U214 A / BOOK 2ENGLISH IN THE WORLD

CHPTER THREEA Colonial Language

INTRODUCTION

• This chapter will examine the relationshipbetween colonization and the spread of English language, starting by the British Isles, then America, Africa, Australia.• It will also consider the notion of languagecontact, between English language and other languages and cultures. • Finally, it will consider the role played by colonization in the political and cultural associations that English has now around the world.

The Colonial Experience

• Between the end of the reign of Elizabeth 1 (1603) and Elizabeth 11 (1952) the number of mother-tongue English speakers in the world increased from 5-7 million to 250 million, of whom four-fifths lived outside the British Isles. This due to the colonial expansion of English to overseasterritory which began in the C16th • However, colonization started earlier within the British Isles themselves. When English became the main language of the Celtic-speaking territories of Ireland, Scotland, Wales.

• English emerged as the main language:• Colonization: whereby an original settlementwere made by English speakers.• Political Incorporation: the colonized territorywas under control of the British government.• Nationalist Reaction: which resulted in independence.1-ColonizationThere are 3 distinct types of colonization, each with its own linguistic consequences:a-Displacement : first-language speakers of English displaced the pre-colonial population, e. g. North America, Australia.

b-Subjection (domination): colonizers kept the precolonial population under their control, allowingsome of them to learn English as a second oradditional language, e.g. Cameroon, Nigeria, India.This type of colonization is called Direct Rule which was widely adopted in the British colonies.c-Replacement: a pre-colonial population was replaced by new labour from elsewhere, principallyWest Africa (e.g. Barbados and Jamaica)

2-Political Incorporation • Celtic territories (Scotland, Ireland, Wales) were the first to experience political incorporation. Wales and Scotland were included where they formally joined as ‘Great Britain’ in 1707. Ireland was formally incorporated in 1800 as part of what had become to be called the ‘United Kingdom’. After the administration of the remaining colonies Britain became the ‘British Empire’ • The economy of these territories depended on andcontrolled by ‘the mother country’. Then, English became to be identified as the language of the State, and it remained a powerful model.

3-Nationalist Reaction• The political incorporation of communities that feel they have distinct cultural identity resulted inthe nationalist reaction . National reaction appearsin different forms in particular the language, i.e. the use of the pre-colonial language which providea separatist identity. For instance, by the end of the C19th the newly emergence nationalism in Ireland, Scotland and Wales began to fear for the survival of Celtic languages which became taught languages, even in literature.

• Overseas nationalist reaction began in North America in 1776, motivated by concerns over taxation. USA took it’s independence by force, a matter which made the British government offered Canada self-government, fearing that Canada might do the same. Then, Australia in 1901, New Zealand in 1907, South Africa 1910.• Movements of political independence emerged inIndia and many of African colonies during The C20th.• The language of these movements was also English(a second or additional language)

THE LINGUISTIC CONSEQUENCES OF COLONISATION

• Colonisation resulted in social, economic, and political inequalities which privilege the colonial language and those who spoke it. Those colonial conditions of language contact played an importantrole in shaping anew varieties of English thatemerged. • Schneider (2007) identifies five broad stages of historical development for new varieties of English resulted from language contact between different speech communities brought by colonisation.

1-Foundation: in which English is brought to a territory where it had not been previously spokenAt this initial stage, the indigenous community (the owners of the territory) and the newly arrived settlers (British) see themselves as distinct groups. 2-Exonormative Stabilisation: English begins to be regularly spoken in contexts such asadministration, education and legal system. The variety is one modelled on norms from the settlers country, Britain (exonormative variety, i.e.doesn’t look to external norms) and thus has no distinct identity of its own.

3-Nativisation: the stage at which the cultural and political loyalty that had existed precolonialisation is no longer relevant to the new situation. Thenterritory is developing its own cultural practicesand ways of doing things including the development ofa localized or indigenised variety of English.4-Endonormative Stabilisation: in this stage, the local variety of English begins not only to be accepted as legitimate by its own, but also gets actively promoted as an important part of theterritory’s culture. This usually follows political independence for the territory.

5-Differentiation: the local variety is wellestablished and the process of internal Linguistic variation occurs in the territory, where differentsectors of society begin to establish their own variety of English which can be considered asseparate dialects of the variety now used in the territory. Dialect Leveling and Internal Variation• In all the colonies, first form (Ireland in theC12th) to (Australia in the late C18th) the English speaking settlers formed a diverse group of people

• The restructuring of social identity is a typical colonial process and applies both to the incomingcommunity (in this case Britain) and to the members ofthe precolonial population who become incorporated into the colonial system. The new settlers who come from different social and language background, start toadopt a new uniform variety. This process is called Dialect Levelling. • Nationalist reaction (considering differences between speakers) and the seeking of independent political andcultural identity, lead to the promotion of a differentstandard model, by encouraging the identification andcodification of a local variety of English (nativisation)

• As colonies expanded and became more established, different areas and groups usually develop a sense of local and cultural linguistic identity. This might be reinforced by contact with local languages. • The most complex linguistic situation was found in those colonies where speakers became bilingualin English and local language, e.g. India, West Africa, where a number of Europeans imposed political and economic control over precolonialpopulation.

The Spread of English within the British Isles

• The global spread of English began within the British Isles, towards the end of the C12th.The Colonisation of Ireland• The first colonies were established in south-east ofIreland (C12th). English law was introduced toprotect the Colonist and disadvantage the Irish. By the C14th, many of the colonists had married Irish women and adopted the language of the enemies(Irish). By the late of C15th English was limited to a small area around Dublin known as ‘the Pale’

• English control was reasserted during the C16threflecting the monarchy’s preoccupation, declaring that the king’s subjects should speak English.Political incorporation and nationalist reaction in Ireland• Irish were resettled in the poorer west of the country. There were Anti-English sentiment among Irish which support any cause thatthreaten the Britain state. It was after uprising inthe 1798 that Ireland was incorporated into theUnited Kingdom by the Act of Union of 1800 whereEnglish became the first language of half population.

• By the C19th, Irish was increasingly abandon for three reasons: 1-the famines in the 1840s (many Irish emigratedto USA)2-introduction of universal English language education. 3-significance in the context of ideas linkingnationalism and language. • English became the language of two institutions: the Catholic Church, and the independence movements.• In 1922 Ireland gained independence from UK Northern Ireland remained part of the UK.

The Spread of English Beyond the British Isles• The establishment of English-speaking coloniesin North America at the beginning of the C17th was the first sage in the colonial expansion ofEngland that made English an international language.• South America was the first to be discovered by Europe. • In the late C15th, other Europeanlanguages came into contact with English in the colonies and influenced its development.

English in North America: An Example of Displacement The pattern of colonisation southern areas differedslightly from that of the North. Huge plantation andestates developed in the South. These colonies were settled by a high of people from the southand west of England. Labour for the plantation were supplied by slaves who were transportedfrom Africa.The variety of English which was implemented in North America was that of the early modern period

• In North America, some dialect variations arosefrom contact with different indigenous languages,emerged one of the major modern dialect boundaries of the USA: that between northern and southern speech.• Southern American English has a number of distinctive features (see p. 119 for examples).

English in West Africa: An Example of Subjection

• The first slaving expedition occurred in the C16thwere in Sierra Leone. Then, Liberia was establishedby the USA for ex-slaves.Then, there was association of slaves with an African homeland based on the notion of decent from African tribes, which linked black people of America and Africa. This led to the existence of a shared language (English).• New British colonies were established in Africa after 1880.• In West Africa, the new colony was administered by a small number of British officials.

• The population remained African with a select number receiving education in English from missionaries,and a large number using English-based Pidgins, a createdlanguage for communication between people who do not know each other languages. It has no mother tongue. But, when it becomes a mother tongue for the next generation It developed to be a creole (see p. 124) • The precolonial populations were not given any right asfar as the vote and compulsory education were concerned. They considered to be at a lower stage of cultural and Intellectual development than whiteEuropeans.

• The term colonialism first used in the C19th, it reflects changes in the relationship between Britain (British Empire) and its colonies.• Pan-Negroism: a movement, based on shared ethnic identity, by ex-slaves in the USA, involved their struggle for freedom. • Pan-Africanism: an anti-colonial struggle forblacks in Africa alone. • Movement for African independence and theEnglish language have been linked.Different languages spoken in Africa explain diversity as produced by ‘tribalism’.

• Then, for independence, tribalism needs to be replaced by a different European concept: nationalism.

• English helps African to recreate their identities as members of nations rather thantribes. • Britain colonialism helped African to modernise themselves by introducing them to the English language, and then, to new culture with concepts such as ‘freedom’ and ‘national identity’.

• English in Jamaica: An Example of ReplacementThe long-term effect of the slave trade in the development of English language is immense.It gives rise to Black English in the USA and the Caribbean which has a big influence on the speechof young English speakers worldwide. It also providesextraordinary context of language contact, led to theformation of English pidgins and creoles. • Portuguese-based pidgin was used widely when dealing with African slaves in the Caribbean colonised by the Spanish.• Spanish-based pidgin; slave substituted Spanish words for

the Portuguese ones in their pidgin, created Spanish-based pidgin

• Pidgin was the only means of communicationavailable to slaves on the new plantations whereAfrican languages were abandoned.• In many parts of the Caribbean, the use ofcreole is linked firmly to a sense of local identity.

Language Education Policies and ColonialistAgendas• English was reserved for the instruction of small‘elite’ who would mostly fulfill key administrative role for the government of the colony.• The language teaching practices that weredeveloped in colonial times have also had an important influence on the practice and theories of the English language teaching industry.

Conclusion• this chapter examined the spread of English from England to other parts of the British Isles and then to other areas of the world.• The diversity of language around the world isa result of a various patterns of contact with other languages and cultures, and a product of linguisticdiversity that existed around the British Isles and was exported abroad on colonial expansion.• while the idea of standard being enforced inEngland,the native diversity of English was spreading around the Globe. (GO TO THE READINGS)