injury were definitely or experiencing some form of domestic abuse (Richardson & Feder,1996). Meaningful positions and perspectives from community organizations are necessary to help empower the target population toward meaningful and changed behaviors. The black church as a significant part of the fabric of black communities have a responsibility to address, support, and help implement effective treatment programs to assist and tackle the problem of domestic abuse (Miles,2002). Despite the silence that the black church exhibits toward domestic abuse, the issues pervade the halls and apply to some within the congregation. Pastors have a duty to offer help to those women who are battered and the men who victimize them and their person-hood. The issue needs discussion and engagement in a healing process by clergy while facilitating counseling to help the victims.Treatment Counseling:Practitioners in addition to obtaining empirical data to monitor the phenomenon, must also become familiar with diverse forms of programs and practices to help the population. Mental health practitioners need to indicate treatment settings and intervention strategies for perpetrators as well as victims as a part of readiness for change. Evidence reports that domestic abuse has serious traumatic and long-term impact on both the physical and mental health of low-income African American women in relation to women from other racial groups (Mitchell, Hargrove, Collins, Thompson, Reddick, & Kaslow, 2006).The reviews make a case for cost associated with health care and domestic abuse, which is financially staggering. Many psychologically abused women suffer from PTSD and other acute disorder (Bent-Goodley, 2004). Additionally, the lack of affordable health insurance, which includes mental health coverage, impedes health and well being, and poor women are over 3 times as likely as others to be insured: 36% versus 11% respectively (National Center for Health Statistics, 1995).The proposed study adds critical and required information which significantly impacts the research for further examination, especially in the area of cultural competence. The project shows the adverse nature of trauma and psychological distress as a correlate to domestic abuse and the experiences suffered by oppressed women. The true significance of the report serves to expose the experiences of abuse from the womens perspective and the complexities involved with coping for survival. The project adds relevance to future research as knowledge base by showing the importance of fully understanding clients from a cultural along with a socioeconomic perspective. Further research is necessary to establish the problem and protocols of domestic abuse and effects on women from low-income households (Richardson & Feder, 1996). Moreover, there is a need for more cultural literature and identification models for the victims.Cultural beliefs and treatment expectations determines assessment structured under the cultural context of the therapists. However, mental health counselors must be aware of ethnic principles and beliefs to construct programs and strategies for treatment support. According to therapeutic guidelines, a therapist has the responsibility to acquire the requisite education and knowledge to affect the work with their clients. Understandably, the problem is gender specific, and the discrepancy within medical and mental health systems further lends support to the assumptions that DV is ubiquitous and wide spread with a defined client population seeking services (McCloskey & Grisby, 2005). The framework for additional treatment models centers around Solution Focused Counseling (SFC) and Motivational Interviewing (MI).They are appropriate strategies for counseling the targeted population. The SFC and MI procedures intertwine person-centered therapy to encourage empathy and reinforce the clients strength, growth, and improve personal responsibility (Lewis & Osborn, 2004).Ethics:Issues of ethical dimensions surface constantly for a psychologist. Many questions for a psychologist ascribe to help their clients gain benefits from recommended services. Perhaps a psychologist should ask if it is ethical to neglect screening at intake. Also, if they must take a proactive stance in the physical safety of their clients, and if they are willing to facilitate a safety intervention on behalf of victims of domestic violence (Samuelson & Campbell, 2005).The code of ethics direct both the client and the therapist in keeping with honesty and respectful relationships. The principles also offer protection for the involved parties while promoting proper rehabilitative treatment to all parties. A psychologist without a shared worldview and critical awareness of cultural competencies of clients may fall into a breach of ethics. There is a sense that a therapist must assess self-designation and underlying values when dealing with clients especially those of diverse backgrounds. The major purpose of the code of ethics in counseling is to prepare and inform counselors with ethical guidance to determine appropriate, professional action and to create a framework for resolving ethical complaints (ACA, 2005).Ultimately, more training in culturally competent community based knowledge for psychologist can increase their comfort level to be effective with victims of diverse backgrounds. Each individual therapist must establish competence and respect for his/her client as a means to work effectively toward planned outcomes.Conclusively, the debate on breaking the cycle of domestic abuse continues among professionals and communities. The psychological reality is brutal yet pervasive, while the emotional trauma takes on a point of view and lasts a lifetime for the impacted targets. Violence against women is a serious issue, and needs input at the family, community, and policy levels, but also requires comprehensive, multidisciplinary, long-term attention implemented with respect to race, class, and cultural differences (Bent-Godley, 2001).The relevant literature review helps with the problem statement and question. The information correlates to the thesis of domestic abuse on the target population of victims from a social and psychological perspective.Chapter IIIMethodology Description:This chapter offers information regarding the methods utilized to conduct the qualitative research study with a focus on the problem statement and stated question.Purpose of the Study:The purpose of the study is to describe the experiences and perceptions of domestic abuse suffered by low-income black women in proportion to women from three other ethnic groups. The qualitative phenomenological research shows cultural factors and themes surrounding the issue of domestic abuse. The researcher looks at prior research to formulate the purpose of the study for reliability. In 2001, domestic violence made up 20% of all violent attacks against women, around 600,000 in crime related factors. In 2000, an intimate partner killed about 1200 women. The probable number made up about 83% female murder victims (Matthews, 2004). Theoretically, responses to childhood trauma are usually the precursor for adult victimization of abuse, leaving women vulnerable to further psychological distress.Statistics by the US Justice Department noted that among Asian Americans, there was a 300% increase in domestic violence cases between 1995 and 1999. In Hispanic culture 34% Latinas reported experiencing domestic violence in home country with an extension in the US. Among African American, women (15-59) suffered assault by an intimate partner, and is the leading cause of premature death for them as a culture (US Department of Justice, 1998).Clearly research shows the trend of a proportionate amount of domestic violence across all subcultures globally with black women suffering as victims of homicides.Research Design:The researcher employed a phenomenological qualitative design exploring trauma and distress of domestic abuse, while addressing the lived experiences and perceptions of a targeted group of women. The design focuses on a small sample of racially mixed participants (n=10 females) who suffered abuse within their intimate relationships. The researcher poses an interview format of structured questions to gain unique insights into the womens experiences and perceptions of the social issue. Due to the sensitivity of the subject, an experimental component is not feasible at this time; therefore, the qualitative interview process is applicable to the current study of the central theme.Target Population and Participant Selection:The sample is small; in order to be eligible the individuals experienced some form of abuse from a partner currently or within the past year. The target population evolves from a diverse group of 10 female victims. The sample consists of (n=5) African Americans, (n=2) Caucasians, (n=2) Latinas, and (n = 1) a woman of Asian descent. The participants are recruits from a local mental health agency with the help of the clinic manager; ten women were available as volunteers for the study. Once the women agreed to the interview, solicitation ceased and their signature on consent forms shows confidentiality. The study process reveals clarity to the participants, along with the purpose and the confidentiality clause of ethical consideration determined by governmental laws. The participants ages ranged from 40-59, English speaking, currently single, separated, or divorced from their abuser. Given the purpose of the investigation, the clinic manager mandated to the participants that he did not want anyone whose diagnosis identifies as a substance abuser. The semi-structured interviews occurred at the clinics meeting room away from the general clients for privacy.Procedures:The researcher liaised with a licensed therapist connected to the local agency within the community. The study regimen proceeds in a specific manner conducive to the outcomes. The execution is ad hoc being a qualitative study, which can certainly evolve in various stages. Through the medium of telephone calls, the identified clients did ask for volunteer participation in the face-to-face interviews. The project was explained and described in detail for (a) purpose, (b) criteria, (c) interview process and time, and (d) the sensitivity and ethical considerations of confidentiality. Each participant gave their consent and informed understanding of their role in the study. For the face-to-face interview, the selection of a safe environment allow for the participants privacy during the discussions. They also intimated that they preferred not to be audio taped; however, the researcher removed their fears of exposure with the help of the clinic manager and the reference to the confidentiality of the process for the successful outcome of the project.Instruments:The instrument of measure consists of a qualitative interview questionnaire. The research models around the primary questions of experiences and perceptions of the women. The methodology is structural, although there is room left for latitude and deviation. Allowing a discussion type of format encourages a relaxed atmosphere for such a difficult topic. Understandably, conducting an in-depth interview on such an emotional topic requires a skilled and empathetic interviewer. A person who is able to engage with the respondents, listens, and even interject with their own experiences within the appropriate question shows caring to the responders. The questionnaire is approximately 10-15 questions in number, and completed within the period of 1-3 hours depending on the evolvement of the discussions. The questions were used as a guide with some yes or no answers while some became participant-directed rather than researcher-led for allowing the victims a voice about their victimization. The questionnaire as an instrument serves to measure the qualitative reliability and validity of the answers. The sample is small; therefore, the researcher must be tentative in analysis, showing rapport to draw inferences for structure and relevance to the answers of the participants. The researchers organization of the questionnaire (see Appendix) and answers into ethnic themes relate to the key issues, and the method of analysis relevant to the research problem and the subsequent question.Research Question and Hypotheses:The researcher developed the interview questionnaire (Appendix) exclusively for the target sample as a phenomenological study. The interview method of unstructured face-to-face interrogation centers on the research problem question to help advance the issue for analysis. The problem question asks how do low income black women who suffer from psychological distress and trauma, experience and perceive domestic abuse, in comparison with women from defined racial groups? The discussion as data collection points the focus to the intimate details from the respondents, which is unavoidable as an activity progresses to the results. The small-scale sample portrayed in the project cuts across themes between the participants, which is easy for the research analysis. The research question and the interview questionnaire together add an interpretative dimension for continuous review and change. The type of study utilizes the participants as informed and experienced about the phenomena, and so, within the qualitative study there is an absence of a documented hypothesis to draw on the subjective occurrences.Data Analysis:The researcher reflects upon the preconceived notions about the data, and attempts to suspend bias in order to focus on the experiences and answers of the participants. After detailing the responses, the researcher works closely with the insights into the participants experiences and perceptions looking for patterns and recurring themes. The method for the data collection process formulates as a structured-interview with the participants. The focus is broad and open-ended questions in a face-to-face format where they talk about their experiences and insights about domestic abuse. The analysis balances out the phenomenological descriptions and interpretations.Open-ended questions from the method for the semi-structured interview, affirms and gather the necessary information for data analysis. At this point, the researchers ability to conduct a clinical interview is critical for the reliability and validity of the data for the successful outcomes of the study. Phenomenological qualitative approaches have two things in common, first they focus on phenomena or real world settings, and second they involve studying the issue in all its complexity (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010). In an interview unstructured notes do not always fall into neat categories, but the researcher finds organized ways to link different responses of the discussion in an aggregated manner.The essence of the data findings allow information to emerge, rather than being imposed by the researcher (Thorne,2000).The findings of the data analysis validated by integrating and assembling the components of the interview into a full report. Subsequently, careful methods keep the facts within the boundaries of meaningful raw data. During the data collection, the researcher must suspend any preconceived ideas or personal feelings to find commonality and differences in the experiences noted by the participants. Within the development of the discussion, the responses by the participants were not added or deleted. During the period, the researcher acknowledges some personal involvement and works to keep constraint and focus on the meanings that the experiences bring to the respondents. Finally, in an effort to provide results for the participants benefit, a summary of the interview notes shares as narrative. Around the discussion, identifying commonalities and differences of experiences and perceptions of the sample group kept surfacing.The phenomenological methods of the study serve to bring to the forefront the experiences and perceptions of the target group of women from their own perspectives. The researcher plays a significant role in the development and implementation of the discussion process. The responders sometimes pose a challenge to the structure of the interview process by expanding the discussion for further research and interpretation. The methodology continues to evolve with qualitatively divergent ideologies, indicating the presence of the facts and the effects on the individual participants within the study. During the data gathering, it is helpful for the investigator to be aware of the impact of abuse on individuals. Moreover, quiet listening is very important as a requisite to hear the story unfold in the victims voice. In order to indicate validity and reliability for best practices and standards, the responses merge into narrative and sequential structure.ChapterExpected Results / FindingsResults/ FindingsDue to the nature of the phenomenological study, the comprehensive results expect the following semi-structured interview process. The essence of the approach provides the expected results in a rich and descriptive manner. The Appendix affords the opportunity to reveal the experiences and perceptions of a culturally diverse group of women who suffer from psychological distress and trauma emanating from domestic abuse. The revealed results serve to compare the higher rates experienced by low-income black women than their counterparts from other racial groups.The initial interviews and data collection sheds light on the issue showing an emergence of definitive themes surrounding the discussion and inquiry process. The sample recounts a sense of sadness, fear, self-blame, and the shame of victimization. One expected result is that some of the answers find commonality among all of the women, while others are indicative of different cultural findings. The results identify a common core in the contributions, and the cultural norms expressed between the groups. The revelations are interchangeable with deep and informed knowledge surrounding the meaning of the social issue. Continuous review of the expected results assures delivery by the women on the concerns of cultural specificity in awareness, sensitivity, and their ethnic diversity. The evolving results through the questionnaire provide implications for research and rationale into the next steps to help alleviate the problem of domestic abuse against women from diverse ethnic groups. It also provides an opportunity to hear the womens voices and their unique experiences from a variety of perspectives. The documented anecdotes during the dialogue reveal the following interpretive results, which classifies into the diverse ethnic groups.The Hispanic women (n= 2, Latina) lived experiences of self-sacrifice, being faithful to the culture and paying homage to the male as the patriarch of the family. The female takes on the subordinate position in an effort to uphold cultural values and norms. They share the occurrences of being physically under assault and even raped for not wanting to participate in intimacy.The Asian Woman (n=1, Asian) describes incidences suffered in silence as an acceptable part of life in the home country. After migration, language barriers allowed control by the spouse until she became an English language learner. The participant explains certain cultural traditions, values, and expectations encourage the use of physical abuse against the women. The female exhibited some form of shyness and reiterated to the researcher that her responses must not be taped. Nonetheless, she acquiesced to the format with the help of the other respondents and the explanation of the confidentiality of the information.The Caucasian woman (n=2, white), comments focus on the situations where they were not battered often, but mind games and financial control led to a great deal of psychological distress. There is constant fear for themselves and their children, and further the anticipation that something negative is about to happen during any altercation brings on traumatic reactions in their everyday lives. Another result of the conversation describes social isolation from family and friends, which led to feelings of excessive violation on their person hood.African American women (n=5 AA). The physical and psychological consequences of DV are both acute and chronic (Samuelson & Campbell, 2005). The interpretation of the questionnaire by the researcher results in the answers by the African American women as both alarming and staggering compared to the other participants in the study. They compartmentalized abuse into two categories of beatings as physical and abuse as psychological and emotional. One participant admitted to starting fights due to economic distress, assumed infidelity, and drug use. Their perspectives centered on racism, stereotyping, sexism and racial loyalties.The researcher allowed their stories to unfold through their own revelations of the experiences and the impact of the dilemma on their lives. The participants spoke of the need to protect their partners from the law to which African American men are susceptible. The evolving results of the questionnaire, manifested in riveting documented information descriptive of the African American women in their experiences with trauma, psychological distress, and their perceptions. The results clearly show a higher rate of Domestic violence among African American women than the other groups.The findings represent the larger group with emphasis on the reasoning of the different ethnic sample using the inductive semi-structured nature of the outcomes. The causes of the experiences trigger distress and trauma with the inability to trust, low self-esteem and incidences of depression, and drug use associated with abuse. The effects of domestic abuse also lead to the following findings, low tolerance levels, negative attitudes, and even medical disability. The shame and stigma related by one respondent who suffered in silence is familiar to the cohort of women. Another interesting finding in the conversation is that domestic violence is forever an emotional cycle due to fear of relationships.Notably, the ten women (n=10) in the sample explain their belief in a higher power for strength to cope with the psychological effects and victimization surrounding domestic abuse. Subsequently, a body of clinical literature describes the re-traumatizing effects of more subtle forms of social and cultural victimization due to gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation disability and /or socioeconomic status (Brown, 1990).The results and findings base the outcomes on the represented thematic discussions with the target population.The clarity of the themes and the identifiable answers of the target group portray some cultural differences in experiences and perceptions and some affected similarities. Ultimately, the results and findings point to a need for better cultural understanding of the social issue domestic abuse. The experiences and perspectives of the sample population show an urgency to address the significant barriers, which exist within society relative to domestic violence.Chapter VDiscussion:Research suggests that black females experience intimate partner violence (IPV) at a rate 35% higher than white women do, and about 2.5 times the rate of women from other races (Fisher,2004).Violence and poverty connect with society, especially within dysfunctional environments and communities. Research continues to provide qualitative studies on the backgrounds of men who engage in aggressive and inappropriate anger against the women who love them as spouses and boyfriends. The participants spoke of the need to protect their partners from the law to which African American men are susceptible. As these women deny their unique experiences as women to protect their partners, they put themselves at a greater risk of physical harm and do not allow their spouses held accountable for their behavior (Bent-Goodley, 2004).The problem suggests that low-income black women in abusive relationships suffer higher rates of trauma and distress from the abuse. Through the interview process, the discussion supports the problem statement and question, which allows an exploration of the experiences and perceptions of the participants in the study. The strategy encourages in-depth understanding, while making interpretations and linkages relative to the research study on an engaging level among the sample. One survey conducted by the Immigrants Women Task Force of Northern California Coalition for Immigrant Rights (NCCIR) reveal that 34% of Latinas surveyed experienced domestic violence either in their home of origin, in the US or in both (Rodriguez,1998).The females explained that the experiences induced psychological distress and physical illness, which left them vulnerable to continuous victimization.The aim of the findings for the study places the researcher in the position of understanding the lived experiences of the participants using an empathetic focus to make sense of their perceptions on the issues. In this discussion area of the report, some conjecture and interpretation centers on the decisive and descriptive format of the thesis. The findings reinforce the hypothesis of the study, and exhibits significant similarities and differences among the group. The results describe the association between the sample experiences of humiliation and other negative factors of abuse. However, some areas differ due to cultural diversity, practices, and values. The results also propose that African American women are more socially and economically disadvantaged, placing them at a greater risk among the group for abuse (West, 2004). Black women, in their marginalized status, often makes them more vulnerable to domestic abuse at a higher rate than their counterparts. Several studies reveal that African American women experience the most violence, Latinas and white experience violence at a similar rate, and Asian women report the lowest rates of abuse (Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000).Notably, the similarities and differences found in the study do not necessarily mean that belonging to a particular race or group makes women more prone to abuse. Within the Asian community, silence perpetuates a perception that wife battering is not a major concern (Kim, Lau, & Chang, 2006).However, understanding what violence means to women from different cultures and their perceptions are fundamental to treatment. Considerations necessitate a look at the barriers that challenge women who are victims, also the relationships between races, ethnicity, and ultimately physical and sexual violence (Cho, 2011). During the study it is important for the researcher not to employ self-interpretations, assumptions, or idyllic assertions against the participants in the discussion forum. During the examination of the semi-structured process, the research person must be open and aware of the impact and legacy left behind by domestic abuse on women. The details of the narratives in the results show a history of physical, mental, and psychological distress, which necessitates empathy for the individuals and a response for further comparative research.The qualitative approach to the study invites self-reflection between the stakeholders. The method serves to eliminate any subjective thinking, in order to obtain meaningful results from the dialogue with the participants. In light of the findings, continuation of additional research offers the suggestion of high rates of victimization of abuse for low-income black women. That outcome is distinctly empirical, regardless of race, which also underscores socio-demographics as variables, which are usually a more important predictor of victimization (Honeycutt & Marshall, 2001). In the study, the African American women express their intensity to manifest as strong persons at all times, while using spirituality and their faith as a measure to cope with stressful situations involving abuse.The Latina and Caucasian women place emphasis on obtaining help from community providers such as shelters and local agencies. Ultimately, since culture affects how violence is reported and perceived by others, the Asian female due to tradition does not see the need to seek outside help for the abuse. They did not want to shame the family, lose face, challenge the males within the culture, or disrupt the family harmony (Lum, 1998).The findings and results point to a lack of cultural competence by service providers in helping victims from diverse ethnicity. There is a need for a more comprehensive treatment plans on domestic abuse by medical and mental health practitioners to provide services to victims. Many racial or ethnic minorities perceive that official-helping systems like the justice department, medical care, or shelters mainly operated by and for white people (Bent-Goodley, 2001) .These circumstances impel mental health professionals to address the nature of womens experiences. There is a need for recommendations on interventions and treatment to affect the diverse group of women in support of the problem.The evidence within this study supports the experiences and perceptions of the participants as volunteers. The interactive results present important themes surrounding the effects of DV psychologically and traumatically on the sample group. Theoretically, the emphasis of the discussion shows the influence of relational violence on the well-being of women across cultures. The literature research in review annotates the fact that in some cases DV frequently goes undetected. In a classic study conducted in an urban American medical emergency room, analysis of medical records found that up to a quarter of women ,who present themselves with an injury, were definitely or probably experiencing some form of domestic abuse (Richardson & Feder,1996).In conclusion, social reality has a specific meaning and reference structure for human beings living, acting, and thinking within certain parameters (Thorne, 1997).The discussion of the study manifests the need for cultural competency, and knowledge base information on diversity by practitioners. Racism and lack of effective service providers, in collaboration with community and social services health programs are some of the necessary resources for best practices and continued treatment modules for victims. Due to the emotional and sexual violence of domestic abuse that women of color in low-income status undergo, they categorically need help from agencies and staff to help them out of life threatening situations. Ultimately, for service providers, treatment strategies mean searching for strengths within the women and building on the process to help with effective outcomes (Zimmerman, 2000).The qualitative questionnaire, in the semi-structured interview indicates to the researcher through the responses, a need to view the results and findings in a very cautious manner. An important potential risk of abuse for immigrant Asian women in the US involves stress of migration, acculturation, and minority status (Rhee, 1997). Based on the research process the findings are consistent with the literature, which intimates that violence against women from diverse backgrounds are experienced on different levels. The expected results highlight the psychological distress, trauma, physical and social emotional effects on the participants. The collected information from the study belongs to the researcher and the participants. Since the participants are clients of the local agency, the use of the information after the study remains by mutual consent in their files. In light of the code of ethics and the clause of confidentiality, the researcher is also responsible for the preservation of the collected data. At the same time, the researcher works with the participants showing concern and understanding of their interpretations, perceptions, and lived experiences of domestic abuse. Additionally, shaming, and social isolation contributes to the emotional isolation that victims suffer in the guise of traumatic abuse (Y. Kendrick, personal communication, December1, 2012). The respondents in the study were very symbolic in lending their voices in an open manner to the breath of the discussion. The dynamics of the participants experiences and cultural perceptions of domestic abuse within the literature review, presents some limitations for shedding light on the expanded form of the pathology of abuse against women.Limitations:In light of the findings, the proposed study addresses a number of limitations for both the researcher and the population. Phenomenological approaches are good for surfacing deep issues while allowing all voices to be heard (Schutz, 1970). The research is limited in its focus on a small sample of diverse women. The increase to a larger sample group will contribute to an expanded and more detailed comparative exploration for a different study on the subject. Another potential limitation is the emphasis on women without taking into consideration the pathology of the perpetrators. Although, prior literature review acknowledges that abuse leads to greater distress and trauma of AA women at a higher rate compared to other women from diverse cultures, there are other parameters involved with abuse.The inquiry is limited to the women from low SES, and failed to include a generalized group of women with similar ethnic backgrounds. Ultimately, the participants were audio taped, and so, a reliable coding system of the study emerged in place. Future research must take advantage of useful forms of measurement for validity and research reliability. Furthermore, considerable limitation is noticeable by not conducting within group differences. For example, black females within higher economic status, engaged couples, married, and even divorced couples.Implications:The findings of the study impact cultural competence, respect for cultures, and understanding the experiences and perceptions of each group. Research does not always paint a true picture of the complexities surrounding the pathology of domestic abuse. Although, the investigation shows significant contributions to the dilemma, there are several implications, which connect the root core of the problem. One implication highlights the evidence of interaction of faith-based communities who are no longer able to ignore the reality of abuse among their members. The results provide evidence to suggest an association of trauma and psychological distress on African American women at a higher rate compared to the other participants from diverse backgrounds (Bent-Goodley, 2005).Another implication is a language barrier, which is common among Latina and Asian women, especially when looking for modes of treatment (Dasgupta, 2005). Practitioners, and service providers must acknowledge the importance of cultural competencies, racism, ethics, and community responses to the victims who suffer from abusive relationships. Based on the quality and interaction of the semi-structured interviews, the participants express their comfort level of being treated and interviewed by practitioners from own ethnic group. Additionally, it is critical to understand that helping while working with community organizations, social workers and others allow opportunities to engage in prevention and educational activities uniquely designed for the specific population (Bent-Goodley, 2004). Implicit in the study is the expansion by advocates who claim partnership with battered women helping in their return to a healthy lifestyle. Moreover, it is necessary for medical and mental health practitioners to consider a clients race, ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status when dealing with victims of abuse. Finally, it is imperative for psychologists and others to use proactive and critical thinking skills in order to understand the dynamics of relationship abuse. Resourceful tools are necessary to deal with and affect the trauma, physical safety, and psychological distress suffered by victims.Future Research/Conclusions:Despite the study having raised more questions than answers, the interview was not authoritative, nor intellectually overwhelming. The researcher did not probe, but allowed the participants a flow with interaction by putting them at ease using empathy and empowerment as strategies. Due to the nature of the domestic abuse issue, it is important to investigate the relationships with a high degree of scientific merit. Research advances in its area of knowledge base, contributes theory by using evaluative components for the study. To advance the field, researchers must develop more creative and culturally sensitive theories and methodologies, to define, measure, and understand domestic abuse (West, 2002).Additional studies are recommended for research employing either/or qualitative and quantitative approaches with a larger sample of diverse participants in an effort to gain a richer more reflective perspective of abuse. Judging from the findings of the study violence in ethnically diverse groups or families is sometimes similar. However, a research challenge is the investigation of racial similarities and disparities, without negating the experiences while highlighting racial differences without perpetuating stereotypes about the inherent violence within some ethnic groups (West, 2002). Further exploration is necessary to understand abusive relationships between partners, and the resources necessary to help treat the problem while helping individuals to safety.Decades of prior research prove the long-term psychological and mental effects of domestic abuse on women from all racial backgrounds. Nonetheless, much of the report coincides with the study and the results of the devastating effects on the target group. Race and ethnicity usually shape the types of trauma and distress that women suffer in their experiences and the way they perceive and cope with abuse (Cho, 2011).Ultimately, contrary to published knowledge, scientific information is still lacking in the way research links medical, cultural, and psychological effects of domestic abuse. Further dialogue recommends examination of the variations pertaining to the similarities and differences among researchers. Groupthink is an endorsement as studies continue to evolve on the divergent ideologies of the pathology.Conclusively, the true significance of the study in the participants voices illuminates cultural differences and considerations of abuse. The findings through the interview process attempts to expose the experiences and psychological distress endured by the victims. Race and ethnic differences are not generally the cause of violence against women. However, research shows that women from different racial groups experience abuse in relation to their cultural values, practices, morals, and attitudes, which is not understood by individuals outside of the specific racial body of people (Dasgupta, 2005). Finally, given the group dynamics more research is necessary to examine variations within cultural communities of women from diverse backgrounds at various levels. It is also helpful to compare on broader terms racial/ethnic low-income women from rural areas of the region who suffer from socioeconomic instability and continued social isolation.

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AppendixSee the appendix as a Questionnaire for the face-to-face interview questions related to domestic violence among low income black women in comparison to females from other ethnic groups.What are your feelings and opinions about domestic abuse? Describe.

Growing up, did you observe abuse in your household or immediate environment?

Tell how the relationship developed with your partner? Were there any red flags concerning violence as a characteristic of your partner?

What was the turning point in the relationship, and when did the abuse begin?

How did the first incident make you feel about your partner and yourself in the relationship?

What were your thoughts? In addition, how did you handle the situation?

Have you been involved in a prior abusive relationship?

How long did the abuse progress?

Did any religious or cultural beliefs contribute to your staying or leaving the situation?

How is domestic abuse viewed among the people within your cultural demographics?

What other experiences or perceptions you would like to share about the issue of domestic violence and its effects both psychologically and socially?

What resources, public policies, and cultural recommendations need to be available to communities to help victims of abuse?

Domestic Abuse