ugong vol4-1
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The Official Faculty Publication
Of the College of Arts and Sciences
San Beda College Alabang Alabang Hills Village, Muntinlupa City
Volume 4 No. 1 (August 2011)
ISSN 2243-8963
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ISSN 2243-8963
ISSN 2243-8963
Editorial Board
Paulito V. Hilario, Ph.D
Editor
Margaret Sanapo, Ph.D
Ernesto Dimaculangan, Ph.D
Maria Teresita L. Ingles, M.A
Myrna Escoto, M.A.
Board Members
Thelma Geraldine A. Baricaua,M.S
Consultant
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FOREWORD
Ugong Faculty Journal August 2011 issue is a product of scholarly
researches of faculty members of San Beda College Alabang College of Arts
and Sciences, whose interests are in various disciplines of business , IT,
education, arts and sciences. The articles for publication may be in a form of
a basic or applied research.
The faculty journal follows the standard format for scientific journal,
which includes the Title, Abstract, Introduction, Methodology, Results and
Discussion, and Conclusion. The inclusion of Recommendation and
Acknowledgement is optional to the author/ s of the article. The citation of
references is presented based on the standard format set by each discipline;
thus, the authors decide on the style of reference citation to use.
The Editors
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Table of Contents
Ang Karanasan Ng Imus Sa Himagsikan:
Gunita Ng Mga Naghimagsik (1896-1898) Maria Teresita L.Ingles, M.A ......................................................... 2
Cooperation Among Asean And Other Member States
(Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, And Vietnam) Under The
Implementation Of The Common Effective Preferential
Tariff (Cept) Scheme Jhino B. Ilano, M.A. ..................................................................... 20
Factors Influencing Physicians In Prescribing
Pharmaceutical Products Ernesto D. Dimaculangan, Ph.D. ................................................ 32
Language Anxiety In Oral Communication Of San Beda
College Alabang Staff And Employees Jean A. Ariola MA Ed. .............................................................. 48
Predictors Of Social And Intellectual Readiness Among
Preschoolers In Selected Schools In
Dasmariñas, Cavite Ma. Fatima V. Bullecer MA.Ed ................................................... 55
2
ANG KARANASAN NG IMUS SA HIMAGSIKAN:
GUNITA NG MGA NAGHIMAGSIK (1896-1898)
MARIA TERESITA L. INGLES, M.A
Abstrak
Ang aking pananaliksik na pinamagatang, Ang Karanasan ng Imus sa
Himagsikan: Gunita ng mga Naghimagsik (1896-1898) ay tumatalakay sa
mga naging mahahalagang ambag ng bayan ng Imus sa Himagsikang Pilipino
noong dantaon 19.
Bubuuin ng apat na bahagi ang pagtalakay ng paksa. Sa unang bahagi, ang
paglalatag ng mga hakbang ukol sa mga Unang Pagtatanggol. Sa bahaging ito
ilalarawan ang pagsanib ng bayan sa Katipunan at ang pagtataglay nito ng
katawagang Haligue. Ang bayan ng Imus ay kabilang sa mga bayang
pinamahalaan ng Sangguniang Magdalo. Lalamanin din ng bahaging ito ang
mga kaparaanang ipinatupad ng mga Espanyol sa panahon ng mga paglusob
na gagawin sa mga bayan na hawak ng Sangguniang Magdalo. Ang
ikalawang bahagi, paglalarawan ng mga kaparaanang ipinatupad ng mga
Espanyol. Tatalakayin naman sa ikatlong bahagi sa mga hakbangin
isinagawa ng mga manghihimagsik ukol sa pagtataguyod ng Imus. Iisa-isahin
ang pasinaya ng paglusob sa mga kalaban, at pagbawi. At sa ikaapat na
bahagi ay mahalagang ipapakita ng pagtugon ng bayan at ng ilang mga
pamilya sa panawagan ng Himagsikan.
Maipapakita ng pananaliksik na ito ang kahalagahan ng pagtatanggol ng
Imus sa panahon ng Himagsikan hindi lang sa antas pampook kundi pati na rin
sa pambansang larangan ng pakikibaka upang kamtin ang kalayaan mula sa
kamay ng mga kolonyalistang Espanyol.
Panimula
“Natalastas ko na tayo’y salat sa mga sandata o sa mga
kasangkapan at kagamitan sa isang pakikidigma, kung ito ang pag-
uusapan; ngunit walang makapagsasabing ang Pilipino ang di ang
angking sariling tapang, at di may sariling pag-iisip sa pagtatanggol
ng kaapihan; wala na tayong nakikitang lalaki pang kaduwagan sa
sinasabi ni Florante na “guniguning takot sa kalaban”; dito ay ating
pinag-uusapan ay ang paglaban at hindi ang sandata.”
- Andres Bonifacio -
Mahalaga ang naging papel ng lalawigan ng Cavite sa kasaysayan, at sa
pagbubuo ng kamalayan at pagkakakilanlan ng lahing Pilipino lalo na sa panahon
ng paghihimagsik laban sa dayuhang Espanyol noong dantaon labing siyam. Ang
3
tradisyon ng pagsusulat ng kasaysayang pampook ng ilang bayan ay nasimulan
nang isakatuparan. Isang hamon para sa akin na maging bahagi ng makabuluhang
tradisyong ito ng pagsasalaysay ng kasaysayan ng bayan.
Mahalagang maipagpatuloy ang ganitong gawaing pananaliksik. Ang
muling pagbabalik sa bayan ng Imus at ang muling pakikipagtalastasan sa mga
taga-Imus ay masasabi kong isang tagumpay. Halos ibinilang na ang sarili na tunay
na kabahagi ng kanilang pook, at pati na rin nang mayabong na kasaysayan ng
kanilang bayan.
Malaking bahagi ng pagtalakay ang paglalahad ng mga salaysay at gunita
(memoir) mismo ng mga lumahok sa Himagsikan. Ilalahad nila ang mga karanasan
sa pagtatanggol, pagtataguyod at pagbawing ginawa ng mga naghimagsik upang
kamtin ang kalayaan ng bayan.
A. Mga Unang Pagtatanggol
Itinuring na panahon ng Kaliwanagan nang ang mga Pilipino ay humingi
ng pagbabago sa iba’t-ibang larangan ng kanilang pamumuhay. Ang pagnanais para
sa kalayaan ay humantong sa pagbubuo ng isang pambansang samahan, ang
Katipunan.
Hiningi sa mga umanib na gumamit ng sagisag, kalakip ng kanyang tunay
na pangalan sa pagkabinyagan, at lalagda sa kasulatan ng panunumpa bilang isang
kasapi. Nagtakda rin ng mga bagong pangalan na pinakasagisag sa pagka-
Katipunan ang ilang mga bayan sa lalawigan ng Cavite: Magdalo (Cavite el Viejo o
Kawit), Magdiwang (Noveleta), Magwagi (Naic), Magtagumpay (Maragondon),
Haligue (Imus), Gargano (Bacoor), Magpuri (Perez-Dasmariñas o Dasmariñas), at
Bagongsinag (Silang).
Pangunahing adhika ng mga naghimagsik ang paggawa ng kaparaanan
upang mapatalsik ang mga prayle na nagmamay-ari ng mga bahay-asyenda,
partikular sa Imus, at gayundin ng mga kura paroko na namamahala sa mga parokya
sa lalawigan.
Isinalaysay ni Heneral Artemio Ricarte na, 1
“Ang Sangguniang Magdalo kahimat nagsitutol sa paghihimagsik,
sa pagkaigaya marahil sa tagumpay na tinamo ng mga taga-
Magdiwang, ay nagbangon din sa huli at pinagpilitang madakip
ang isang pareha ng guardiya sibil na naparaan lamang doon sa
pagtungo sa Imus. 2 Ito’y utang din sa matatapang na sina Tirona
at Mascardo na silang nanguna sa pangkat na humuli sa mga
naturang sibil.”
1 Artemio Ricarte, ”Himagsikan nang manga Pilipino Laban sa Kastila” (Yokohama: 1927),
p.13 2 Sinasabi ni Heneral Ricarte sa pahayag na ito na marahil dahil sa tagumpay na tinamo ng
Pangkat Magdiwang, nahikayat na rin ang Pangkat Magdalo (pangkat nina Emilio
Aguinaldo at Baldomero Aguinaldo) na noong una ay tumutol sa pakikipaghihimagsik
laban sa nga Espanyol.
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B. Mga Kaparaanang Ipinatupad ng mga Espanyol
Sa panahon ng pag-ugong ng pagtatanggol na isasagawa ng mga
manghihimagsik, kagyat na naghanda si Gobernador Heneral Ramon Blanco ng
isang planong paglusob. Sa pagsasalaysay ni Carlos V. Ronquillo, sinaad niya na:
“Kasabay ding ipinasiya ni Blanco na kaunin ng tatlong bapor ang
apat na libong sundalong Tagalog sa Mindanaw at Jolo na
umahon sa Maynila sa Tanghali ng ika-4 ng buwan ding iyon. At
ang mga ito’y siyang ipinagkakalat sa mga bayang libot ng Kabite
at sa mga kabisera sa iba’t-ibang Hukumang estado de sitio
[kalagayan ng pagkubkob]. At ang mga infanteria marina sa
Puwertong Kabite, ay kinaon ng ilan at ipinatauhang kasama ng
mga marino sa ibang bayan ng Maynila.” 3
Nagsagawa ng mga walang kadahilanang pagdakip kahit sa mga tahimik at
nilalapatan ng walang pakundangang pagpapahirap. Upang aminin ang kanilang
pagbibintang ay pinatitikim ng makailang palo at dagok hanggang sa magtamo ng
mga sugat sa buong katawan, mabalian ng mga ang buto at, kung di makayanan ay
tuluyang mamatay. 4
Sa mga probinsya, halos ay kikigin ang punong katawan 5 ng matulis at
matayad na patpat. Araw-araw ay halos di nawawalan ang bawat puwesto ng
guwardiya sibil ng dalawa o lima na binabalian ng mga buto at tadyang; pinapalo sa
tiyan at sa talampakan hanggang sa mga hinlalaki at pinaiinom ng maraming tubig
hanggang sa mamutok-mutok ang tiyan, saka binubuhusan ng sukang may sili ang
dalawang ilog. At kung di pa masiyahan ay binabaliting abot-siko, dinadala sa
labas ng bayan at doon binabaril. 6
C. Pagtataguyod at Pagbawi
“Sa araw na ito, ika-31 ng Agosto, 1896, naganap ang nabigong paglusob
sa Imus. Kinagabihan, sumaklolo ang Pangulo ng Sangguniang Magdalo na si
Baldomero Aguinaldo at kusang loob na hinarap ang mga kalaban sa Imus. Dinala
naman ni Emilio Aguinaldo ang tropa ng Cavite el Viejo sa Binakayan, upang
talibaan ito dahil sa mga kalabang Infanteria Marina sa Polvorin, sa Puntod ng
Kulanta. Ang kanilang balak ay hintayin ang kanilang pagpasok sa Binakayan, dahil
sa kanilang palagay na kung sila ay lulusob ay hindi nila magagapi ang kuta na
kanilang kinalalagyan sa Polvorin na malapit pa sa kutang Artelleria ng Arsenal sa
3 Ibid, p.221 4 Inilarawan din ni Ronquillo na “Saka kung matapos na ay ililipat sa sari-saring bilangguan
na dito’y lalo nang pinapagdudusa; iniinis, ibinababad sa hanggang baywang na pusaling
tubig, linulunod sa kasalat-salatan at mabahong paghinga at di-pinapakain hanggang sa
tamuhin ang masaklap na kamatayan, at kung malisya pa rito, ay hinahatulan agad ng
kabuktot-buktutang pagkitil ng buhay.” p. 221 5 Ito ay tumutukoy sa ari ng lalaki. 6 Ronquillo, Carlos V., Ilang Tala Tungkol sa Paghihimagsik (Revolucion) nang 1897,
p.221-222
5
Kabite.“ 7 Ito ang pahayag ni Heneral Emilio Aguinaldo sa kanyang Mga Gunita ng
Himagsikan. Dagdag pa niya:
Nang kinahating-gabihan, dumating na ang tropang
galing sa Imus, dahil sa nabigo ang pagsalakay dito, sa dahilang
sa liwasang bayan pa lamang, bago pumasok ng kabayanan ay
nakasagupa na nila ang patrulya ng mga Guardia Civil, at doon na
sila naglaban sa plasa ng munisipyo at simbahan ng Imus. Ang
mga kalaban ay napatayan nila ng dalawa, at dalawang baril ang
kanilang naagaw. Samantalang ang kanilang hukbo ay nakaiwan
naman ng isang sugatan sa munisipyo ng Imus, at ito’y si
Teniente Marcelino Cajulis. 8
Sa paglalahad pa rin ni Heneral Aguinaldo, “bilang paghahanda sa kauna-
unahang gagawing pagsalakay sa mga kalaban, sa unang araw ng Setyembre, 1896,
nagtungo si José Tagle 9 sa Kuwartel Heneral sa kumbento ng Cavite el Viejo, at
nakipagkita kay Aguinaldo. Humingi ang una ng abuloy upang lusubin ang mga
kalaban sa bayan ng Imus. Kaagad naman itong sinang-ayunan ng huli.” 10
Sa ika-2 ng Setyembre 1896, isinalaysay din ni Heneral Aguinaldo na “ang
pangkat na pinanguluhan ni Heneral Baldomero Aguinaldo, ay siya kong inatasang
lilibawa sa dakong hilaga o norte, sa kanyang pagsalakay. Sa dakong timog ó sur,
ay ang kawal naman ng Capitan Municipal sa Imus, si G. José Tagle, at sa
pangharapan o liwasan ng kumbento at simbahan, ay ang aking pangkat, at ako pa
rin ang nangunguna sa pagharap sa mga kalaban.” 11
Itinuloy ang pagsasalaysay ni Heneral Aguinaldo ng ganito: “sa pagsisid ng
mga naghihimagsik at sa pagsapit nila sa pintuan ng kumbento, ito ay nakapinid pa.
Gumamit kami ng maso at palakol upang gibain ito. Nagawa naming makapasok sa
loob ng kumbento. Ang inabutan lamang nila ay isang pareng Pilipino. Ito ay si
Padre Buenaventura. Ito’y kapagkarakang humarap sa akin nang paluhod at
humingi ng tawad. Kanyang ipinagtapat sa akin pagkatapos na kaaalis pa raw
lamang ng mga Frayle at Guardia Civil na nagpanakbuhan sa takot, ng kanilang
marinig ang tugtog ng banda ng musika at nang matanawan nila sa torre ang
makapal na kawal naming dumarating. Dahil dito, muling nagtipon ang kanilang
mga kawal. Hinati na naming muli ang grupo sa tatlong pangkat. 12
Isinagawa ang
pagkubkob ng timog at kanluran na nababakuran ng matibay na hacienda.” 13
7 Emilio F. Aguinaldo, Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan, (National Centennial Commision at
Cavite Historical Society: 1998), pp. 93-94 8 Ibid., p.94 9 Siya ang Pangulo ng Balangay Pilar at Capitan Municipal ng Imus 10 Emilio F. Aguinaldo, Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan, p. 95 11 Ibid., p.98 12 Ibid., pp. 98-99 13 Sa paglalarawan ni Heneral Emilio Aguinaldo, ”ang hacienda ay may sukat na limang
ektarya ang laki. Ang looban nito ay nakukulong ng matitibay at matataas na bakod na
bato. Matatagpuan ito sa pampangin ng ilog, at saan ka man manggaling ay agad kang
matutunghan ng nasa torre at ng nasa hacienda. “
6
“At palibhasa’y sa katibayan ng asyenda na tila sinadya iyon, at sa
karamihan ng kaharap nilang mga guwardiya sibil, pare at legong prayle at taong-
bayan pang basal ang ugali na pumanig doon, ay hindi ito nakuhang wasakin karaka
kaya nga’t lumawig ang labanan hanggang sa umaga na kinabukasan. Siyang
pagkatalo sa nasa asyenda na nangakukulong sila at lalang ng madlang paraan.
Tinibag namin ang mga pader, sinunog ang kamalig 14
ng palay, hanggang akalaing
idamay ang Bahay-uldóg sa kinaroroonan ng kinakaaway.” 15
Isinalaysay rin ni Aguinaldo ang kanilang kinahantungan nang maganap
ang pagsalakay. Aniya,
Bagama’t pinasalubungan kami nang kataku-takot na putok ng
mga Guardia Civil mula sa torre, gayon din ng mga Frayle mula
sa bintana ng hacienda sa ganitong pangyayari, at dahilan sa
kabutihan ng mga sandata ng mga kalaban, ay lubhang marami
ang nalagas sa aming mga kawal, at napauntol ang pagsisid ng
aking mga kasamahan. Walang nakasunod sa akin sa tabi ng
pinto ng hacienda kundi ang matapang niyang Sarhento
Cuadrillero na si Guillermo Samoy. 16
Habang pinapalakol at
binabareta ang malaking pinto ay lalong dinalas-dalas ang
pamumutok na halos walang patumangga ng aming mga kalaban
sa pangunguna ng balitang Kura na si Fray Eduarte. 17
Ayon naman sa pagsasalaysay ni Ronquillo, “sa dalawang labanang iyon,
ay nagdalawa ang palad ng mga Tagalog; isa ang pagkaurong sa Bakood (Bacoor)
nang sumaklolo sa pamamahala ni Kapitan Emilio na kinamatayan ng dalawang
kawal; at isang nabihag; 18
ikalawa’y ang pagkapagdiwang sa Imus na kinamatayan
ng dalawang pare na dito’y isa ang kura sa Imus (Padre Jose Maria Learte), 19
dalawang uldog o legong prayle, isang tenyente (si Chacon), 20
(Juan Perez) (kabo)
at isang kábo ng Guwardiya sibil na pawang Kastila, saka isang Tagalog na
maruming dugo na noo’y kasalukuyang juez de paz doon, 21
Isabelo del Rosario;
isang kapitan pasado, alipin at tagasulat ng mga asenderong prayle na kinilalang
lubha sa tawag ng lahat na: “asong ganid ng prayle.” 22
14 “Si Juan Patricio ang nagsunog ng kamalig sa Asyenda ng Imus noong 2 Setyembre 1896
sa utos ni José Tagle” sang-ayon kay Carlos V. Ronquillo, Ilang Tala Tungkol sa
Paghihimagsik (Revolución) nang 1897, p.282 15 Ibid., p.282 16 Nasawimpalad na tinamaan siya sa tagpong ito. 17 Emilio F. Aguinaldo, Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan , p. 100-101 18 Tatlo ang ibinigay na mga pangalan ni Ronquillo, sina Juan Raturat, Rufino Magos at
Mariano Miguel. Samantalang si Victorino Sambile ang bihag na binabanggit. 19 Siya ay dating Probinsyal Rekoleto, kura paroko ng Imus 1896 hanggang sa napatay ng
mga Katipunero 20 Si Enrique Chacon ay primer teniente ng 20 tercio infanteria ng guwardiya sibil sa Imus.
Carlos V. Ronquillo, Ilang Tala Tungkol sa Paghihimagsik (Revolución) nang 1897, p.
700 21 Si Juan Fajardo ang hukom tagapamayapa ng Imus noon. 22 Carlos V. Ronquillo, Ilang Tala Tungkol sa Paghihimagsik (Revolución) nang 1897, p.
282
7
Agad na ibinalita ni Koronel José Tagle kay Heneral Emilio Aguinaldo
ang tagumpay na nakamit nila laban sa mga kaaway. Inulat niya na,
Napatay po naming lahat sa tugisan ng kanilang mga gulukan ang
lahat ng mga Frayle at Guardia Civil, nang sila’y maglabasan sa
bahay hacienda noong mga sandaling kayo’y nakikihamok sa
mga kalaban sa Bakood. Ganoon na po lamang ang sigla at
tapang ng ating mga kawal sa pagtutugisan, at ang ganyan ay
nagbunga ng isang malaki nating tagumpay, pagka’t nakakuha po
kami ng may 30 baril na Remington, 2 ripleng magagaling na
Winchester na ginagamit ng mga Frayle, 1 kanyon de montaña, at
libu-libong bala na aming nangasamsam sa bahay hacienda na
kanilang iniwan. 23
Ang magandang balita ni Koronel Tagle ng Imus ay tinugon naman ni
Heneral Aguinaldo ng ganito:
Naniniwala ako na sa pakikihamok nating ito sa kaharian ng
Espanya, upang makalagot sila sa kaalipinan, ay nasa piling natin
ang Diyos na lalong makapangyarihan sa lahat. Alam ng
Maykapal na iisa lamang ang ating layon, dili iba’t ang mahango
sa dustang kalagayan ang ating Inang bayan. 24
Ang pagsaklolo ng mga bayan na sakop ng Sangguniang Magdalo gaya ng
Cavite el Viejo sa pagtatanggol ng Imus ay naging mahalaga sa larangan ng
pagpapatag ng hanay. Isang malaking tagumpay nang makubkob nila ang hacienda,
at tuluyang mapalayas ang mga prayle at guardia civil na naghihimpil doon, pati na
rin ang mga sandatang kanilang nasamsam na ginamit sa sumunod na pagtatanggol
at pagsalakay. Mapapansin sa winika ni Aguinaldo ang tibay ng pananampalataya
ng mga naghihimagsik sa Maykapal, na itinuring nila bilang isang Kapanalig.
Kapagkaraka’y ipinag-utos ni Heneral Aguinaldo na ang mga sandatang
nasamsam sa labanang iyon sa Imus ang gagamitin sa mga susunod pang labanan.
Agad din niyang ipinatayo ang bateriya upang hindi sila maunahan ng mga kalaban.
Nag-iwan din si Heneral Aguinaldo kay Koronel José Tagle ng ilang mga bilin. 25
23 Emilio F. Aguinaldo, Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan , p. 114 24 Ibid., p. 114 25 Ibid., p. 114
Ipinag-utos ni Heneral Aguinaldo na:
Una: Ipagiba agad ang isang arko ng tulay na bato sa kabilang pampang ng hacienda.
Ikalawa: Magtayo agad ng trintsera sa may lihim na lugal sa kabilang pampang ng ilog
tapat ng pagdaraanan ng mga kalaban na nangagaling sa Bakood.
Ikatlo: Ang lahat ng barilan at gulukan ay manganganlong sa itatayong tanggulan, at
sinuman ang huwag magpapakita o magpapaputok ng baril kahit naririto na ang mga
kalaban, samantalang hindi pa pumuputok ang kanyon, sa putol na tulay o arkong giba na
kaniyang kinalalagyan.
8
Sumunod namang kinaharap ng mga manghihimagsik ang tinaguriang
Kolumnang Togores-Garcia. 26
ng texto official ng mga Kastila. Napaurong ng
Kolumnang ito ang munting pulutong nina Aguinaldo sa bayang Bakood. Tumuloy
ang Kolumna sa bayan ng Imus nang araw ding iyon (ika-2 Setyembre).
Nagkaputukan nga ng pinagsanib na pangkat nina Togores-Garcia ang mga
nagtanggol sa Asyenda. Umurong naman ang nasabing Kolumna na nagtatakbuhan
sa Asyenda. 27
Dito sila nagtago at ginamot din ang mga sugatang iniurong nila.
Dinagdagan ni Gobernador Heneral Blanco ng isa pang pulutong ang
Kolumna. Ang mga Kolumnang nagsilakad na patungong Imus ay pinamunuan ng
Tenyente Koronel Togores at Garcia at sumaklolo sa Imus, kalakip ng pulutong ni
Aguirre. Ang pulutong na ito’y pawang artilyero at isang seksyon pa ng mga
guardia civil. Ayon kay Ronquillo,
Ang tangka ni Blanco kaya si Aguirre ang siyang
pinalakad, ay upang pamunuan ang tanang pulutong; at ang sa
ganito’y mapilit ding kunin ang bayan ng Imus sa pamamagitan
ng dalawang piyesa ng cañon Plasencia 28
sa tulong ng gayong
karaming sundalo; (200 mahigit) at kundi mangyari’y kilanlin
lamang na tunay kung paanong anyo’t mga kalagayan mayroon
ang Imus, kaya si Aguirre ang siyang pinalakad. 29
Itinuring ni Heneral Aguinaldo ang naganap na labanan noong ika-2 ng
Setyembre 1896, bilang una niyang pagkabigo sa hukbo ng mga Espanyol.
Dumating sa Kuwartel Heneral, sa Kumbento ng Cavite el Viejo, si Gil Ignacio,
Pangulo ng balangay “Gargano” 30
ng Katipunan. Humingi sila ng tulong dahil sa
makapal na Infanteria, Caballería, at Artilleria na nasa Pulang Lupa (sa Parañaque),
at Las Piñas, na sasaklolo sa hacienda sa Imus na nakukulong ng mga
manghihimagsik ng Imus.31
Ika- 3 ng Setyembre nang tumungo ang pangkat ni Heneral Aguinaldo sa
Imus. Pinutol ng mga manghihimagsik ang Tulay ng Isabel II sa tabi ng Asyenda
ng Imus. 32
Dahil sa ganitong pagkabigla ng pangkat ng mga Espanyol, sila ay
26 “Si José Togores ng caballería Espanyol, na nang lumao’y tenyente koronel at, naging
Pangulo ng Hukumang Digmaang lumitis kay Jose Rizal, Disyembre 26,1896.” Carlos V.
Ronquillo, Ilang Tala Tungkol sa Paghihimagsik (Revolución) nang 1897, p. 701 27 Sa bahagi ng Bacoor, sa barangay San Nicolas sa kasalukuyan. 28 Ipinangalan kay Koronel Plasencia, ang imbentor ng uri ng kanyong ito. 29 Carlos V. Ronquillo, Ilang Tala Tungkol sa Paghihimagsik (Revolución) nang 1897, p.
287 30 Ito ay Bakoor. May kasama pa siyang dalawa pang Katipunero mula sa lugar. 31 Ang tinutukoy na nakukulong sa loob ng hacienda ay ang mga asyenderong paring at ilang
mga guardia civil. Emilio F. Aguinaldo, Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan , p.105 32 Dagdag pa ni Ronquillo, na “ang tinutukoy ay ang Tulay ng Isabel II sa may Daang Liko,
Imus, ay ginawa ni uldóg Matias Carbonel de la Concepción (1806-1861). Siya ay naging
katiwala ng Asyenda ng Imus noong 1856 nang ang gobernador pulitiko-militar ng
lalawigan ng Cavite ay si Koronel Gabriel de Llamas at namamahala namang Gobernador-
Heneral ng Pilipinas ay si Manuel Crespo. Isang medalyang ginto ang iginawad kay uldóg
Matias na noo’y Gobernador Ramón Monteró ng Pilipinas.” Carlos V. Ronquillo, Ilang
Tala Tungkol sa Paghihimagsik (Revolución) nang 1897, p.701
9
nagkagulo. Ito na ang hudyat ng walang tigil na putukan sa pagitan ng magkabilang
panig.
Tumagal nang halos maghapon ang labanang ito sa Imus. Pagkatapos ng
labanan at umalis na ang mga kalaban, at naiwan ang may dalawang karitong
bangkay. Nakakuha ang mga manghihimagsik ng 70 baril na Remington, at ang
sableng naiwan ni Heneral Aguirre. Ipinasiya ng Sangguniang Bayang Magdalo na
ilipat ang Pamahalaang Panghihimagsik sa bahay hacienda sa Imus. Naghirang din
sila ng mangagsisipamuno ng pagpapanibagong tatag ng Pamahalaang Magdalo, 33
at ang mga ito ay ang mga sumusunod:
Pangulo: G. Baldomero Aguinaldo
Secretario de Guera: G. Candido Triá Tirona
Secretario de Hacienda: G. Cayetano Topacio
Secretario de Fomento: G. Glicerio Topacio
Secretario de Agricultura: G. Felix Cuenco
Secretario de Justicia: G. Sixto Espinosa
Teniente General en Jefe Abanderado: G. Emilio Aguinaldo
Ang pamahalaang Magdalo ay inilipat sa Imus mula sa Cavite el Viejo, na
pinamalagian hanggang noong kalahatian ng Marso ng 1897 na kinuha naman sa
Imus ng mga Espanyol, at ikinapatay tuloy noon ni Tenyente Heneral G. Crispulo
Aguinaldo, kapatid ni Emilio Aguinaldo.34
Nagpasiyang lumusob sa Cavite ang bagong Gobernador Heneral na si
Camilo Garcia de Polavieja. Binuo ito ng 40,000 Infanteriang Espanyol na
kararating lamang buhat sa Espanya sa pangunguna ni Heneral Lachambre. Ang
planong paglusob ay itinakda sa ika-15 ng Pebrero 1897.
Nagpulong ang dalawang Sangguniang Bayan sa Cavite 35
ukol sa
pagtugon sa paglusob na isasagawa ng mga Espanyol. Layunin ng pulong ang
pagsasanib na dalawang Balangay, maghalal ng isang pamahalaan lamang, isang
33 Ayon pa kay Aguinaldo,
“Ang panibagong pamahalaan ay nagpasinaya agad sa pagkakatatag ng maestranza ó
gawaran ng sandata at iba pa, sa kapakanan ng himagsikan sa isang kamalig ng hacienda.
Pinatayuan ko ito ng mga aparatus ng ginagamit sa pagrerecarga ng mga kartuchos ng
baryo para sa sariling gamit at pagbubuo ng baril na nasisira sa pangangasiwa ni Coronel
Eduardo Legaspi alias Dodong. Dito rin ipinapagawa ang mga kanyong tubong bakal ng
mga kaldera, na nililikawan at binabalutan muna ng kawad bago lalapatan pa ng
magkabiyak na kahoy molave ó gijo, tuloy bubukluran ng sunud-sunod na plantsuelang
bakal. Ang mga kanyong tanso ay dito rin ginagawa at binubuo, pati ang mga kampana ng
simbahan na binabasag bago tutunawin at bago ihuhulog sa buuan para maging kanyon.
Ito’y sa pamamatnugot ni Heneral Ignacio Pawa, isang Tsino.” Emilio F. Aguinaldo, Mga
Gunita ng Himagsikan , p.132 34 Artemio Ricarte, Himagsikan nang manga Pilipino Laban sa Kastila, (Yokohama: 1927),
p.27 35 Sangguniang Bayang Magdalo at Sangguniang Bayang Magdiwang
10
pamunuan at maghirang ng magsisipamahala. Ngunit walang napagtibay sa mga
layuning itinakda. Pinagpaliban nila ang pulong pangkalahatan. 36
Dahil sa malungkot na kaganapang ito, nakapagbitaw ng mabigat na salita
si Heneral Artemio Ricarte sa gitna ng gusot sa pagitan ng dalawang Sanggunian.
Aniya,
Ang dalawang Pamahalaang ito ng Panghihimagsik ay
lumakad nang buong kahusayan sa pamamatnubay ng isang
magiting na pag-ibig sa tinubuang-lupa, nang walang ibang
tunguhin kundi ang layang ikinalilikha ng Katipunan; kung kaya,
ang anumang nagiging kakulangan ng isa, ay napupunan ng isa, at
kahit saan dako magipit ang isa sa pakikilaban, ay patakbong
sinasaklolohan ng isa; ngunit napakapait alalahanin ang nangyari
nang dakong huli, samantalang napapalapit ang pagtatapos ng
taong 1896, ang dalawang Pamahalaang iyan ay walang abug-
abog na nagwalang-bahala kapwa sa mga pangangailangan at
kapahamakang inaabot ng isa, hanggang sila’y nagtatanimang
unti-unti, at lumala nang lumala hanggang sumapit ang sandaling
muntik nang ipagbaka ng mga magkababayan din. 37
Isinalaysay ni Heneral Ricarte, ang paghahandang isinagawa ng mga
manghihimagsik. Nagsisipaghanda, nagtayo ng mga tanggulang makakapal at
matataas, gumawa ng mga hukay at yungib ang mga naghihimagsik sa lahat ng
pook na inakalang daraanan ng mga kaaway. Aniya,
“Bahagya pa lamang sumisikat ang araw ng ika-16 ng
Pebrero, 1897, ay nagsimula na ang mga kakila-kilabot na
paputok ng mga kanyon at baril sa mga pangunahing tanggulan
nasa pagitan ng Las Piñas at Bakood at gayon din naman sa mga
nasa Silang at sa mga nasa pagitan nito ang Santa Rosa (Laguna
de Bay.) (Ang mga tanod ng himagsikang nasa mga tanggulan sa
Bacoor na pinamamahalaan ng mga Koronel Pio del Pilar,
Mariano Noriel, at Agapito Bonson, na sinamahan pa ng mga
kawal na sina San Gabriel at Montalan mula sa Noveleta at ng
mga kawal ng Imus sa piling ng Komandante Lucas Camerino at
saka ng pangkat ni G. Andres Bonifacio. “ 38
Mahalaga at makulay ang ginawang paglalarawan ni Ricarte sa kanyang
memoir. “Halos hindi maaninag noong Pebrero 16 ang tanawin na nilukuban ng
matinding panganganyon at pagpapaputok ng riple sa unang linya ng trintsera sa
pagitan ng Bacoor at Imus, ganoon din sa bayan ng Silang at Santa Rosa sa Laguna.
36 Ayon pa kay Aguinaldo,
“Gayunpaman, sa aking sariling palagay, ay tila mandin huli na sa panahon ang ganitong
pag-iisa ng dalawang pangkat ng mga manghihimagsik sa Kabite pagka’t tayo’y nagagapi
na ng mga kalaban, at sa katunayan ay nakuha na ang bayan ng Silang at Dasmariñas.”
Emilio F. Aguinaldo, Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan , p.230 37 Artemio Ricarte, Himagsikan nang manga Pilipino Laban sa Kastila, (Yokohama: 1927),
p. 18 38 Ibid., pp. 225-226
11
Ipinagtanggol ng mga naghihimagsik ang garison sa Bacoor sa ilalim ng pamumuno
nina Koronel na Pio del Pilar, Mariano Noriel at Agapito Bonson, na sinaklolohan
ng mga tropa sa Noveleta sa ilalim ng mga Kapitang sina Gabriel at Montalan,
kasama ng mga Tropa sa Imus sa pangunguna ni Mayor Lucas Camerino, at sina
Andres Bonifacio sa ilalim ni Brigadyér-Heneral Lucino. Sa maikling labanang
naganap sa gabi at araw, nanatili sa mga trintsera ang mga naghihimagsik hanggang
ika-26 ng Marso 1897 na lumikas din dahil sa pagkuha ng mga Espanyol sa Imus
noong Marso 25. Umatake ang mga ito mula sa bahay-ari-arian sa Salitran na nasa
pagitan ng Imus at Dasmariñas.” 39
Nagpapatunay lamang ito na ang Himagsikan ay hindi lamang
pagtatanggol na inilunsad ng iilang mga pinuno, kundi higit sa lahat, ang paglahok
ng nakararaming kababayan upang mapagwagian ang pakikipaglaban. Ang lahat
ng ambag ng bawat naninirahan sa bayan, maliit man o malaki, ay tunay na
makabuluhang ambag sa tagumpay ng Himagsikan. Tunay na masalimuot ang mga
panahong ito na halos hindi mo mapanghawakan ang magaganap o kahahantungan
nito sa kinabukasan.
Ayon pa kay Heneral Ricarte,
Sa buong maghapon ng ika-16 at 18 Pebrero (1897) ang
mga Espanyol ay lagi nang gumawa ng mga pagtatangka, sa
tulong din ng mga kanyon at pandigmaang-dagat, upang kanilang
masalakay at makuha ang bai-baitang na mga tanggulang
naghihimagsik; ngunit walang nangyari. Araw-gabing nanatili
ang ating mga kawal sa mga tanggulan hanggang ika-16 ng Marso
1897 na ikinapagkuha sa Imus noong ika-25 ng mga Kastilang
nagbuhat sa sunog na bahay-asyenda sa Salitran, na nasa pag-itan
ng Dasmariñas at Imus. 40
“Sa isa sa mga huling araw ng Marso, 1897, umalis ang mga Kastila sa Imus.
Dumaan ang mga ito sa mga lumang sakahan sa dakong timog ng kabayanan ng
Cavite el Viejo. Pumasok ang mga ito sa lupang sakop ng San Francisco de
Malabon hanggang makarating sa nayon ng Bakaw ng naturang bayan. Nakuha nila
ang Noveleta sa pag-urong sa labanan. Ang tanggulang ito, na di nakuha kailanman
ng mga Kastila, ay napilitang iwan ng mga tanod na pinangungunahan ni Heneral
San Miguel.” 41
Inatasan ni Heneral Aguinaldo 42
sina Heneral Baldomero Aguinaldo,
Heneral Pantaleón Garcia, at iba pang mga naghihimagsik gaya nina Koronel Jose
39 National Historical Institute, Memoirs of General Artemio Ricarte, (Manila: National
Historical Institute, 1992), pp. 32-33 40 Artemio Ricarte, Himagsikan nang manga Pilipino Laban sa Kastila, p. 47 41 Ayon kay Aguinaldo,
“Kung kami man ay napaurong at nagtakbuhan sa labanang ito, ay parang nagtagumpay
din kami sa pangayayaring katakut-takot na dami ng bulagtang bangkay na naiwan nila sa
amin.” Emilio F. Aguinaldo, Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan , p.246 42 May karamdaman si Aguinaldo na malaria na nagsimula pa sa labanan sa Bayang Luma.
Ayon kay Aguinaldo na ”Sadyang ipinag-adya ako ng Maykapal gayon din ang ating Inang
Bayan. Ang totoo, ako’y di halos makatakbo sa pag-urong na ito sapagka’t nanghihina na
12
Topacio, Koronel José Tagle, at iba pa na sila na ang bahalang magtanggol sa
kabayanan ng Imus.
Sa patuloy na pagsasalaysay ni Heneral Ricarte, winika niya na “nakuha
rin ng mga naghihimagsik ang mga kuwartel ng mga Guwardiya Sibil sa Noveleta,
San Francisco de Malabon, Quintana, Naik, Pulangi, Magallanes, Alfonso, Silang,
Paliparan,43
at Imus. Nagamit sa paghihimagsik ang mga naagaw na mga baril at
amunisyon, kabilang na ang mga kinukumpuni gaya ng mga lantaka na yari sa
tubong bakal na matibay na tinalian ng kawad ng telegrapo, at ang mga kanyong
inihagis sa pundisyon sa Imus sa pangunguna ng Kristiyanong Tsino na si (Heneral)
Jose Ignacio Paua. Siya ay taga-Maynila ngunit naninirahan sa San Francisco de
Malabon.” 44
Sa pagpapatuloy ng salaysay ni Heneral Ricarte, inusal niya na,
“Sa huling bahagi ng Marso, habang ang mga Espanyol ay
lumikas sa Imus at tumawid sa palayan sa timog ng Cavite Viejo,
tinahak nila ang San Francisco de Malabon at naabot ang
pinakamalayong lugar ng Bacao. Sa ika-4 ng hapon, nakasagupa
nila ang pangkat ni Bonifacio, at ng Magdiwang. Iginiit ng mga
naghihimagsik sa kahit anong paraan na itulak sa Imus ang mga
Espanyol ngunit sila ay nabigo. Nanatili ang mga Pwersang
Espanyol sa baryo nang gabing iyon.”45
Muli namang nabawi ng mga manghihimagsik ang bayan ng Imus noong
ika-28 ng Marso, taong 1898. Matatandaang inokupa ng mga manghihimagsik ang
Imus noong unang araw ng Setyembre, taong 1896. Naging himpilan naman ng
Kapulungan ng mga Naghihimagsik ang naturang bayan noong Hunyo, 1897.
Ayon sa pagtalakay ni Arsenio Manuel sa mga tala ni Tomás Tirona,
“hindi rin nakaligtas ang mga ministro ng Simbahan sa Himagsikan, partikular sa
lalawigan ng Cavite. Hindi maganda ang naging tadhana ng paring Recoleto na si
Padre José María Liarte, at iba pang mga residenteng Espanyol sa bayan ng Imus.
Tinadtad ang bahaging katawan ni Padre Liarte, at ang iba naman ay pinana at
pinagtataga hanggang sa kamatayan ng mga ito. Muling nabuhay sa alaala ng mga
naninirahan sa lugar ang mga kawalang-katarungan, paninirang-puri, at kalupitang
kanilang sinapit sa kamay ng mga mananakop, karaniwang tao man o relihiyoso.
Ang pagsiklab ng kanilang poot ay hindi humupa kahit pa sa pagtatapos ng
Himagsikan.” 46
ako, bakit ako’y inaapoy ng lagnat kaya nagpagapang-gapang lamang ako sa bambang
(kanal) ng patubig sa kabukiran at sa ibaba ng tulay ng kung tawagin ay ”Kay Julian.”
Patang-pata ako noon pagka’t nagkataon noon na ang dati kong karamdamang ”Malaria”
ay muli na namang sumumpong sa akin.” Emilio F. Aguinaldo, Mga Gunita ng
Himagsikan , p.247 43 Isang barangay ito sa bayan ng Damariñas. 44 National Historical Institute, Memoirs of General Artemio Ricarte, p. 11 45 Ibid., p. 42 46 Arsenio Manuel, Biography of Tomás Tirona, p.339
13
Malaki ang naging bahagi ng pamilya Topacio ng Imus, partikular sa
katauhan ng tatlong heneral ng naghimagsik na sina Heneral Licerio Topacio, 47
Cayetano Topacio, 48
at Felipe Topacio. Nahikayat nila ang kanilang mga kamag-
anak, partikular na si Heneral Licerio Topacio, 49
na maging bahagi ng pagtatanggol
sa lalawigan laban sa mga Espanyol.
Kabilang si Licerio Topacio sa matandang henerasyon na kabilang sa
Himagsikan at 57 taon gulang na siya noong 1896. Naging bahagi si Heneral
Topacio ng mahigit sa isang depensa ng Imus. Kabilang siya sa tinukoy ng Pangulo
ng Magdalo na si Baldomero Aguinaldo na dumalo sa Kumbensyon sa Tejeros
noong Marso 22, 1897.
Ayon naman sa pagtalakay ni Ordoñez, na “sa kabila ng kanyang
katandaan, nagsilbi at nakipaglaban siya sa buong panahon ng Himagsikan, mula sa
maagang tagumpay sa Cavite at mga kalapit na lalawigan hanggang sa pag-agaw ng
Cavite, at paglalakbay ng mga manghihimagsik sa Biak-na-Bato, ang pagpapatuloy
ng labanan sa pagitan ng mga Pilipino at Espanyol sa panahon ng labanan sa pagitan
ng pagpapatapon kina Aguinaldo sa Hongkong, ang pagtatag ng Republika ng
Malolos noong 1898, hanggang sa pagsimula ng Digmaang Pilipino-Amerikano
noong 1899. Napabilang si Heneral Licerio Topacio sa hanay nina Heneral Tinio sa
rehiyong Ilokos nang mahuli si Emilio Aguinaldo sa Palanan noong 1901.” 50
Samantalang “si Cayetano Topacio, kilala sa tawag na Kapitan Kanoy, ang
Kalihim ng Pananalapi sa Sangguniang Magdalo. Tinukoy din siya bilang Jefe de
Governación de Departamento del Sur de Luzon na kaniyang hinawakan hanggang
sa pagtatapos ng Himagsikan. Kabilang din si Kapitan Kanoy sa ginanap na
Kumbensyon sa Tejeros noong 1897.” 51
Matatandaan na dito ginanap ang halalan
hinggil sa pagtatag ng bagong pamahalaang hahalili sa pamahalaan ng Katipunan na
tutugon sa mga bagong pangangailangan.
Ang tagumpay ng mga naghihimagsik sa bayan ng Imus ay nakatatak na sa
kasaysayan ng lalawigan ng Cavite. Ang sama-samang pagkilos, paglahok at
47 Ayon kay Elmer Ordoñez, sa kaniyang akdang, Capitang Seryo: The Story of General
Licerio Topacio, si “Itay Seryo ay ipinanganak sa bahay na bato noong Agosto 27, 1839,
nang mag-asawang Miguel Topacio at Martina Cuenca (Bacoor.) Napangasawa niya si
Teodora Viña na namatay naman bago ang Himagsikan. Nagkaroon sila ng sampung
anak: Candido Andres (na naging Koronel ng Himagsikan), Remigio (Koronel), Eugenio
(Opisyal ng Rebolusyonaryong Sandatahan), Juan, Eugenia, Aurelia, Constancia, Juliana at
Maria. Namatay siya noong Abril 19, 1925 sa edad na walumpu’t anim. 48 Ayon naman kina Saulo at De Ocampo, History of Cavite: the Mother Ground of
Philippine Revolution, Independence, Flag and NationalAnthem, isinilang si Cayetano
Topacio noong Agosto 9, 1850 ng mag-asawang Modesto Topacio at Ines Palma.
Ipinadala siya sa Maynila pagkatapos ng maagang pag-aaral. Nanirahan siya sa kanyang
pamilya sa Imus, at napangasawa si Petra Concepcion. Namatay siya noong Agosto 17,
1943 sa edad na siyamnapu’t tatlo. 49 Si Licerio Topacio ang pinuno ng pwersang Rebolusyonaryo noon. 50 Elmer A. Ordoñez, Capitang Seryo: The Story of General Licerio Topacio, (Paragraphics,
1998) 51 Saulo at De Ocampo, History of Cavite: the Mother Ground of Philippine Revolution,
Independence, Flag and National Anthem, (Cavite: Trece Martires, 1985)
14
pagdadamayan ng mga taga-Imus ang patuloy na gumagabay sa mga taga-Imus
upang ipagpatuloy ang magandang simulain ng kanilang mga mahuhusay na
pinagmulang-lahi.
D. Ang Pagtugon ng Bayan
Marami ang dumanas ng mga pagpapahirap kapag nahuli sila ng mga
kalaban, sa kabila ng kawalang kasulatang pagsusuri. Nagtiis ng hirap ang mga
lalaki at pati ang mga babaeng asawa, kapatid, o hipag man ng mga punong
nanghihimagsik na kanilang nahuli.
Inilarawan ni Ronquillo ang kinasapitan ng pagpapahirap sa mga Tagalog
sa kamay ng mga kaaway sa ganitong paraan;
Dahil nga rito’y siyang lalong ikinalubha ng Panghihimagsik.
Ang mga tahimik ay nangag pilitang maglagós sa parang at
walang ibang pangulong tika sa pakikiaway, kundi ang kamag-
anakan, na walang ibang sandata kundi ang garote at gulok, pang-
ibong baril at sibat na kawayan, buho o patalim; pelang (isang uri
ng gulok o itak), palakol at pana, na mahaharap sa daan-daang
kaaway na nagsisiusig at panay barilan. 52
Nang naganap na nga ang kaguluhan noong ika- 31 Agosto 1896, nang
maramdaman ng mga taumbayan ang mga unang pagkilos ng mga puno, naglabasan
sila at tangan nila ang matutulis na yaring balaraw. Ang iba naman ay mga gulok
na luma ang nasa kamay. Mayroong may bitbit na palakol, at mayroon pang
nakasuksok sa baywang na pait.
Sa panahong nagtagumpay sa pakikikamok ang mga naghihimagsik sa
Imus, masigla at walang takot na sigawan ng madla ang narinig sa kabayanan,
hanggang sa kasuluk-sulukang pook ng lalawigan.
Sang-ayon kay Heneral Artemio Ricarte, “wala pang isang linggo noon at
ang karamihan sa mga bayan, matapos pasukin ang mga bantay na sibil sa kani-
kanilang pook, ay nagsianib sa Sangguniang Bayang Magdiwang ang iba, at ang iba
nama’y sa Sangguniang Bayang Magdalo. Mula nga noon ay nahulog ang buong
lalawigan ng Kabite sa kapangyarihang naghihimagsik (maliban ang pangulong
bayan at ang San Roque, La Caridad at Carmona, saka ang himpilan ng mga kawal
na impanteryang pangdagat sa Binakayan na sakop ng Cavite el Viejo at ang
guardiya sibil sa pook ng Carmen (Puting Kahoy) na nasasakupan ng Silang.” 53
Naghanda ang mga naghihimagsik, Katipunero man o hindi, laban sa mga
Espanyol, na papasok sa Imus noong unang araw ng Setyembre, taong 1896.
Inilarawan naman ni Emilio Aguinaldo ang pakikisangkot ng mga Tagalog,
“Masayang-masaya kami dahil sa hatid pa kami ng banda ng
musika na lubos na nakabubuhay ng loob sa paglakad. Ang bawat
52
Carlos V. Ronquillo, Ilang Tala Tungkol sa Paghihimagsik (Revolución) nang
1897, p. 222 53
Artemio Ricarte, Himagsikan ng mga Pilipino Laban sa Kastila, p.14
15
lalaking madaanan at makatanaw sa kanila ay kusang loob at
agad-agad nangagsisisama sa tropa, pagkatapos makuha ang kani-
kanilang sibat at gulok, kaya’t nang dumating kami sa tulay
Balimbing, bago pumasok ng kabayanan ng Imus, ay namasdan
nito na ang kasama niyang kawal ay mahigit pa sa dalawang
libong katao.” 54
Ika- 2 ng Setyembre naman nang minadali ng mga taumbayan sa buong
magdamag ang pagtatayo ng mga trintsera. Isinagawa nila ito sa pamamagitan ng
mga hukay-hukay na nilagyan ng mga lusong at puno ng saging. Tulung-tulong at
matagumpay din nilang pinutol ang tulay at giniba ng arko. Dito nila inilagay ang
kanyon de montaña na tinatakpan ng mga dahon ng kahoy at paharap sa daang
panggagalingan ng mga kawal ng Espanya.
Muling nakihamok laban sa malaking pulutong ng kabalyeriyang sibil ang
bagong puwersang nakaharap doon. Umurong ang mga Espanyol dahil sa sigawan
ng makapal na dami ng tao na nag-ipon sa asyendang naagaw. Pagdating ng ilang
mga taga-Imus sa tagpuan, inanyayahan ang lahat ng naghihimagsik upang
magsikain. Ang lahat ng bahay ay naghanda na wala namang humihiling sa kanila.
Pinahalagahan ito at batay sa paglalarawan ni Aguinaldo:
Ang gayong kagandahang-loob ng mga taga-Imus, ay hindi
malimut-limutan ni Aguinaldo pagka’t iyan ay nagpapakilala ng
kanilang pag-ibig sa ating bayan sa pagkalulunggating lumaya.
Ang kagandahang loob nilang iyan ay kailangang maisulat ng
ganitong panitik sa kasaysayan ng ating paghihimagsik laban sa
España. 55
Ang pagsalubong at pagtugon ng taumbayan sa gitna ng
pakikipaghimagsik ay nagpakita ng kanilang pakikiisa na wakasan na ang
pananakop ng mga Espanyol. Malaking tagumpay ang nakamtan, at nahango ang
bayan ng Imus mula sa mga Espanyol dahil sa rin sa walang kapagurang pakikiisa
sa Himagsikan. Nararapat ding banggitin ang pagtulong ng mga maykaya sa bayan
ng Imus, lalo na sa mga ibinigay nitong mga abuloy na kinailangan sa
paghihimagsik.
Sa pagwawakas, tinangkang mailarawan ang kabuuang kalagayan ng bayan
sa panahon ng pakikihamok laban sa mga kaaway. Ipinagmamalaking sinabi ni
Aguinaldo ang tagpong ito sa kasaysayan;
Sa simula ng pagbabangon hanggang maitatag sa Imus ang
bagong pamahalaan, ang mabuting pagsusunuran at pag-iibigan
ng mga taong bayan at ng nanghihimagsik ang siyang naghari at
totoong kahanga-hanga. Dahil dito, walang mababalitaan man
lamang na nakawan o kaligaligan, ni nanggagahasa ó
nanghaharang na nangyayari mapa-araw at mapa-gabi. Ang
54
Emilio F. Aguinaldo, Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan , pp. 96-97 55 Ibid., pp. 100-101
16
lalong kalugud-lugod sabihin ay sa buong magdamag ay
nakapaglilibot, babae at lalaki nang buong katahimikan na walang
sinumang gagambala sa sinuman, at pawang kapatid ang batian at
tawagan. 56
Ang Himagsikan, kung gayon, ay lumikha ng matibay na ugnayan ng
taumbayan at mga naghihimagsik bunsod ng pagdadamayan at pagkakaisa.
Lumikha ng isang matatag na samahan at pagkakasundo na lalo pang pinatatag ng
pagpapahalaga at pagkilala sa kagalingan ng bawat isa. Nagluwal din ito ng isang
mapayapang at matiwasay na daloy ng pamumuhay. Nagturingan hindi lang
magkababayan, kundi higit sa lahat, bilang mga pagkakapatid na binigkis ng
adhikaing kamtin ang kapayapaan, kaluwalhatian at kalayaan.
PAGLALAGOM
Dumanas ng matinding pagsasamantala at pagpapahirap ang mga
naninirahan sa Imus sa huling bahagi ng dantaon 17, ang panahon nang ang
malaking bahagi ng bayan ay pinagharian ng mga Espanyol.
Naging mitsa ng paghihimagsik ang mga pagsasamantalang inihasik ng
mga asyendero sa mga umuupa, kabilang na ang mga dumanas ng pag-agaw ng
kanilang lupain. Umangat ang anyo ng pakikibaka, mula usapin ng lupa, at tumuloy
ito sa isang malawakang Himagsikan kung saan ang tagpuan ng labanan ay naganap
sa bayan ng Imus. Inilipat sa Imus ang tanggulan ng pamahalaang Magdalo.
Dumanas ng sanlaksang pagkasawi sa hanay ng mga nagtataguyod sa bayan
hanggang sa tuluyang mabawi ang Imus mula sa mga Espanyol.
Mahalaga ang ginampanan ng mga pamilyang Tirona, Tagle, Topacio at
iba pa, hindi lamang sa larangan ng pagtatanggol sa bayan sa panahon ng
Himagsikan. Ipinagpatuloy nila ang pagsisilbi sa bayan ng Imus mula sa panahong
ito hanggang sa panahon ng paglaya.
Hindi tumigil ang mga manghihimagsik na itaguyod ang kagalingang
pambayan sa panahong makamit na ang tagumpay mula sa pambubusabos ng mga
ordeng relihiyoso at opisyal na Espanyol. Umukit sa kasaysayan ng bayan ng Imus
ang walang katumbas na pag-aalay ng buhay ng mga taumbayan ng Imus, at sa mga
kanugnog nitong bayan, partikular na ang mga kabilang sa Bayang Sangguniang
Magdalo gaya ng Bacoor, Kawit at Dasmariñas. Tunay na inaalala ang kanilang
kabayanihan hanggang sa kasalukuyan at ipinagmamalaki bilang mga pangunahing
tauhang historikal ng bayan ng Imus.
KONGKLUSYON AT REKOMENDASYON
Ang mga pagsasamantalang inihasik ng mga asyendero sa mga umuupa,
kabilang na ang mga dumanas ng pag-agaw ng kanilang lupain, ang naging mitsa ng
paghihimagsik. Umangat ang anyo ng pakikibaka, mula usapin ng lupa, at tumuloy
ito sa isang malawakang Himagsikan kung saan ang tagpuan ng labanan ay naganap
56 Ibid, pp. 130-131
17
sa bayan ng Imus. Dumanas ng sanlaksang pagkasawi sa hanay ng mga
nagtataguyod sa bayan hanggang sa tuluyang mabawi ang Imus mula sa mga
Espanyol.
Nanguna sa paghihimagsik ang dalawang Sangguniang Bayan nabuo sa
lalawigan ng Cavite: ang Sangguniang Bayan Magdiwang at Sangguniang Bayan
Magdalo. Partikular naman sa bayan ng Imus, naging makasaysayan ang mga
tagumpay na tinamo at saksi sa mga ito ang mga kabilang sa Sangguniang Bayang
Magdalo. Di matatawaran, sa kabila ng ilang pagkukulang, ang ginampanang papel
ng mga pamilyang Tirona, Tagle, Topacio at iba pa sa larangan ng pagtatanggol sa
bayan ng Imus sa panahon ng Himagsikan. Ipinagpatuloy din nila ang pagsisilbi sa
bayan ng Imus mula sa panahong ito hanggang sa panahon ng paglaya.
Hindi tumigil ang mga manghihimagsik na itaguyod ang kagalingang
pambayan sa panahong makamit na ang tagumpay mula sa pambubusabos ng mga
ordeng relihiyoso at opisyal na Espanyol. Umukit sa kasaysayan ng bayan ng Imus
ang walang katumbas na pag-aalay ng buhay ng mga taumbayan ng Imus, at sa mga
kanugnog nitong bayan, partikular na ang mga kabilang sa Bayang Sangguniang
Magdalo gaya ng Bacoor, Kawit at Dasmariñas. Patuloy na inaalala ang kanilang
kabayanihan hanggang sa kasalukuyan at ipinagmamalaki bilang mga pangunahing
tauhang historikal ng bayan ng Imus.
Ang pagsalubong at pagtugon ng taumbayan sa gitna ng
pakikipaghimagsik ay nagpakita ng kanilang pakikiisa na wakasan na ang
pananakop ng mga Espanyol. Malaking tagumpay ang nakamtan, at nahango ang
bayan ng Imus mula sa mga Espanyol dahil sa rin sa walang kapagurang pakikiisa
sa Himagsikan. Nararapat ding banggitin ang pagtulong ng mga maykaya sa bayan
ng Imus, lalo na sa mga ibinigay nitong mga abuloy na kinailangan sa
paghihimagsik.
Ang Himagsikan ay lumikha ng matibay na ugnayan ng taumbayan at mga
naghihimagsik bunsod ng pagdadamayan at pagkakaisa. Bumuo ito ng isang
matatag na samahan at pagkakasundo na lalo pang pinatatag ng pagpapahalaga at
pagkilala sa kagalingan ng bawat isa. Nagluwal din ito ng isang mapayapang at
matiwasay na daloy ng pamumuhay. Nagturingan hindi lang magkababayan, kundi
higit sa lahat, bilang mga pagkakapatid na binigkis ng adhikaing kamtin ang
kapayapaan, kaluwalhatian at kalayaan. Ang ganitong mahabang kasaysayan ng
pagtatanggol, pagdadamayan at pagkakaisa ang kayamanang-bayan na patuloy na
gumagabay sa mga taga-Imus upang ipagpatuloy ang magandang simulain ng
kanilang mga mahuhusay na pinagmulang-lahi.
Ang pakikilahok ng mga taga-Imus sa paghihimagsik sa panahon ng
pagtatanggol laban sa pagpasok ng mga Espanyol sa bayan ay panahon kung saan
ipinakita nila ang tunay na pagdadamayan at pagbubuklod. Dahil sa tagumpay na
tinamo sa panahon ng Himagsikan, nabuo ang kamalayang panlipunang tungo sa
pagmamahal sa bayan ng mga taga-Imus. Hindi matatawaran ang naging
mahalagang bahagi ng taumbayan upang labanan ang paghahahari ng mga Espanyol.
18
Napanatili sa mga taga-Imus ang patuloy na pagpapahalaga sa kasaysayan
na kanilang bayan lalo na dahil sa gunita ng Himagsikan. Taal sa mga taga-Imus
ang pagmamahal at pagmamalaki sa mga pamana ng lumipas. Kahanga-hanga ang
kanilang patuloy na pagsubaybay sa mga tinatahak ng kanilang bayan sa
kasalukuyan, hindi lamang bilang mga tagamasid, kundi mga aktibong kalahok.
Ang pagsasagawa ng mas malaliman pang pananaliksik at pagsusuri ukol
sa naging kontribusyon ng bayan sa panahon ng Himagsikan ay nanatiling isang
hamon pa para sa mga mag-aaral at dalubhasa sa Kasaysayan. Mahalagang
mabanggit na ang karanasan ng bawat bayan ay hindi magkakatulad. Mahalagang
maipagpatuloy pa ang tradisyon at gawaing pananaliksik lalo na sa kasalukuyang
panahon upang patuloy na mabigyan ng sapat na pagkilala ang kasaysayan hindi
lamang ng mga pinunong naghimagsik, higit sa lahat, ang mahalagang ambag ng
bayan sa pagkamit ng kalayaan. Hindi dapat tumigil, bagkus ay mas kailangan pang
pag-ibayuhin ang adhikaing makapag-ambag ng makabuluhang pag-aaral na
pumapaksa sa mga kasaysayang pampook at gayundin ang pagkakaugnay nito sa
kabuuang kasaysayan ng bansa sa pangkalahatan.
BIBLIOGRAPIYA
Primaryang Batis
National Historical Institute, Memoirs of General Artemio Ricarte, Manila:
National Historical Institute, 1992
Aguinaldo, Emilio F., Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan, National Centennial Commision
at Cavite Historical Society: 1998
Alvarez, Santiago V., The Katipunan and the Revolution: Memoirs of a General,
(with the original Tagalog Text, Ang Katipunan at Paghihimagsik),
Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1992
Canseco, Telesforo, Historia dela Insurreccion en Cavite (Kasaysayan ng
Paghihimagsik ng mga Pilipino sa Cavite 1897), Jose Rhommel B.
Hernandez, O. P., tagasalin, Quezon City: Philippine Dominican Center of
Institutional Studies, 1999)
Ricarte, Artemio, Himagsikan nang manga Pilipino Laban sa Kastila, (Yokohama:
1997)
Ronquillo, Carlos V, Ilang Tala Tungkol sa Paghihimagsik (Revolucion) nang 1897,
Isagani Medina, patnugot, Quezon City: University of the Philippines
Press, 1996
Kalaw, Teodoro M., Ang Himagsikang Pilipino, Manila: National Historical
Institute, 1989
19
Sekundaryang Batis
Abrera, Ma. Bernadette L., Ambrosio, Dante L., Bouquiren, Rowena R., Llanes,
Ferdinand C. at Veneracion, Jaime B., Kasaysayang Bayan: Sampung
Aralin sa Kasaysayan ng Pilipino, ADHIKA ng Pilipinas at National
Historical Institute, 2001
Cushner, Nicolas P., Landed Estates in the Colonial Philippines, Connecticut: Yale
University, Southeast Asian Studies, 1976
De Ocampo, Esteban, at Saulo, Alfredo, History of Cavite: The Mother Ground of
the Philippine Revolution, Independence, Flag, and National Anthem,
Cavite: Trece Martires, 1985
Llanes, Ferdinand C., Katipunan: Isang Pambansang Kilusan, Trinitas Publishing
Inc., 1994)
Medina, Isagani R., Cavite Before the Revolution 1571 – 1896. Lungsod Quezon:
CSSP Publications, 1994
National Historical Institute, Memoirs of General Artemio Ricarte, Manila:
National Historical Institute, 1992
Pahayagan, Dyornal, at Manuskrito
Manuel, Arsenio E., Biography of Tomas Tirona, The Diliman Review, Tomo XIV,
Bilang 4, pp. 287-380.
Ordoñez, Elmer A., Capitang Seryo: The Story of General Licerio Topacio,
Paragraphics: 1998
20
COOPERATION AMONG ASEAN AND OTHER MEMBER
STATES (CAMBODIA, LAOS, MYANMAR, AND VIETNAM)
UNDER THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE COMMON
EFFECTIVE PREFERENTIAL TARIFF (CEPT) SCHEME
JHINO B. ILANO, M.A.
Introduction
The ASEAN was established in Bangkok, Thailand, with five member
countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand last August
8, 19671. ASEAN was created with the concept of regional economic integration in
mind. The concept of regional economic integration “is a type of economic
integration in which a set of nations within a certain region form preferential
arrangements, typically on international trade.2” From here we can see that to easily
understand the idea of economic integration we should look into the term
‘preferential’3, because in an economic integration the member states are given
“elevated social status recognition and/or additional or enhanced products and
services above and beyond standard firm value propositions and customer service
practices4.”
According to most literature regional integration can be classified into two
general categories: “1) modest regional integration and 2) deep regional
integration5.” Under the modest regional integration it wants to have an either
preferential trade arrangement (PTA) or free trade area (FTA)6. The ASEAN has
with it a Free Trade Agreement, where in an FTA the trade taxes specifically tariffs
of member states are should be lowered to zero.
1 Lao-Araya, Kanokpan. "How Can Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam Cope with Revenue
Lost Due to AFTA Tariff Reductions?" ASIA-PACIFIC TAX BULLETIN, FEBRUARY
2003: p. 61. 2 Toshiyasu Kato, Chan Sophal & Long Vou Piseth.“Regional Economic Integration for
Sustainable Development in Cambodia”. Cambodia: Challenges and Options of Regional Integration.
Cambodia Development Resource Institute. September 1998: p. 2. 3 Ibid. 4 Lacey, Russell, Morgan, Robert, & Suh, Jaebeom. (February 2007). “Differential Effects of
Preferential Treatment Levels on Relational Outcomes”. Journal of Service Research. pp. 242-
243. 5 Melo, Jaime de & Arvind Panagariya (eds.) (1993), New Dimensions in Regional Integration.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Notes: Modest integration seeks only a preferential trade arrangement (PTA) or free trade area
(FTA). Under a PTA, lower tariffs are imposed on imports from member countries than on
imports from the rest of the world. 6 Toshiyasu Kato, Chan Sophal & Long Vou Piseth.“Regional Economic Integration for
Sustainable Development in Cambodia”. Cambodia: Challenges and Options of Regional Integration.
Cambodia Development Resource Institute. September 1998: p. 2.
21
The AFTA (ASEAN Free Trade Agreement) was a reaction to the growing
emergence of regional grouping in North America and Europe in the late 1980’s7.
According to Kato, Sophal & Vou Piseth 1998 with the growth of these regional
grouping the ASEAN market feared that they might be left out and will not be
entertained by these grouping since they are not members of these Integration. This
fear of the ASEAN countries pushed for the creation of the intra-ASEAN trade.
However according again to Kato, Sophal & Vou Piseth this intra-ASEAN trade
was not that successful since it only involved only some of the ASEAN members.
The failure of the intra-ASEAN trade paved the way for the creation of the AFTA
(ASEAN Free Trade Agreement) in 1992 summit8. As stated by Tongzon and Khan
the 1992 AFTA became a turning point as it provided ASEAN with significant
policy changes among ASEAN countries9. The AFTA’s main objective was to
“increase ASEAN's competitive edge as a production base geared for the world
market10
.” With its objective one important step is the liberalization of trade in the
region which can be done through the elimination of intra-regional tariffs and non-
tariff barriers11
. As an effect of elimination of trade barrier among ASEAN member
states, ASEAN's manufacturing sector will be more efficient and competitive in the
global market and at the same time, consumers will demand more goods from these
efficient producers in ASEAN thus an expansion of the intra-ASEAN trade12
.
AFTA’s main mechanism for the elimination of trade barriers among
ASEAN member states is the CEPT (Common Effective Preferential Tariff) scheme.
Generally the CEPT scheme was created to reduce import tariffs to levels below 5
percent within 10 years, and to remove non-tariff barriers such as quotas and
licences among ASEAN member states13
. The CEPT was first implemented by the
ASEAN 6 countries (Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and
Thailand) in January 1, 1993. The CEPT according to the Philippine’s Tariff
Commission:
“Is a cooperative arrangement among ASEAN Member States that
will reduce intra-regional tariffs and remove non-tariff barriers
over a 10-year period commencing January 1, 1993. The goal of
the Scheme is to reduce tariffs on all manufactured goods to 0-5%
7 Ibid. p. 3. 8 Tongzon, Jose L., and Habibullah Khan. "The Challenge for Economic Integration for
Transitional Economies of Southeast Asia Coping with Revenue Losses." ASEAN Economic
Bulletin, 2005: pp. 267. 9 Ibid. p. 267. 10 Republic of the Philippines Tariff Commission. THE ASEAN COMMON EFFECTIVE
PREFERENTIAL TARIFF SCHEME FOR THE ASEAN FREE TRADE AREA.
http://www.tariffcommission.gov.ph/afta-cept.html. Accessed on March 1 2009. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid. 13 Toshiyasu Kato, Chan Sophal & Long Vou Piseth.“Regional Economic Integration for
Sustainable Development in Cambodia”. Cambodia: Challenges and Options of Regional Integration.
Cambodia Development Resource Institute. September 1998: p. 3.
22
by the year 2003. This will benefit Philippine exporters to
ASEAN. The lower CEPT rates make the country’s products
cheaper in these markets, thus stimulating greater demand. The
increase in exports to ASEAN would depend on the price
elasticity of demand14
.”
In this definition of the CEPT we can see that it is a tool that will enable all
member states to benefit from it. In this statement also we can see that it is
something that will be asked from all member states which in turn will provide
benefits for the member states. Another definition of the CEPT is that it “seeks to
reduce tariff on all commodities traded within the member countries from 5 to 0%
ad valorem15
and eliminate trade restriction16
” among member states. Under the
CEPT we can see the rules on fair competition and identification of some measures
“to enhance and develop economic cooperation like harmonization of standards,
macroeconomic consultations and improved reciprocal recognition of product
testing and certification, coordination of foreign investment policies, joint
investment promotion strategies and cooperation in transport system.”17
The
CEPT’s role in ASEAN and importance is that it will remove quantitative
restrictions on products that are under the CEPT concessions and to eliminate other
non-tariff barriers18
so as to facilitate freer and more open trade among the ASEAN
member states.
CMLV19
Countries Accession to ASEAN
The CMLV countries, Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos and Vietnam joined
ASEAN on April 30, 1999, July 24, 1997 (for Laos & Myanmar) and July 28, 1995
respectively. But prior to the Accession of the CMLV (Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos,
and Vietnam) countries into ASEAN and embracing the AFTA with the CEPT
scheme, their revenues are greatly generated by international trade taxes specifically
tariff on imports20
. As most literature would say Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos, and
Vietnam are ASEAN countries whose government revenues heavily relies on import
taxes. Cambodian government’s total revenue is made up of 58.1% trade taxes
14 Republic of the Philippines Tariff Commission. THE ASEAN COMMON EFFECTIVE
PREFERENTIAL TARIFF SCHEME FOR THE ASEAN FREE TRADE AREA.
http://www.tariffcommission.gov.ph/afta-cept.html. Accessed on March 1 2009. 15 Ad Valorem means the fixed percentage of the value of the traded commodity. 16
Tongzon, Jose L., and Habibullah Khan. "The Challenge for Economic Integration for
Transitional Economies of Southeast Asia Coping with Revenue Losses." ASEAN Economic
Bulletin, 2005: pp. 267. 17 Ibid. p. 267. 18
Tongzon, Jose L., and Habibullah Khan. "The Challenge for Economic Integration for
Transitional Economies of Southeast Asia Coping with Revenue Losses." ASEAN Economic
Bulletin, 2005: pp. 267. 19 The CMLV countries (Cambodia, Myanmar, Laos, and Vietnam) is also known as the South
East Asian Transitional Economies (SEATEs) 20
Lao-Araya, Kanokpan. "HOW CAN CAMBODIA, LAO PDR, MYANMAR, AND VIET
NAM COPE WITH REVENUE LOST DUE TO AFTA TARIFF REDUCTIONS?" ERD
Working Paper No. 29. Manila: Asian Development Bank, November 2002. p. 1.
23
which is the highest among other ASEAN members (Lao-Araya FEBRUARY 2003).
And the other new ASEAN members Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam has 32.1% of
their total revenue comes from trade tax21
.
Given the table and the previous statement we can infer that these CMLV
countries are utilizing tariff barriers to prevent the inflow of imported goods that
can hamper and cause problems to their domestic industry22
. Kanokpan also said
that these CMLV countries from this graph can tell us how dependent these
countries are to trade tax as a source of their revenue. The next part now is given
their membership in ASEAN how will the CMLV countries be able to adhere to the
CEPT scheme of the ASEAN if their major source of revenue is in jeopardy. As
Tongzon and Khan would put it “there is a real concern that, as they reduce their
tariffs in accordance with the AFTA guidelines, they will suffer significant revenue
losses with adverse economic and social implications.23
”
These CMLV countries must adhere to the CEPT scheme and at the same
time provide alternative sources of revenue for the government. As can be seen
from this table:
21 Ibid. p. 1. 22 Ibid. p. 3. 23 Tongzon, Jose L., and Habibullah Khan. "The Challenge for Economic Integration for
Transitional Economies of Southeast Asia Coping with Revenue Losses." ASEAN Economic Bulletin, 2005: pp. 266.
24
TABLE 524
Revenue Impact Assessment for CMLV
CMLV CEPT
Schedule
Custom’s
Revenue from
ASEAN
(US$ million)
Custom’s
Revenue from
non-ASEAN
(US$ million)
Total Revenue
(US$ million)
Cambodia 2002 123 122 427
2010 106 340 729
Laos 2002 43 14 233
2008 7 48 303
Myanmar 1999 72 115 18,371
2008 139 430 30,622
Vietnam 2001 376 1,867 5,582
2006 344 5,369 10,352
Note: Estimations based on regression analysis (price and income effects).
We can say that the CMLV countries must adhere to the CEPT scheme of
ASEAN given the long term benefits it can provide to the member states. For
example in Cambodia their custom’s revenue from ASEAN states would decrease
by $17 million however their custom’s revenue from non-ASEAN states would
increase by $218 million. Here we can see the importance of the CEPT because of
the revenues it can generate in the long run for the member states. However the
revenues of these countries upon membership in ASEAN diminished due to the
provision of the CEPT that tariff in intra-ASEAN trade should be reduced.
The membership of the CMLV countries to ASEAN and AFTA found it
inevitable to adopt the policies of the AFTA specifically the CEPT scheme. As a
result of this the governments of the CMLV countries suffered losses in their
revenues. The revenue losses of the CMLV countries manifests in this table where
in the tariff rates of these countries greatly decreased after their participation in
AFTA.
24 Ibid. p. 274
25
This table manifests the diminishing of tariff among CMLV countries, in
Cambodia we can see that from a tariff of 58% in 1997 it was reduced to 38% in
2000, which is a 20% reduction in just three years. This reduction would be an
indicator of the revenue losses of the CMLV countries. Another indicator of
revenue loss for the CMLV countries can be seen from their falling ratio of total
revenue to GDP25
.
The CMLV countries membership in ASEAN pushed their
governments to adopt policies that will compensate for their revenue losses due to
the CEPT scheme of AFTA, which according to most literature would provide them
with long term revenue benefits. The CMLV countries adopted policies to address
revenue losses but this paper will look at the mutual adjustments done by these
countries in order to adhere to the CEPT scheme and at the same time compensate
for the revenue losses.
CMLV countries Mutual Adjustment Policies
The phenomenon of the CMLV countries adopting policies to adhere to the
CEPT scheme of AFTA can be better understood with Helen Milner and Robert
Keohane’s international cooperation. International Cooperation according to Robert
Keohane is when “States adjust their behavior to the actual and anticipated
preference of others through a policy of coordination.26
” this means that for states to
cooperate they adjust their behavior to be in accordance or not in conflict the other
states. In relation to the issue we can see that the CMLV countries are adjusting
their behavior and policies so as to adhere to ASEAN and the AFTA. Another
important aspect in the definition of international cooperation is the idea of benefits
25 Lao-Araya, Kanokpan. "HOW CAN CAMBODIA, LAO PDR, MYANMAR, AND VIET
NAM COPE WITH REVENUE LOST DUE TO AFTA TARIFF REDUCTIONS?" ERD Working Paper No. 29. Manila: Asian Development Bank, November 2002. p. 4.
26 Keohane, R. “The Demand for International Regimes.” 1982. p.467.
26
and losses that states get from cooperation. The gains and or losses here do not need
to be necessarily the same for all actors, but as Milner said they should be mutual.
From the idea of losses in the case of the CMLV countries we can look at how these
countries mutually adjust their policies so as to adhere to AFTA’s main provision,
the CEPT. In this regard also we can look at the revenue gains that the CMLV
countries would gain upon cooperation in the ASEAN and because of these the
SEATEs mutually restructure their policies to compensate for their short run losses
with the CEPT. For Keohane 1982 cooperation takes places only in situations where
actors perceive that their policies are actually or potentially in conflict, not where
there is harmony. Without the specter of conflict, there is no need to cooperate27
.
With the notion of Keohane 1982 that cooperation takes place when the
interests/policies don’t coincide with the policies of different states and regimes, in
the case of the CMLV countries, their interests are in conflict with the policy of the
regime, ASEAN thus the need for the SEATEs to mutually adjust their policies. The
definition of cooperation for Keohane 1982 has distinct characteristics. One of this
characteristic is that “each actor helps the other to realize their goals by adjusting its
policies28
” these means that they mutually adjust policies in order for them to attain
their goals. They mutually adjust their policies because the gain from cooperation is
also mutual. Milner heavily emphasizes the idea of mutual adjustment of states to
facilitate cooperation. In relation to the CMLV countries they mutually restructure
and adjust their policies to cooperate in ASEAN and AFTA.
With regard to the policy adjustment that the CMLV countries I saw four
policies some of which are already implemented by the CMLV countries, coming
from different sources that can fit the current situation of the CMLV countries or the
SEATEs. The SEATEs in choosing among the policy alternatives the CMLV
countries must take into account the different demands of the domestic economy
and weigh the outcome of each of the policy choice29
.
In relation to the CMLV countries we can see that they mutually adjust
their policies to address the problem on revenue losses such examples of their
mutual adjustment of policies can be seen in their tax reform programs. They had to
adopt the VAT (Value-Added Tax) as an alternative source of revenue. 30
From the table we can see that two of the CMLV countries adopted the
VAT to compensate for their revenue losses. The Value-Added Tax is usually
adopted to compensate for the revenue that is often lost when a country reduces or
27 Ibid. p.467. 28 Ibid. p.468. 29 Milner, Interests, Institutions, and Information: Domestic Politics and International Relations, p. 8. 30
Lao-Araya, Kanokpan. "How Can Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam Cope with
Revenue Lost Due to AFTA Tariff Reductions?" ASIA-PACIFIC TAX BULLETIN,
FEBRUARY 2003: p. 61.
27
eliminates import duties. The imposition of VAT will be primarily on a broad-based
domestic consumption but effectively leaves a zero tax rate on exports31
. The
importation of VAT in Cambodia and Vietnam has been very successful as a matter
of fact:
“From 1996 to 1998 the government of Vietnam
collected an amount of revenue through turnover tax equivalent to
11.1 to 11.8% of its GDP. Since VAT replaced turnover tax in
1999 the government has collected through VAT revenue
amounting to more than 17% of its GDP from 1999 to 2001 (IMF
Country Report No. 02/5). In Cambodia, the sales tax-to-GDP
ratio prior to the VAT introduction in 1999 was only 0.7 and 0.9%
in 1997 and 1998. Since 1999, the ratio increased to 2.7-3.2%
from 1999 to 200132
”
This policy adjustment is advantageous because as stated by Lao-Araya
2003, VAT “discourages tax evasion because taxpayers themselves wish to pay and
obtain receipts for VAT paid on inputs purchased in order to be able to claim credit
against the VAT they themselves will be required to pay at the point of selling their
end product or service.33
” this means that there will be less likelihood of people
avoiding to pay their taxes since it is directly imposed upon purchase. On the other
hand the adoption of this policy would have repercussion on the lower class in
society because it will give them more expenses and can be a consideration for them
not to spend.
Another example of the mutual adjustment in policies of the CMLV
countries can be seen in the alternative to “temporarily impose surcharges on
luxuries and non-essentials in order to safeguard tariff revenue loss.34
” The benefit
from this policy is that given that “most luxury products are not locally produced in
the new ASEAN member countries” it will be beneficial for the CMLV countries to
impose additional charges or tax on these luxury goods. The down side however
this policy is only temporary, as stated by Lao-Araya 2002 “This temporary revenue
measure can compensate the tariff revenue loss without damaging local industries
during the transitional period of greater liberalization.35
”
The third manifestation of this mutuality is the police for the CMLV
countries to refine and simplify their tax structure. According to Lao-Araya 2003,
“The governments of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam should simplify their
tax structures and make them more transparent in order to improve the efficiency of
tax administration and to make it easier for taxpayers to pay taxes.36
” if the CMLV
31 Lao-Araya, Kanokpan. "HOW CAN CAMBODIA, LAO PDR, MYANMAR, AND VIET
NAM COPE WITH REVENUE LOST DUE TO AFTA TARIFF REDUCTIONS?" ERD Working Paper No. 29. Manila: Asian Development Bank, November 2002. p. 20.
32 Lao-Araya, Kanokpan. "How Can Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam Cope with Revenue Lost Due to AFTA Tariff Reductions?" ASIA-PACIFIC TAX BULLETIN, FEBRUARY 2003: p. 68.
33 Ibid. p.68. 34 Ibid. p.68. 35 Ibid. p.68. 36 Ibid. p.68.
28
countries will adopt this policy then there will be efficiency in tax collection and as
a result more revenues for their government, as stated by Lao-Araya 2003. It was
also stated by Lao-Araya that the governments of the CMLV countries collected
low levels of revenue as a percentage to GDP prior to their ASEAN accessions
which would mean that there is a need to improve their tax collection in order to
compensate for revenue losses with the CEPT.
Another mutual adjustment by the CMLV countries is that they can
“strategically allocate goods among the four CEPT scheme lists so as to minimize
the tariffs that will be imposed on the goods that promote the production of goods
that they most wish to export while simultaneously maximizing the amount of
revenue that they are able to garner from imports.37
” this simply means that they can
postpone the tariff reduction on certain goods for them not to be burden heavily by
the sudden reduction on their revenues. This policy recommendation can be
followed by the CMLV countries to postpone the tariff reduction in certain goods
which can lessen the impact of revenue losses but also this will also prolong the
reaping of the CMLV countries of their benefits in complying with the CEPT
scheme of AFTA.
The CMLV countries may opt to adopt these policy alternatives to
compensate for their revenue losses but they also have the freedom not to adopt
these policies and create their own ways to compensate for the revenue losses
brought about by the tariff reduction. The CMLV countries can create their own
policy based on their domestic activity to compensate for their losses.
It is also important here to look at the fact that states adjust their policies so
as to be able to enter regimes. With regard to the CMLV countries they had to
mutually adjust their policies for example their tax policies, since the benefit is also
mutual, for them to adhere with the provisions of AFTA (ASEAN Free Trade
Agreement). However it is also interesting to look at the other side of this argument
where in the regime would adjust its policies for states to be a part of this regime.
One example of this adjustment by ASEAN so as not to burden the CMLV
countries with the CEPT scheme was to provide a longer period of implementation
or adoption of the CEPT scheme. “Vietnam will reduce tariffs on all manufactured
goods to 0-5% by 2006, Laos and Myanmar by 2008 and Cambodia by 201038
.”
37 Ibid. p.69. 38Lao-Araya, Kanokpan. "How Can Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam Cope with
Revenue Lost Due to AFTA Tariff Reductions?" ASIA-PACIFIC TAX BULLETIN, FEBRUARY 2003: p. 61.
Notes: – IL means Inclusion List. Products in this list are subject to tariff rate reduction of 0-
5% in ten years. – TEL means Temporary Exclusion List. Products in the TEL will be phased into the
IL during the first five years in five equal annual instalments. – SL means Sensitive List. This contains unprocessed agricultural products that will
be phased in for tariff reduction in ten years. – NT means Normal Track. Products classified under NT are subject to tariff rate
reduction of 0-5% in ten years.
29
From this table we can see the different schedule for the tariff reduction
under the CEPT agreement is different for the ASEAN-6 (Singapore, Philippines,
Malaysia, Thailand, Brunei, and Indonesia) and the CMLV countries. The table also
shows the longevity of time given to the CMLV countries so as to give them more
time in adopting the CEPT. Another proof that regimes can adjust for states to enter
these regimes can be seen in the ASEAN non exclusion despite the some long-
standing member countries that has not fully complied with requirements of the
CEPT scheme in spite of written deadlines39
. As such it disproves the argument that
states adjust their policies so as to be able to enter regimes, because as can be seen
from this, regime can also adjust their policies for states to enter regimes.
The facts presented above would show the mutual adjustment alternatives
that the CMLV countries can adopt for them to compensate for their revenue losses
and at the same time comply with the CEPT scheme in AFTA. The presented data
are also the answers the questions of what policy can use by the CMLV countries to
compensate for their revenue losses.
This issue of the CMLV countries or the SEATEs would exemplify a state
that upon entering regimes doesn’t only take into consideration individual interests
but also national interests as well.
Conclusion
The introduction of ASEAN was essentially to initiate development and
facilitate more income for the member states, but just like any organization the idea
of gains and losses cannot be removed. The ASEAN created the AFTA to liberalize
trade among ASEAN member states and under the AFTA its main liberalizing
mechanism is the CEPT scheme where in it was created to reduce import tariffs to
levels below 5 percent within 10 years, and to remove non-tariff barriers such as
– FT means Fast Track. Products classified under FT are subject to tariff rate
reduction of 0-5% in five to eight years. Source: www.moc.go.th/thai/dbe/ecoco/rt/asean/afta.htm. 39 Lao-Araya, Kanokpan. "How Can Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam Cope with
Revenue Lost Due to AFTA Tariff Reductions?" ASIA-PACIFIC TAX BULLETIN, FEBRUARY 2003: p. 62.
30
quotas and licences among ASEAN member states40
. This was initially for ASEAN
member states to benefit from the tariff free exchange of goods among ASEAN
member states however the CMLV countries or the SEATEs saw that the CEPT
doesn’t go hand in hand with their national interest. The CEPT’s aim of tariff
removal on trade goods would be problematic for the CMLV countries since tariff
taxes makes up a big chunk of their government revenue. This now challenges the
SEATEs to adjust their policies to be aligned with the policies of ASEAN and
AFTA.
The policies that can be beneficial and can be mutually adopted by the
SEATEs are the following: adoption of the VAT (Value-Added Tax) where in the
governments of the SEATEs can directly tax the consumers. This can increase their
government revenues while at the same time make the tax evaders pay taxes. But
this can also be a problem on the low class in society because this will be a new
burden to them. Second policy they can impose temporary surcharges luxury and
non-essential goods as an alternative source of revenue. The third policy that they
can mutually adopt is to simplify or refine their tax structure. In this way they can
facilitate easier tax collection which can lead to increase in revenues. The last
mutual adjustment is they can postpone goods to be included in the CEPT scheme.
Through all of this policies the impacts in government revenue losses of the CMLV
countries can cushioned and thus CMLV countries can engage themselves in
participating in ASEAN and AFTA, with the CEPT scheme.
References: ASEAN. PROTOCOL TO PROVIDE SPECIAL CONSIDERATION. Singapore: Secretary-
General ASEAN , 2000.
ASEAN, Secretary-General of. PROTOCOL REGARDING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF
THE CEPT SCHEME TEMPORARY EXCLUSION LIST. Singapore: ASEAN, 2000.
Cambodia, Economic Institute of. Cambodia’s Trade in ASEAN: To What Extent Do Exports
Benefit from Preferential Schemes? Economic report, Royal Government of Cambodia,
April-June, 2006.
CAMBODIA, ECONOMIC INSTITUTE of. ECONOMIC WATCH. Economic report, Royal
Government of Cambodia, 2006.
Chan Sophal, Toshiyasu Kato & Long Vou Piseth. "Cambodia: Challenges and Options of
Regional Economic Integration." Cambodia Development Resource Institute. Phnom
Penh, 1998. pp. i - 89.
Chulalongkorn University. "Revisiting Southeast Asian Regionalism." FOCUS ON THE
GLOBAL SOUTH. Bangkok: Cor-Asia, Inc., December __, 2006.
Denoon, David B. H., and Evelyn Colbert. "Challenges for the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN)." Pacific Affairs, Vol. 71, No. 4, 1998-1999: pp. 505-523.
40 Toshiyasu Kato, Chan Sophal & Long Vou Piseth.“Regional Economic Integration for
Sustainable Development in Cambodia”. Cambodia: Challenges and Options of Regional Integration. Cambodia Development Resource Institute. September 1998: p. 3.
31
Hapsari, Indira M., and Carlos Mangunsong. "Determinants of AFTA Members’ Trade Flows
and Potential for Trade Diversion." Asia-Pacific Research and Training Network on
Trade working papers. Bogor: Department of Economics Centre for Strategic and
International Studies (CSIS) University of Indonesia, November 2008. pp. 1-28.
ISERS. AFTA in the changing international economy. Singapore: ASEAN Economics
Research Unit, 1996.
Keohane, R. “The Demand for International Regimes”. 1982.
Lao-Araya, Kanokpan. "HOW CAN CAMBODIA, LAO PDR, MYANMAR, AND VIET
NAM COPE WITH REVENUE LOST DUE TO AFTA TARIFF REDUCTIONS?"
ERD Working Paper No. 29. Manila: Asian Development Bank, November 2002. pp.1-
23.
Lao-Araya, Kanokpan. "How Can Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam Cope with
Revenue Lost Due to AFTA Tariff Reductions?" ASIA-PACIFIC TAX BULLETIN,
FEBRUARY 2003: pp.58-73.
Milner, H. “International Theories of Cooperation among Nations: Strength and
Weaknesses”.1992.
Ni, Houming. "Economic Effects of Singapore’s Bilateral Free Trade Agreement with Japan
on Other ASEAN Economies: A Computable General Equilibrium Approach." THE 5th
IRSA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE. Bandung: National University of Singapore,
2003. pp. 1-30.
Oktaviani, Rina, and Eka Puspitawati Haryadi. "Impacts of ASEAN Agricultural Trade
Liberalization on ASEAN-6 Economies and Income Distribution." Asia-Pacific
Research and Training Network on Trade working papers. Bogor: Department of
Economics, Faculty of Economics and Management, Bogor University, January 2008.
pp. 1-34.
"Regional Economic Integration for Sustainable Development in Cambodia." Cambodia
Development Resource Institute. Phnom Penh: CAMBODIA DEVELOPMENT
RESOURCE INSTITUTE, September 1998. pp. 1-50.
Sahara, Dedi Budiman Hakim, and Amzul Rifin. "The Impact of Trade Facilitation on
ASEAN Intra-Regional Trade." UNDP/ESCAP ARTNeT Trade Facilitation Research
Team Meeting. Bangkok: Faculty of Economics and Management Bogor Agricultural
University , 15 March 2006.
Tambuhan, Tulus. THE LIKELY IMPACT OF THE ASEAN PLUS CHINA IN THE INTRA-
ASEAN TRADE. Paper, Beijing: University of Trisakti, 2006.
Tongzon, Jose L., and Habibullah Khan. "The Challenge for Economic Integration for
Transitional Economies of Southeast Asia Coping with Revenue Losses." ASEAN
Economic Bulletin, 2005: pp. 266-283.
Unit, East Asia Analytical. ASEAN FREE TRADE AREA. Australia: Australian Government
Publishing Service, 1994.
32
FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICIANS IN PRESCRIBING
PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS
ERNESTO D. DIMACULANGAN, Ph.D.
Abstract
The study examined the different factors that influence physicians in
prescribing pharmaceutical products. The respondents consisted of 255
doctors from the cities of Las Pinas, Paranaque and Muntinlupa.
The study found that marketing mix and social awareness were the
primary factors that influenced physician in prescribing pharmaceutical
products. For the marketing mix factor, availability of the product at the
drugstore, product efficacy, product quality, cost to patients and
promotional values have high influence among the physician-respondents
in prescribing pharmaceutical products. For the social awareness factor,
assistance to medical community, community/government service and
social responsibility have high influence among the physician-respondents
in prescribing pharmaceutical products.
INTRODUCTION
The health status of the Philippine population is still exemplifying the
scenario of a severely underdeveloped country. The poor health of the people can
easily be related to the country's poverty. But poverty itself is a mere symptom of
the disease that is rooted in the economic problems of the country; rising
unemployment which has reached to 2.9 million unemployed as of January 2011,
foreign economic and political domination, and the financial crisis that presently
besets the government Bureau of Labor and Employment Statistics 2011) The
crisis that is currently sweeping through Asia is illustrating once more that the
economic policies of deregulation, liberalization and privatization are bringing more
death and disease.
The health problems of the country have remained essentially the same
over the past decade. The comparison between the leading causes of death in 1997
and 2006 shows that some of the names have changed and some diseases have
disappeared from the top 10, but the most important killer diseases are essentially
the same. (Phil Health Statistics 2006) Table 1 shows the top ten leading causes of
mortality in 1997 and in 2006. Topping the list in 1997 was diseases of the heart
and diseases of the vascular system. By 2006, the diseases of the heart and the
diseases of the vascular system were still the number 1 and 2 causes of death in the
Philippines. This can be attributed to the sedentary lifestyle as well as improper
food intake, lacks of exercise and lack of funds to buy maintenance drug.
Communicable diseases, such as pneumonia and tuberculosis are the plagues of
poverty.
33
Table 1 Top Ten Leading Causes of Mortality – Phil. Health Statistics 2006)
1997 2006
1. Diseases of the Heart 1. Diseases of the Heart
2. Diseases of the Vascular System 2. Diseases of the Vascular System
3. Pneumonia 3. Cancer
4. Accidents 4. Accidents
5. Malignant Neoplasm 5. Pneumonia
6. Tuberculosis, all forms 6. Tuberculosis, all forms
7. Chronic Obstructive Pulmo. Dis. 7. Abnormal Clinical findings
8. Diarrheal diseases 8. Chronic Obstructive Pulmo. Dis.
9. Diabetes Mellitus 9. Diabetes
10. Nephritis and Nephrosis 10. Perinatal Conditions
Table 2 shows the top ten (10) leading causes of morbidity in 2006. Acute
lower respiratory diseases top the morbidity list in 2006. This can be easily related
to the poor environmental sanitation and pollution. Diarrhea ranks second and can
be attributed to poor water system and improper food handling. Bronchitis ranks
third which is also a respiratory infection and communicable disease. All these
communicable diseases have one thing in common: their upsurge or re-emergence is
an indicator of worsening social and economic conditions of the majority of the
people.
Table 2 Top Ten Leading Causes of Morbidity (Philippine Health Statistics – 2006)
005-2006 1. Acute lower respiratory tract infection and
pneumonia
2. Diarrhea
3. Bronchitis and Bronchiolitis
4. Hypertension
5. Influenza
6. TB, respiratory
7. Diseases of the heart
8. Acute febrile illness
9. Malaria
10. Dengue Fever
The fact that these communicable diseases are thriving indicates that too
many people have no access to adequate sanitary services that their resistance is
insufficient to withstand even the most common diseases, and that treatment is out
of their reach.
The prescription process starts with the patient who feels that there are
some abnormalities in her body and feel some discomfort such as fever, headache,
body malaise, sore throat, gastric or muscle pains. These abnormalities are some of
the signs and symptoms of an infection or a disease. If the patient is moneyed,
he/she will go to his/her private doctor, a specialist and seek treatment. On the
other hand, other patients with no funds to pay for doctor’s professional fee will
seek help from the government health physician. The medical doctor examines the
patient and makes some diagnosis and recommendation. At this point, a
34
prescription is written by the doctor who will inform the patient on his/her findings,
the drug he/she prescribes and for what type of disease or infection. The doctor
instructs the patient on the correct dosage of the drug, the number of days that the
medicine is to be taken and an instruction for the patient to come back after three
days. The prescription will now be brought to the drugstore for filling and the last
part of the process will be the patient’s compliance to take the prescribed
medication.
Based on the prescription process, there are different factors that will
influence the doctor to prescribe a pharmaceutical product. The physician choice
of a brand or a product will depend on so many factors. But what really influence
the doctors to prescribe the product? Is it the brand name, the image of the
company, the product quality, the product efficacy, the promotional value, the cost
of the product or its availability in the drugstore?
Another point to consider is what makes physicians prescribe medicines in
either branded or generic forms of a particular drug company, local or
multinational? Why do pharmacists, pharmacy aides, and salesclerks in drugstores
recommend or endorse pharmaceutical products of one company over those of other
brands with the same generic names of other drug companies? Is it because of a
cheaper pricing scheme, established rapport, or due to the mix of promotion
activities constantly bombarding the subconscious mind? According to Lao (1999),
in today’s highly volatile environment, it is not enough that those in marketing or in
business are able to satisfy customers with their products’ unique features or
better pricing schemes, or competitive placement or distribution strategies compared
to other products in the marketplace. More importantly, there is need to deliver
other services to delight them even after the sale is consummated. In this case,
delighting customers is an important part of any business concern. It is not enough
that marketing people excel in the marketing mix components of their program for
their competitors are also doing the same. Delighting customers may be in the form
of entertainment, fellowships, and other non-business or socially-oriented activities.
Personalized delightful endeavors through gifts, cards, telegrams, etc., during
birthdays, weddings, anniversaries, and special occasions of the year, are very much
a part of the marketing strategy.
The most important development within the national scene which has
direct bearing on the Pharmaceutical Industry was the formulation of the Philippine
National Drug Policy (PNDP), on April, 1987 and the signing into law of the
Generic Drugs Act of 1988 now known as Republic Act 6675 by the former
President, Corazon C. Aquino. The goal of the Philippine National Drug Policy
(PNDP) is to make essential drugs available, accessible, and affordable to the
people, a goal duly supported by the leaders in the drug industry and very much
welcomed by health professionals and the general public. The PNDP is therefore
anchored on four pillars which are as follows: 1) quality assurance, 2) rational
drug use, 3) self-reliance and 4) tailored procurement. These four pillars are
interdependent and mutually reinforcing. Therefore, for optimum results, all four
pillars must be pursued simultaneously. To achieve the goal of the policy, the
PNDP Program was put in place with the objective of providing essential drugs to
35
the people. There were five strategies which have been identified and utilized,
namely:
a. Provide essential drugs to the people.
b. Ensure quality of drugs.
c. Promote rational use of drugs.
d. Promote self-reliance in the local manufacture of strategic
essential drugs.
e. Assure tailored procurement and cost-effective supply
management.
The full implementation of the Generic Act of 1988 was covered by
Administrative Orders only on 1) generic labeling, 2) generic advertising; 3) generic
prescribing; and 4) generic dispensing for single active ingredient products and
subsequently also for multiple active ingredient products. This law as pointed out
by DOH improved equity or access to essential drugs, by simple expedient or
requiring use of generic names and giving the patient or buyer informed choice and
their option to buy cheaper alternatives.
In May 1, 2008, in an effort to reduce the cost of medicine the President of
the Philippines signed into law the “Universally Accessible Cheaper and Quality
Medicine Act” otherwise known as Cheaper Medicine Law which would reduce the
prices of the drugs in the country and assurance of quality medicines. Among the
provisions of this Act are to provide a parallel importation where any company can
import the same drug if it be found that another country is selling them cheaper,
limit the patent protection of the multinational companies which will allow local
companies to produce generic products of the expensive competing drug. The law
also provides for a price monitoring and control mechanism to assure the
government on the compliance.
As Lao (1999), mentioned in his book, pharmaceutical marketing in the
Philippine setting has never been formally documented and taught in colleges,
universities and other institutions. There are more than 600 pharmaceutical
companies operating in the Philippines. Planners and marketers need to know more
about their target customer. They should be well informed on the behavior of the
physicians relative to their promotional strategies and tactics. It is a waste of time
and money on the part of the pharmaceutical company to undertake a certain
program thinking that the program will be effective, but only to find out that the
program is not suited for the doctor. Also, the researcher feels that this study is very
much important simply because he would like to dig deeper on the influencing
factors that makes a physician prescribe a particular product. It is imperative upon
the marketer of pharmaceutical products to determine the promotions program.
36
Background Information
The Philippine Pharmaceutical Industry contributed a share of 6.3% to the
total Gross National Product (GNP) in 2002 or a total sales volume of P69.6 billion.
This represents an increase of 8% over last year’s performance. The
pharmaceutical market is divided into fifteen (15) major therapeutic segments and
one hundred fifty-five (155) sub-segments (IMS-PPI-4th
Qtr 2002).
The single digit growth performance of the market can be attributed to
rising cost of medicines which shrunk the entire pharmaceutical market. Average
price increase is growing at 5% annually while unit growth was at a dismal 1% and
new products growth was 2%. The total pharmaceutical market can be divided into
the following categories: The drugstore market, the hospital market and other
accounts such as Industrials and Dispensing MD market.
In 2002, the Drugstore Market accounted for P56.7 billion or 81.5% share
to the total pharmaceutical business. It grew by 8% over 2001 sales volume of
P52.6 billion. Hospital market ranks second with P7.3 billion or 10.9% share of the
market. However, the hospital market grew faster by as much as 12% versus their
last year performance of P6.8 billion. Other accounts like Industrial and Dispensing
MDs shares 7.6 % or P5.5 billion but grew only by 4% over last year. (IMS-PPI-4th
Qtr 2002)
Table 3
Total Pharmaceutical Market by Account i(IMS-PPI-4
th Qtr 2002)
In Billion %
In
Billion %
Accounts 2001 Share 2002 Share Growth
Drugstore 52.60 81.6% 56.70 81.5% 8%
Hospital 6.80 10.5% 7.60 10.9% 12%
Total DS & Hosp 59.40 92.1% 64.30 92.4% 8%
Other Outlets 5.10 7.9% 5.30 7.6% 4%
Total Market 64.50 100.0% 69.60 100.0% 8%
The pharmaceutical market can also be divided based on therapeutic
classification or market segmentation. According to Kotlerii, market segmentation is
the process of classifying customers into groups with different needs, characteristics
or behavior. A market segment consists of a large identifiable group within a
market with similar wants, purchasing power, geographical location, buying
attitudes or buying habits. Shown below are the segments performance of the
pharmaceutical market for the year 2001 and 2002.
37
Table 4
Total Pharmaceutical Market Based on Therapeutic Classification-(IMS-
PPI-4th
Qtr 2002)
TOTAL PHARMACEUTICAL MARKETiii
BY THERAPEUTIC SEGMENTS (In Millions)
PESO SALES
2001
%
SHARE 2002
%
SHARE
GROWTH
SEGMENTS 64,500 100.0%
69,600 100.0% 8%
Anti Infectives 10,965 17.0% 11,623 16.7% 6%
Cardiovascular 9,288 14.4% 10,718 15.4% 15%
Vitamins and Minerals 7,353 11.4% 7,934 11.4% 8%
Somatics 6,902 10.7% 7,447 10.7% 8%
Cough-Colds 4,515 7.0% 5,081 7.3% 13%
Endocrine/Metabolic 4,064 6.3% 4,594 6.6% 13%
G I T 3,999 6.2% 4,106 5.9% 3%
Dietetics 4,386 6.8% 4,106 5.9% -6%
Anti-Asthma 3,032 4.7% 3,132 4.5% 3%
Dermatologics 2,967 4.6% 2,993 4.3% 1%
C N S 2,129 3.3% 2,436 3.5% 14%
Women Health 1,613 2.5% 1,810 2.6% 12%
Anti TB 1,290 2.0% 1,322 1.9% 3%
Anti Cancer 1,226 1.9% 1,392 2.0% 14%
Eye and Ear 774 1.2% 905 1.3% 17%
The Anti-Infective market is the biggest sub-segment in the pharmaceutical
market shares 16.7% with a volume of P11.6 billion in 2002. The segment grew by
6% which is lower as compared to the market growth of 8%. However, the cardio
vascular segment ranks second with a market share of 15.4% and a volume of P10.7
billion, but posted a growth of 15% over 2001. The third biggest segment was the
Vitamins and Mineral market with a volume of P7.9 billion and a share of 11.4%,
and grew by 8%. Other segments which were noticeable were the Eye and Ear
market, with a market growth of 17% over last year, and the CNS segment with a
growth of 14% on the same period. (IMS-PPI-4th
Qtr 2002)
38
Conceptual Framework
Everyday, the medical doctor is faced with a decision on what to prescribe
to his/her patient. This decision is based on his/her diagnosis, the training he/she
received, the severity of the infection of the patient, and other factors that may
influence his/her prescriptions. The first brand that comes to his/her mind will be
written and will form part of the total management of the patient.
This study is anchored on the medical doctors who are being bombarded
by 20 – 30 medical representatives every day, visited by Medical Representatives
(Med Rep) for 3 – 4 products, receive samples and medical literatures, attend
meetings and conferences on new product’s launches, treated to a lunch or dinner,
all of which activities are to capture his/her prescriptions.
Figure 1 illustrates the research paradigm of the study. The research
paradigm starts with the factors that influence medical doctors in prescribing
pharmaceutical products. The research paradigm is divided into the following
factors: a) marketing mix, and b) social awareness. Under the marketing mix, the
influencing factors include product quality, product efficacy, promotional values,
cost to patient and availability of product in the drugstore.
Kotler 2000iv
mentioned that marketers use numerous tools to elicit
desired response from their target market. These tools constitute a marketing
mix.
Figure 1Research Paradigm
Factors InfluencingPhysicians in Prescribing
Pharmaceutical Products
Social Awareness Social Responsibility
Assistance to Medical Community
Community/Gov’t.
Service
Marketing Mix Product Quality
Product Efficacy
Promotional Values
Cost to the Patient
Availability of the Product at the Drugstore
39
Marketing mix is the set of marketing tools that the firms use to pursue its
marketing objectives in the target market. These tools are classified into four broad
groups that he called the four P’s of marketing: product, promotion, price and place.
The product quality in this study refers to whether the product is of original
molecule, has a better taste than competitors, specifically for suspension/drops
formats, has an attractive packaging, and has a convenient dosage. Product efficacy
refers to an early improvement of the well being of the patient after taking the
medication and an absence of fever after 48 hours.
Promotional values include the frequency of visit and detailing of the
medical representative, medrep “service” and “pakikisama” to the doctors, the
regularity of doctors attendance in medical symposia sponsored by the
pharmaceutical companies, the travel grants being offered to doctors whether
overseas or local, the number of giveaways, samples and literature the doctors
receive. Other promotional values include the discount coupon which is given to
the physician and patient in order to encourage prescription and for the patient’s
benefit of reduced cost of medicines.
The research paradigm shows two groups of respondents: the general
practitioners and the specialists group. The doctor-respondents were divided in
order to find out their significant difference in terms of their perception on the
above-mentioned variables. The Specialists have different training in terms of their
chosen specialties and practices while the General Practitioners have a different
training program designed for a community based practice. The behavior and
reaction of these doctors will definitely affect their choice of a pharmaceutical
product to prescribe.
In terms of cost to patient, this refers to the worthiness of the product vis-à-
vis its price, the affordability of the product, and other promotional tools which will
reduce the price of the medicine. Another factor to consider is the availability of
the product in the drugstore. Suppose that the product is promoted to the doctor
consistently, however if the product is always out of stock at the drugstore, the
doctor will be discouraged to prescribe the product. It is important that the product
should be always available at the right time and at the right place.
Also, the researcher would like to find out the social awareness of the
doctor-respondents to pharmaceutical companies. This study will help determine
the level of awareness of the medical profession to pharmaceutical companies in
terms of social responsibility, assistance to medical community, and
community/government service.
This study could enhance the knowledge of the drugstore owners, hospital
pharmacy, and marketers of pharmaceutical products as they could be provided with
relevant information on the factors that influence medical doctors in prescribing
pharmaceutical products.
40
METHOD
Population, Sample and Sampling Technique
The population of the study consisted of medical doctors from the cities
of Las Pinas (110) Paranaque (79) and Muntinlupa (66) totaling. These
doctors were selected because of the compactness of the area and researcher’s
rapport with the members of the medical profession.
To set the research in a more reliable perspective, a stratified sampling
technique was used in the conduct of the study. This method was used since total
samples drawn from the population should be represented proportionately from each
group or city.
Questionnaire
The highlights of the questionnaire dealt with the factors that influence
physician in prescribing pharmaceutical products. The factors assessed were the
levels of social awareness and marketing mix.
RESULTS
1. Respondents Assessment of Prescribed Pharmaceutical Products as
Influenced by Marketing Mix
The two (2) groups of respondents namely the General Practitioners and
Specialists assessed the pharmaceutical products from three (3) pharmaceutical
companies based on the two factors such as marketing mix as indicated by: product
quality, product efficacy, promotional values, cost to patients, availability of the
product at the drugstore and on social awareness based on social responsibility,
assistance to medical community, and community/government support.
Table 5
Extent of the Factors that Influence the Physicians
in Prescribing Pharmaceutical Products in Terms of Marketing Mix
Factors
General
Practitioners Specialists Total
Mean Int. Mean Int. Mean Int.
Marketing Mix 3.00 HI 3.01 HI 3.00 HI
Product Quality 3.01 HI 2.99 HI 3.00 HI
Product Efficacy 3.00 HI 3.02 HI 3.01 HI
Promotional Values 2.86 HI 2.88 HI 2.87 HI
Cost to Patients 2.97 HI 2.96 HI 2.97 HI
Availability of the
Product 3.17 HI 3.18 HI 3.17 HI
At the Drugstore
Legend: 3.51-4.00 Very High Influence (VHI); 2.51-3.50 High Influence (HI);
1.51-2.50 Slight Influence (SI); 1.00-1.50 No Influence (NI)
41
Table 5 shows the data on the assessment of the two groups of respondents
regarding the influence of marketing mix on the physicians in prescribing
pharmaceutical products
Among the General Practitioners, based on marketing mix the
pharmaceutical products were assessed as follows: “Product quality” has a mean
value of 3.01 interpreted to mean High Influence. This means that products could
be packaged attractively, better tasting and in original molecule. “Availability of
the product at the drugstore” has the highest mean value of 3.17 interpreted to mean
High Influence. It suggests that products are always available. In terms of “product
efficacy” the mean value obtained is 3.00 interpreted to mean High Influence. This
means that products can make the patient free from fever after forty eight (48) hours
and improved the patient wellbeing. “Cost to patients” has the mean value of 2.97
interpreted to mean High Influence. This means that product’s price is worth is
value, affordable price, offered discount coupon to reduce patients cost and the
company adopted a socialized pricing policy. “Promotional values” has the mean
value of 2.86 interpreted to mean High Influence. It suggests that products are
frequently being detailed or communicated to doctors, the medical representative
has the best “pakikisama” and service, the company offered travel grants abroad to
attend medical symposia or convention, the product has the clearest product
message, giveaway or product samples and literatures are given during their visit
and journal advertisement is provided for increased product awareness. An overall
mean value of 3.00 for the General Practitioners on marketing mix interpreted to
mean High Influence. It suggests that all the indicators in the marketing mix have a
high influence on the General Practitioners in prescribing pharmaceutical products.
Among the Specialists, based on marketing mix, the pharmaceutical
products were assessed as follows: “Availability of the Product at Drugstore” has
the highest mean value of 3.18 interpreted to mean High Influence. This means that
the products should always be available. “Product Efficacy” followed with a mean
value of 3.02 interpreted to mean High Influence. It suggests that products should
improve their patient’s well being and that their patient is fever-free after 48 hours.
“Product quality” ranks third with a mean value of 2.99 interpreted to mean High
Influence. This means that the product is an original molecule of the manufacturer,
has a convenient dosage form, better tasting especially for the suspension and drops
format and has an attractive packaging. “Cost to patients” ranks fourth with 2.96
mean value interpreted to mean High Influence. It suggest that the product is
affordable to doctor’s patient, it is worth is value, and the price is reasonable. The
last indicator is “Promotional Values” with a mean value of 2.88 interpreted to
mean High Influence. This means that the product has the clearest product message,
samples and literatures are given during their call, and manufacturer offered a travel
grant for medical convention and medical symposia rare held regularly for the
benefit of the doctors. An overall mean value of 3.01 for the Specialist on
marketing mix interpreted to mean High Influence. It suggests that all the indicators
in the marketing mix have a high influence on the Specialists in prescribing
pharmaceutical products.
42
Table 6
Extent of the Factors that Influence the Physicians in
Prescribing Pharmaceutical Products in Terms of Social Awareness
Factors
General
Practitioners Specialists Total
Mean Int. Mean Int. Mean Int.
Social
Awareness 2.97 HI 2.99 HI 2.98 HI
Social
Responsibility 2.90 HI 2.95 HI 2.93 HI
Assistance to
Medical 2.99 HI 3.05 HI 3.02 HI
Community Community/Gov't
Service 3.02 HI 2.98 HI 3.00 HI
Over-all 2.99 HI 3.00 HI 3.00 HI
Legend: 3.51-4.00 Very High Influence (VHI); 2.51-3.50 High Influence (HI); 1.51-2.50
Slight Influence (SI); 1.00-1.50 No Influence (NI)
Table 6 shows the data on the assessment of the two (2) groups of
respondents regarding the influence of social awareness on the physicians in
prescribing pharmaceutical products. Among the General Practitioners, based on
social awareness, the pharmaceutical products were assessed as follows: The
highest is “Community/Government Service” with a mean value of 3.02 interpreted
to mean that the company aid in medical mission and subscribe to governmental
regulations. “Assistance to Medical Community” ranks second with a mean value
of 2.99 interpreted to mean that the company had made some research assistance to
training hospital, made assistance with the PMA (Philippine Medical Association)
and other specialty societies. “Social Responsibilities” has a mean value of 2.90
interpreted to mean that the company has concern for its employees, environment
and a helping hand during calamities. An overall mean value of 2.97 for the General
Practitioners on social awareness interpreted to mean High Influence. It suggests
that all the indicators in the social awareness have a high influence on the General
Practitioners in prescribing pharmaceutical products.
Among the Specialists, “Assistance to Medical Community” has the
highest mean value of 3.05 interpreted to mean High Influence. This suggests that
the company has made research assistance to training hospital and gave assistance
to PMA and other specialty societies. “Community/Government Service” ranks
second with a mean value of 2.98 interpreted to mean High Influence which
suggests that the pharmaceutical companies had given aids to medical societies
during medical mission and subscribed to governmental regulations. For “Social
Responsibility” a mean value of 2.95 interpreted to mean High Influence. It means
43
that the company has concern for their employee’s welfare, an environmental
concern and a helping hand during calamities.
An overall mean value of 2.99 for the Specialist on social awareness
interpreted to mean High Influence. It suggests that all the indicators of social
awareness have a high influence on the Specialists in prescribing pharmaceutical
products.
2. Implications of the Findings The present study is relevant to agencies or institutions which are
dependent on pharmaceutical products. The following are the implications of the
findings to:
2.1 Drugstore Owners
The findings on the marketing mix factor as indicated by high influence on
availability of the product at drugstore and its promotional values, imply that
pharmaceutical companies will be enhanced by multiple location of drugstores and
efficient delivery system to accord the time, place and possession utilities that
distribution can provide the clients of physicians. It suggests the pharmaceutical
companies can make scheduling more compatible with the client needs. These
factors such as availability of the products should imply for drugstore owners to
consider multiple locations where medical clinics are located, to have proper storage
of pharmaceutical products. Multiple locations of drugstores’ branches near
hospital or clinics will make prescription products more available.
The findings further relate to retail patronage motivation through
promotional values among drugstore owners which include parking convenience,
hour of operations, and décor or store lay-out of the drugstore. These can be
manipulated to increase consumer satisfaction stemming from distribution and
availability of products. The drugstore owners could tie-up with the medical
doctors whose patients/clients frequent their drugstores.
2.2 Hospital Pharmacy
As part of the marketing mix, promotions and publicity could play a major
role in promotional strategy of pharmaceutical companies in hospitals to
disseminate their messages. Product samples could be provided to pediatric wards,
through its pharmacy. In placement strategy, hospital pharmacist should ensure
their doctors on the availability of the pharmaceutical products at their pharmacy in
order to serve the patients in the hospital.
The high influence of social awareness in order to create high level of
customer satisfaction through collaboration with hospital pharmacy and suppliers
for the benefit of the indigent hospital patients can have a humanitarian appeal.
44
2.3 Pharmaceutical Companies
Among the specialists, they value most the promotional impact of the
pharmaceutical companies and the availability of the product in the drugstore.
Pharmaceutical companies should engage more in promotions program and assure
the specialists of the availability of their products at the drugstore. On the aspect of
social awareness, specialists preferred pharmaceutical companies who had shown
their concern on their social responsibility, assistance to medical community and
community/government service. All age groups among the specialists showed
favorable response towards pharmaceutical companies that support social awareness
programs.
Pharmaceutical companies should highlight product quality and product
efficacy in their communication program among the female specialists. Specialists,
who had longer years in practice, support products that have promotional values and
assured them on the availability of the product at the drugstore. Pharmaceutical
companies should dealt more on this aspect of the marketing mix and also be aware
that specialists in the private sector prefer product quality, product efficacy,
promotional values and availability of the product at the drugstore as factors in the
marketing mix that influenced their prescription. Promotional programs should
answer the needs of the specialists.
Physicians who had specialty practice prefer product quality, product
efficacy and availability of the products at the drugstore as the factors that influence
their prescription. This suggests that the company needs experienced managers to
help propel growth and meet the growing demands for quality product.
Pharmaceutical companies could search out, train and utilized reputable medical
distributors to ensure efficient delivery system. Pharmaceutical companies should
consider their mission into a targeted level of performance. Clients /customers are
the reasons the company exists, their perceptions and actions are of vital importance.
Therefore, their satisfaction can be measured through frequency of customer
complaints. Their over-all welfare must be met to serve consumers with the greatest
efficiency and at the least cost.
CONCLUSIONS
The physician-respondents perceived the extent of the factors influencing
them in prescribing pharmaceutical products as high influence. Such factors
include marketing mix and social awareness.
a. On marketing mix, both groups of respondents perceived
that product quality, product efficacy, promotional values,
cost to patients and availability of the product at the
drugstores have a high influence on their choice of
pharmaceutical products.
b. On social awareness, the physician-respondents perceived
that social awareness has a high influence in prescribing
pharmaceutical products such as on social responsibility,
45
assistance to medical community and community and
government service.
Based on the findings of this study, the researcher arrived at the following
conclusions:
1. The marketing mix and social awareness were perceived to have influence
highly the physicians in prescribing pharmaceutical products.
2. The implication of the findings to pharmaceutical companies suggest that
since the specialists who value most the promotional impact of the
pharmaceutical companies and the availability of the product in the
drugstore, pharmaceutical companies should engage more in promotion
programs and assure the specialists of the availability of their products at
the drugstores.
3. On the aspect of social awareness, specialists preferred pharmaceutical
companies who had shown their concern on the factors of social awareness
like social responsibility, assistance to medical community and
community/ government service. All age groups among the specialists
showed favorable response towards pharmaceutical companies that support
social awareness programs.
4. Pharmaceutical companies should highlight product quality and product
efficacy in their communication program among the female specialists.
Specialists, who had longer years in practice, support products with
promotional values together with the assurance on the availability of the
product at the drugstore. Pharmaceutical companies should deal more on
this aspect of the marketing mix and also be aware that specialists in the
private sector prefer product quality, product efficacy, promotional values
and availability of the product at the drugstore as factors in the marketing
mix that influence their prescription. Promotional programs should answer
the needs of the specialists.
5. Physicians who are in specialty practice prefer product quality, product
efficacy and availability of the products at the drugstore as the factors that
influence their prescription. This suggests that the company needs
experienced managers to help propel the growth and meet the growing
demands for quality product. Pharmaceutical companies could search out,
train and utilize reputable medical distributors to ensure efficient delivery
system.
6. Pharmaceutical companies should consider their mission into a targeted
level of performance. Clients/customers are the reasons the company
exists, their perception and actions are of vital importance. Therefore, their
satisfaction can be measured through frequency of customer complaints.
Their over-all welfare must be met to serve consumers with the greatest
efficiency and at the least cost.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the aforementioned findings and conclusions, the researcher
recommends the following:
1. Drugstore owners should provide more value-adding activities to
their customers by providing extended hours of operation, better
46
store lay-out and completeness of their stocks and parking
convenience.
2. Drugstore owners should consider multiple locations of their branches
to cater to the needs of the patients. Ideal setting will be near the
hospitals or clinics of doctors. Multiple locations of drugstores near
hospitals or clinics will make prescription products more available.
3. Pharmaceutical companies should enhance the delivery system to
hospital pharmacy and drugstores in order to maximize the time, place
and possession utilities that distribution often can provide the clients
of medical doctors.
4. Pharmaceutical companies should make scheduling more compatible
with client needs particularly in the hospital setting. Factors such as
availability of the products should imply better and efficient customer
service.
5. The drugstore owners could tie up with the medical doctors whose
patients/clients frequent their drugstores.
6. Promotions strategy of pharmaceutical companies in hospitals should
not only provide for better and quality products but should touch
the “heart” of the physicians through the social awareness program.
7. Product samples of pharmaceutical companies could be provided to
pediatric wards through the help of the hospital pharmacy which will
create a high level of influence among the patients and consequently
create a humanitarian appeal on the part of the hospital.
8. Hospital pharmacy should collaborate with the pharmaceutical
suppliers for lower price of their medicines that will benefit the
hospital indigent patients.
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December, 2003.
Lamb, Charles W., Hair, Joseph F., McDaniel, Carl, Essentials of Marketing, 2nd
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Pasig City: Anvil Publishing Inc., 1999.
McKenna, Regis, Relationship Marketing. London: Addison Wesley Publishing
Company, 1992.
NDP Report, Philippine National Drug Policy, 1987-1992
Pagoso, Cristobal M. and Dela Cruz, Manuel M. Principles of Marketing –
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Philippine Health Statistics Report, 2005-2006
Reich, Allen Z., Marketing Management for the Hospitality Industry. New York:
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The Generic Drugs Act of 1988
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February 5, 2004
48
LANGUAGE ANXIETY IN ORAL COMMUNICATION OF SAN
BEDA COLLEGE ALABANG STAFF AND EMPLOYEES
JEAN A. ARIOLA, MA Ed.
Abstract
The study investigated the factors that language anxiety can
possibly stem from, both within the workplace environment and out
of classroom in the wider social context, and has recommended a
variety of strategies to cope with it. The past researchers,
considering it a complex and multi-faceted psychological
phenomenon, have suggested using a variety of perspectives and
approaches to investigate the subject. This study used a qualitative
semi-structured interview format and survey questionnaires to
investigate this language phenomenon. A total of twenty five staff
and employees participated. The findings suggested that language
anxiety can originate from employees’ self- perception, their self-
related cognitions, language learning difficulties, and target
language cultures, interlocutors and from fear of negative criticism.
Feelings of anxiety, apprehension and nervousness are commonly
expressed by practitioners in speaking the second/foreign language. These
feelings are considered to exert a potentially negative and detrimental effect
on communication in the target language. The use of modern
communicative language teaching approaches in the language classrooms
and the wide-spread use of English Language have increased the demand to
learn good communication skills but existence of such feelings among staff
as well as professionals may prevent them from achieving the desired goal.
In the workplace, the ability to communicate effectively strongly
influences one’s personal advancement and success. Thus, in the global
marketplace of today, many employers believe that the ability to
communicate orally is the most important job- related skill. Regardless of
language, country, education level, effective communicators should be
developed in the workplace particularly in the school setting which is the
seat of dynamic social interaction.
The research was conducted to discover the factors affecting the
language proficiency of selected staff and employees of San Beda College
Alabang (AY 2009- 2010) College Department.
Problems:
49
1. What factors, in order of priority, act as filters among San Beda
College Alabang employees in the use of the English language in
the workplace?
2. In what situations do staff of San Beda College Alabang feel
anxious or uneasy using the English language?
3. What measures can be taken to ease language anxiety in the
workplace?
METHODOLOGY:
The study was conducted using qualitative, descriptive and
quantitative methods of research. A total of twenty five staff and employees
participated. Three instruments were used for this study, a background
questionnaire, the modified 35- item English Language Workplace Anxiety
Scale (ELWAS) and an essay/ interview. The background questionnaire
contained questions about the participant’s age, position, and field of study.
The modified 35- item (FLCAS) Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety
Scale. (FLCAS) designed by Horwitz et al. (1986) was modified in order to
make the questionnaire suitable to the school- based setting .
The yes-no answers in the trial survey were tallied. The answers to
the last two questions were strictly categorized for the common reasons why
the staffers were afraid to speak in English in their workstation. Then, all
common responses were summed up. The responses of the staffers to the
ELWAS were tabulated. Points were assigned for each scale. The scores
were interpreted as follows: Strongly Agree – 5, Agree – 4, Sometimes –
3, Disagree – 2, and Strongly Disagree – 1. The percentage was computed
for each scale.
The 35 statements were categorized into five different filters. The
items were also tallied according to the following: lack of self-confidence
(LSC), limited vocabulary (LV), mispronouncing words (MP), humiliation
(H) and negative criticism (NC). The categorized statements or filters were
tabulated. The mean for each statement was computed.
Finally, a range with descriptions for each mean was created. The
scores of the mean in the Likert- scale were assigned by using the midpoint
between two consecutive numbers. The midpoint was applied because there
were equal distances between two points so as so have fair answers (Ex.
1.5 is the midpoint between 1 and 2).
1.0 – 1.500 – Strongly Disagree – native speaker of English (LI) 1.501 – 2.500 – Disagree – filter down (confident) 2.501 – 3.500 – Sometimes – filter up (mental block) 3.501 – 4.500 – Agree – (Victim) 4.501 – 5.00 – Strongly Agree – (Language anxiety disorder) (LAD)
50
For the multiple-choice survey questionnaire, the number of
responses for each letter was listed in a frequency table. Then, the
percentage was computed and the result was rounded off. The percentages
were represented in a bar graph. For the survey-questionnaire and multiple-
choice type with a provision for their own responses- the number of
responses per letter was listed in a frequency table.
The respondents’ response were read and categorized. The results
were counted based on the three given choices, which were whether they
will respond to the party in English, Filipino or Taglish. The contents of the
mini-essays were carefully read and analyzed. The similarities of the
responses were also noted. Similar responses were combined. A group or
category for each response was created and tabulated. Additional findings
from books, journals and the internet were used to supplement the staffs’
response. All related materials were then summarized.
FINDINGS:
Surveys and interviews clearly presented the factors that act as
filters to language anxiety among staff and employees. One of the prominent
factors noted in this study is the lack of self- confidence of the respondents
in speaking the English language towards their superiors, colleagues and in
public speaking situations. This filter is shown and understood to be caused
by lack of exposure and practice of the language. The statements provided
by the respondents revealed that employees seldom had any exposure to the
language since they are more at ease with Taglish in dealing with their peers
and superiors as well as in public speaking situations.
This was likewise shown in the statements provided by the
participants as well as the interview administered by the researcher in this
study. As a result, the respondents are also having problems about the lack
of facility of the language .Furthermore, many researchers have pointed out
that the skill producing most anxiety is speaking (MacIntyre and Gardner
1991) This anxiety comes in part from a lack of confidence in o general
linguistic knowledge but if only this factor were involved, all skills would
be affected equally. What distinguishes speaking is the public nature of the
skill, the embarrassment suffered from exposing language imperfections in
front of others (Arnold, 2000: 3). Hence, a survey showed that though San
Beda staff and employees are fluent in the English language, they
experience some kind of anxiety when it comes to speaking that is public in
nature. Past researchers have posited that anxiety in oral communication is
produced by cognitive interferences based on self-related cognitions, e.g.
their self-perceptions, self- esteem, perceived scholastic competence, beliefs
about language learning, etc. (Krashen, 1985; Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999:
228; Horwitz et al., 1986: 128-129). In this light, the background profile of
51
the participants revealed that some of the respondents may have
experienced some kind of language anxiety even before they have started in
their respective workplaces.
Furthermore, the results of the interview also reflected the trend of
communication today which is the use of Taglish in transacting business or
communicating with their colleagues and students. Most of the twenty five
(25) respondents, answered that they communicate or transact business
using Taglish instead of English or Tagalog. It is a noted fact that even in
the academe, students, teachers and members of the administration are now
constantly using Taglish in spite of the implementation of the English
Speaking campaign between and among the students and employees as a
medium of communication in the workplace. Indeed, the speakers of these
mixed codes are mostly young and urban, frequently highly educated, and
always multilingual. (Paper presented, Edgar W. Schneider, 2008).
Majority of the respondents expressed their inability and sometimes
even acknowledged their language anxiety problem. These staff and
employees may be good at other skills but, when it comes to speaking the
English language, they claim to have a ‘mental block’ against it (Horwitz et
al., 1986: 125).
Hence, summarizing the results of the survey and interview .The
Following conclusions are cited:
1. Most of the respondents manifest debilitating anxiety that leaves the
respondents with low self- image. Fear of being embarrassed is also
a noted cause of anxiety among the employees.
2. Most of the staff and employees although well versed in the
language are apprehensive in using the target language due to fear
of negative evaluation and sometimes the pressure on the part of the
employee that English proficiency may affect their performance in
the workplace.
3. The language anxiety among the employees was found to be the
result, as well as, the cause of insufficient command of the target
language. It may be experienced due to linguistics difficulties
employees’ face in using the target language.
4. Descriptive statistics showed that the level of anxiety among the
employees is relatively high. This is shown in the analyses of
responses, which was indicated by an overall weighted mean of
52
3.570 which means, Victim of Language Anxiety Disorder (LAD).
Many practitioners claim that they have a mental block against
speaking a foreign language in their workplace (Horwitz et al.,
1986).
5. To sum up, the most outstanding causes of this language
phenomenon are the following: anxiety in committing mistakes,
(negative criticism) lack of self- confidence, grammar and
pronunciation, and lack of English vocabulary. Other causes are,
poor self- perceptions, and the preference of the employees to the
Taglish language.
6. The situations where employees most comfortable with are:
speaking English to their superiors through the telephone and
speaking in Taglish with their colleagues and superiors.
Suggestions and Recommendations:
How to Reduce Second Language Anxiety ( SLA)
Staff- Support Services such as:
1. Measure Second Language Anxiety and language proficiency of
incoming staff and employees.
2. Set- up a Second Language Support Office which can be used for
intrapersonal reflection on the language application and practice, to
track feelings of apprehension and to arrive at a more realistic,
positive sense of their progress. Finally, to develop realistic
communication goals. ( Cope- Powell, 1991)
3. Oral Skills Training that will provide seminar/ workshop outside the
workplace in speaking skills and effective attitudes towards the
English Language. Thus, these should provide training and learning
opportunities to ensure effective employee performance, quality of
work life, and professional growth of all employees.
4. Staff and employees exposure to language by implementing a policy
of using English as medium of communication in the workplace.
“Speaking good English comes as a result of using the language in
natural situations on top of formally learning it”.( Krashen’s Theory
of second language acquisition)
5. Implement a regular English proficiency workshop to the staff and
employees, where activities offer them the chance to gain
confidence in their own skills.
53
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Mawer, G., & Lee, F. (1997). Language and literacy in workplace education:
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55
PREDICTORS OF SOCIAL AND INTELLECTUAL READINESS
AMONG PRESCHOOLERS IN SELECTED SCHOOLS IN
DASMARIÑAS, CAVITE
MA. FATIMA V. BULLECER
Abstract
The study attempts to explore the predictors of social and intellectual
readiness evolved from the personal and family characteristics among
preschoolers. The main sources of data came primarily from the
responses of a total 114 respondents from three schools. Other
background data were gathered from their parents.
The findings reveal that the analysis shows that the better predictor of
intellectual readiness of the pupil respondents was their age. On the
other hand, the presence of relatives in the family is the only personal
and family characteristic, which is significantly related to their social
readiness.
The study concludes that among the variables reviewed, age is the
only personal characteristic that significantly predicts intellectual
readiness. The presence of relatives in the family is the only personal
and family characteristic which is significantly related to social
readiness.
This present study thereby recommends parents should continuously
provide their children positive social experiences that will improve
their readiness.
The preschool years are the prime physical, emotional, and intellectual
learning years of life (Wyckoff and Unell in 2002). This period is said to be
between the end of infancy and entry of child to school, which is the age of six. This
is described as the dark age of childhood, a great stress in the child’s existence
(Scott, 1985). This stage of life is considered to be the most crucial period in the
child’s life. At this age, the child is in his discovery and in the stage of exploratory
that is why parents should not be surprised to see a preschooler destroying a newly
bought toy. This is the age of never-ending questions of “whys” and the child
always asks and wonders how things are done and made (Briley and Gray, 1994 in
Belardo, 1997). Furthermore, Erickson believed that at their best they are energetic
learner, curious, inventive, eager and independent. At their worst, they are obstinate
inhibited and clinging.
Readiness is commonly used to mean readiness to learn to read. However,
children’s general social development and intellectual backgrounds should also be
taken into account in any consideration of ways to help children prepare for school.
56
There are many contributing factors to child’s readiness. Moreover, age,
gender, grade level and sibling positions were put together as variables that would
describe the personal characteristics of the child. Personal characteristics of the
child like age, gender and grade level in and of itself do not appear to constitute an
accurate determinant of readiness but these were taken into account because through
quick assessment done by school personnel by simply looking at these factors, these
where problems begin. (Alberts and others, 1997)
Within families there are also differences in the experiences of individual
children that affect readiness. Being the oldest of a large family is a very different
experience from being the youngest or being in the middle; being the only girl in a
family of boys is different from being a girl with only sisters. Thus far, have been
looking mostly at fairly obvious differences, like how many children in a family, or
the child’s position within the family, both of which seem to be at least slightly
related to the child’s readiness. On average, the more children in the family, the
lower the average IQ of the children. And on average, firstborn children have the
highest IQs, with average IQs declining steadily as you go down the birth order.
(Bee, 1995) The oldest child initially interacts only with his parents and thus has a
maximally complex and enriching environment. Second-or later-born children, in
contrast, experience a lower average intellectual level in the family simply because
they interact with both other children and adults. A later – born child may have an
advantage if the children are very widely spaced, since then he is interacting entirely
with others who are intellectually advanced, including both parents and much older
siblings. (Adler in Isaacson and Radish, 2002)
The family characteristics of the child such as parent’s educational
attainment, occupation, position, parenting style, number of siblings and presence of
significant others were also group together because the child’s continuous and
progressive development are because of the people who guide, influence and teach
them. The family is where an individual starts to live with one another in an
intimate interpersonal relationship and develops the feeling of belongingness. This
is the primary agent of socialization--the context in which from parents, older
siblings and extended family members’ children begin to acquire the beliefs,
attitudes, values, and behaviors considered appropriate in their society.
According to Baumrind in Barber 1996, parenting style provides a robust
indicator of parenting functioning that predicts child well-being across a wide
spectrum of environments and across diverse communities of children. Both
parental responsiveness and parental demandingness are important components of
good parenting. Parenting in all societies includes ensuring the child’s survival,
preparing the child for economic self-sufficiency, and encouraging the child to
maximize other cultural values such as morality, religion and achievement.
Generally speaking, children with warm and restrictive (authoritative)
parents who appeal to reason in order to enforce their demands are likely to raise
highly competent and well-adjusted children. However, outcomes of other parenting
styles are not as favorable; indeed, children of hostile and permissive (uninvolved)
parents are often deficient in virtually all aspects of psychological functioning.
Moreover, it is also important in the development of the preschool children the
57
presence of immediate family members or guardian in the absence of their parents
and other older siblings because they are the ones who will be of help to cope with
the demands of the environment. Looking beyond primary attachments, for children
of working parents (particularly daughters) tend to be more independent, to enjoy
higher self-esteem, and to hold higher educational and occupational aspirations and
less stereotyped views of men and women.
This study delved on the predictors of social and intellectual readiness in
relation to personal and family characteristics of the preschoolers. The aim of this
study was to be able to determine what greatly affects their readiness related to
social and intellectual by taking into account not only their personal differences but
also their family’s characteristics and its uniqueness. Specifically, the study asks the
following questions: What are the social and intellectual readinesses of the
respondents? Is there a significant relationship between the personal characteristics
of the respondents and the social and intellectual readiness of preschoolers? Is there
a significant relationship between the family characteristics of the respondents and
the social and intellectual readiness of the preschoolers? What were the predictors
of social and intellectual readiness of the preschoolers?
METHOD
Research Design
The descriptive – correlational method was used in this study. The
descriptive method is designed “to gather information about the present existing
condition. The principal aim is to describe the nature of the situation as it exists at
the time of the study and to explore the causes of specific phenomena” (Traverse in
Sevilla, 1984 in Belardo, 1997).
This study focused on the predictors of social and intellectual readiness in
relation to personal and family characteristics of the preschoolers in selected
schools in Dasmariñas, Cavite S.Y. 2007 – 2008. Likewise, this study employed
correlational method, which establishes relationship between demographic variables
used in this study such as age, gender, grade level and sibling position as the
personal characteristics with the social and intellectual readiness of the respondents.
According to Davis, 1997 correlational research investigates relationships among
variables.
Moreover, it is primarily concerned with finding out whether a relationship
exists and with determining its magnitude and direction (Pagano, 2001).
In addition, the family’s characteristics which includes parents’ educational
attainment, occupation, position, parenting style, number of siblings and presence of
significant others are of great help to further understand the child’s development.
Thus, with the nature of the study presented descriptive – correlational
method were described appropriate to be used.
58
Population/Subject of the Study
The researcher used three preschool levels as participants; nursery,
kindergarten and preparatory ranges from 5 years of age and up which came from
three (3) selected schools in Dasmariñas, Cavite.
Table 1. Distribution of Subjects
Grade Level School Total
A B C
Nursery 0 0 5 5
Kindergarten 10 21 23 54
Preparatory 24 14 17 45
Total 34 35 55 114
Parents of these preschoolers were included in the study to know the
pupils’ family profile that contributes a great factor why these children at a certain
grade have this kind of social and intellectual readiness level.
Research Instruments
In this study, four instruments were utilized; three self-made instruments
and achievement test were used to answer the specific problems raised in this study,
namely: (a) the personal information sheet, (b) the parenting style inventory, (c) the
social readiness inventory of the pupils and (d) Wide Range Achievement Test 3 or
WRAT3.
Personal Information Sheet. This contain statements which was filled up
by the parents such as name, age educational attainment, name of sibling/s, number
and age of siblings according to birth order, nature of work and position, type of
worker categorize as full time or part time employee, owning a business and not
working or stay in the house are present. In addition, husband or wife’s nature of
work and positions are included and the last pertains to having housemaids or have
extended family members who live with them and their relationship to the family
per se.
Parenting Style Inventory. This instrument was designed by the
researcher to know the kind of parenting these parents employ to their children
inside or outside the home. This was administered to the parents wherein they
encircled the number that corresponds to their answer. This is a forty (40) item test
where the respondents were asked to indicate how often he/she does the behavior to
his/her child/ren. For positive item, the higher the frequency of behavior described,
the higher the score. Thus, items rated “never” are scored 1; “rarely” 2;
“sometimes” 3; “often” 4; and “always” 5. For negative items the less the behavior
to be, the higher the score. Thus, scoring is reversed.
The highest total possible score for every parenting style is 50. Since the
inventory covers four parenting styles the researcher got the raw score for each
parenting style. The highest score gained among the four styles of parenting mean
the type of parenting they employ towards their children.
59
According to Baumrind, 1991 (in Shafter, 1996) where parenting style
inventory was derived, four parenting styles were cited and these are being an
authoritative, authoritarian, permissive and uninvolved parent. From the meanings
that were cited the researcher was able to formulate ten statements for each
parenting style and was able to make an inventory. Each parenting style contains
five positive items and five negative items.
Items of Authoritative Style of Parenting were 1,2,5,13,17,18,19,21,22 and
38. These were considered to be on this type because the parent encourages verbal
give and take, and shares with the child the reasoning behind their policies. The
parents value both expressive and instrumental attributes and both autonomous self
– will and disciplined conformity. The parents recognize their own special rights as
an adult but also the child’s present qualities they set standards for future conduct.
A parent uses reasoning as well as power to achieve their objectives.
Items of Authoritarian Style of Parenting were 6,9,10,14,20,25,26,30,34
and 37. These were considered to be on this type because the act to shape, control,
and evaluate the behavior, attitudes of the child in accordance with a set of
standards of conduct, are usually an absolute standard, theologically motivated, and
formulated by higher authority. The parents’ values obedience as a virtue and favor
punitive, forceful measures to curb self – will at points where the child’s actions of
beliefs conflict of what they think is right. They believe that they are the ones who
only know what is best for their children.
Items of Permissive Style of Parenting were 3, 15, 16, 23, 27, 28, 31, 35,
36 and 39. These were considered to be on this type because parents allow their
children to reason out and express themselves, to raise questions, think for
themselves, and plan their own future. The parents consult with the child about
policy decisions and gives explanations for family rules and regulation. Also,
parents make few demands for household responsibility and orderly behavior.
Items of Uninvolved Style of Parenting were 4, 7,8, 11, 12, 24, 29, 32, 33
and 40. These were considered to be on this type because parents are low in both
responsiveness and demandingness.
Social Readiness Inventory. This instrument measures the preschool
social readiness. This test was derived from the Theory of Alfred Adler which is
Individual Psychology and Developmental Task by Robert Havighurst. This self –
made test was answered by their parents wherein they indicated the name of their
child, grade level, age and sibling position. In here they were asked to encircle the
number that corresponds to the behavior manifested by their child. This is a thirty-
item (30) inventory, which consists of 15 positive items and 15 negative items
where the parent were asked to indicate how often his/her child manifests this kind
of behaviors. For positive item, the higher the frequency of behavior described, the
higher the score. Thus, items rated “never” are scored 1; “rarely” 2; “sometimes” 3;
“often” 4; and “always” 5. For negative items the less the behavior to be, the higher
the score. Thus, scoring is reversed. The highest total possible score is 150.
Items of social readiness described the attitude, behavior of the child
through play, how he/she interacts to his/her playmates, older people and to his/her
environment, to himself and his/her developing interest.
60
In terms of interpreting the scores, the total score reflected the overall level
of the child’s social readiness. The researcher got the raw score by adding the scores
on each item answered and the following range is given to categorize whether the
child is socially ready for school or not. Those who will get a raw score within 53
and below this considered “Very Low”, 54 – 77 “Low”, 78 – 101 “Moderate”, 102 –
125 “High” and 126 – 150 being “Very High” in terms of social readiness.
Wide Range Achievement Test 3 or WRAT3. This test was developed in
1993 by Gary S. Wilkinson, which can be used with all individuals, aged 5 – 75.
WRAT3 has been designed so that an examiner can make choices in the content of
the examination. There were two equated forms (BLUE and TAN) each subtest may
be used singularly or in conjunction with one another. When both the blue and tan
forms were used this is considered the COMBINED form. Whether a single form or
both forms are used, the examiner can measure the respective academic skills and
convert the resulting raw scores to absolute scores, standard scores, grade scores
and percentiles.
Both forms consist of three subtests such as Reading, Spelling and
Arithmetic. This takes 15 to 30 minutes to complete. Length of administration will
vary with the skill level and behavioral style of the individual being tested. The
researcher followed the standard procedure in the administration of the test.
Of all these, since blue and tan forms are equated and counterbalanced to
factor out any differences that might be associated with the order of administration,
the researcher decided to make used of the Tan Form for this study.
The researcher made use of the standard scores. Standard scores were the
type of scores used for comparisons within individuals and between them. These
interval data were a higher level of information than the raw scores or grade
equivalents. The ratings of standard scores were classified as those who will get a
raw score of 69 and below this considered “Deficient”, 70 – 79 “Borderline”, 80 –
89 “Low Average”, 90 – 109 “Average”, 110 – 119 “High Average”, 120 – 129
“Superior” and 130 and up being “Very Superior” in terms of intellectual readiness.
Validation of the Instruments
The self-made instruments made by the researcher such as personal
information sheet, parenting style inventory and social readiness inventory which
was used in this study undergone content validity by the assigned
validators/professors of the Graduate Studies.
Parenting Style Inventory and Social Readiness Inventory were the two
instruments that have undergone test-retest for reliability in Charis Child Tutorial
Learning Center. There were 10 parents who were involved, five (5) from
kindergarten and five (5) from preparatory level.
These inventories were revised based on the recommendations. After the
appropriate corrections the inventories was reproduced for the final and actual data
gathering activity.
Data Gathering Procedure
The researcher included three selected schools in Dasmariñas, Cavite. The
participants were nursery, kindergarten and preparatory pupils with an age range of
61
five (5) years old and up. After obtaining the principal’s consent, the researcher
asked the teacher’s consent and participation to obtain the participants to participate
in the study.
The researcher together with the help of the teachers attached and
distributed the inventories.
WRAT3, a measure for Intellectual Readiness was administered during
class hours, but since this test is for individual, testing participant was placed in a
vacant room to take the test. The researcher provided a pencil with eraser and
WRAT3 test form.
Then, the examiner gave the WRAT3 test form following the standard
procedures.
Statistical Treatment
The following statistical treatments were used to answer specific problems
in the study. Descriptive statistics i.e. relative frequency and mean, point biserial
correlation, Spearman Rho correlation, Chi-Square and multiple regression.
Point biserial correlation coefficient was used in Problems 2 and 5 in
determining the significant relationship between the family characteristics of the
respondents and the social and intellectual readiness of the preschoolers.
The spearman’s rho coefficient of correlation was used in Problems 1 and
4 to determine the significant relationship between the personal characteristics of
the respondents and the social and intellectual readiness of preschoolers.
Chi-square was used in Problem 2 in determining the family characteristics
particularly the occupation.
Finally, multiple regression was used in Problem 6 in determining the
predictors of social and intellectual readiness of the preschoolers.
62
RESULTS
Personal characteristic of the respondents in terms of age is shown in the
following table.
Table 2. Age Profile of the Respondents
Age School Total
A B C
F % F % F % F %
5 to 5 and 11 months 10 29.4 8 22.9 20 44.4 38 33.3
6 to 6 and 11 months 20 58.8 17 48.6 18 40 55 48.2
7 to 7 and 11 months 4 11.8 9 25.7 6 13.3 19 16.7
8 to 8 and 11 months 1 2.9 1 2.2 2 1.8
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Table 2 shows that there were 34 pupils in school A, 35 in school B, and 45 pupils
in school C. Overall there were 114 preschoolers in the three schools. There were
almost 50 percent of the pupil respondents who fell under 6 to 6 and 11 months.
However, 8 to 8 and 11 months had 1.8 percent. These findings show that in terms
of age most of the preschoolers in the three schools were within 6 years old to 6
years and 11 months
The data revealed that about 50 percent of the pupil respondents fell under
6 to 6 and 11 months because 6 years old is the ideal age of school entry.
Table 3. Gender Profile of the Respondents
Gender School Total
A B C
F % F % F % F %
Male 17 50 17 48.6 18 40 52 45.6
Female 17 50 18 51.4 27 60 62 54.4
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Table 3 presents the gender profile of the respondents. There were 62 or
54.4 percent of the respondents were female and 52 or 45.6 percent were male.
These findings show that in terms of gender most of the preschoolers in the three
schools were female.
The data revealed that almost 55 percent of the pupil respondents were
female compared to male.
63
Table 4. Grade Level Profile of the Respondents
Grade Level School Total
A B C
F % F % F % F %
Nursery 5 11.1 5 4.4
Kindergarten 10 29.4 21 60 23 51.1 54 47.4
Preparatory 24 70.6 14 40 17 37.8 55 48.2
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Table 4 shows that grade levels in the preschool were nursery, kinder and
preparatory. There were 55 or 48.2 percent of the respondents were in the
preparatory level, 54 or 47.4 percent were in the kinder level and 5 or 4.4 percent
were in the nursery level. These findings show that in terms of grade level most of
the preschoolers in the three schools were in the preparatory level. This revealed
that aged six (6) were in the preparatory level.
Table 5. Sibling Position Profile of the Respondents
Sibling Position School Total
A B C
F % F % F % F %
First 18 52.9 23 65.7 14 31.1 55 48.2
Second 12 35.3 4 11.4 13 28.9 29 25.4
Third 2 5.9 6 17.1 13 28.9 21 18.4
Fourth 2 5.9 1 2.9 4 8.9 7 6.1
Fifth 1 2.9 1 2.2 2 1.8
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Table 5 shows that sibling positions were classified as first, second, third,
fourth and fifth child in the preschool. There were almost 50 percent of the pupil
respondents who were first born or eldest in the family. However, 1.8 percent was
fifth born. These findings show that in terms of sibling position most of the
preschoolers in the three schools were first born or eldest sibling in the family.
The data revealed that many were first born because parents were married
less than ten (10) years.
64
Table 6. Parents’ Educational Attainment Profile
Parents' School Total
Educational
Attainment A B C
F % F % F % F %
Postgraduate 3 8.8 1 2.9 5 11.1 9 7.9
College 31 91.2 33 94.3 40 88.9 104 91.2
Secondary 1 2.9 1 0.9
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Table 6 presents the parents’ educational attainment profile. This was
categorized as secondary, college and postgraduate studies. There was 91.2 percent
who attained college while 0.9 percent attained secondary.
Table 7. Parents’ Occupation Profile
Mothers' School Total
Occupation A B C
F % F % F % F %
Employed 16 47.1 18 51.4 20 44.4 54 47.4
Own a Business 4 11.8 6 17.1 6 13.3 16 14
None 14 41.2 11 31.4 19 42.2 44 38.6
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Fathers' School Total
Occupation A B C
F % F % F % F %
Employed 30 88.2 26 83.9 40 93 96 88.9
Own a Business 3 8.8 2 6.5 1 2.3 6 5.6
None 1 2.9 3 9.7 2 4.7 6 5.6
Total 34 100 35 100 43 100 108 100
65
Table 7 presents parents’ occupation. There were 47.4 percent mothers
who were employed while 14 percent own a business. However, 88.9 percent of the
fathers were employed, 5.6 percent stayed at home and the other 5.6 percent own a
business. These findings show that in terms of parents’ occupation majority of
parents’ were employed.
The data indicates that because of the educational attainment of the parents
many were employed and parents work together in order to sustain the needs of the
family. In addition, fathers can still be considered as breadwinners in the family.
Table 8. Parent’s job status Profile
Mothers' School Total
job status A B C
F % F % F % F %
Full time 17 50 20 57.1 21 46.7 58 50.9
Part time 13 8.8 6 17.1 5 11.1 14 12.3
None 14 41.2 9 25.7 19 42.2 42 36.8
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Fathers' School Total
job status A B C
F % F % F % F %
Full time 31 91.2 26 83.9 41 95.3 98 90.7
Part time 2 5.9 2 6.5 4 3.7
None 1 2.9 3 9.7 2 4.7 6 5.6
Total 34 100 35 100 43 100 108 100
Table 8 presents parents’ job status. It shows that in terms of mothers’ job
status almost 60 percent work as full time employee while 12.3 percent of them
work as part time employee. However, concerning the fathers’ job status , about
90.7 percent work as full time employee 3.7 percent work as part time employee.
These findings show that in terms of parent’s job status majority of parents were full
time employees.
The researcher believed that both parents need to work full time together
for their children to meet their needs. It also revealed that still fathers were
considered the boss who earns a living.
66
Table 9. Parenting Style Profile
Parenting School Total
Styles A B C
F % F % F % F %
Authoritative 21 61.8 21 60 31 68.9 73 64
Authoritarian 4 11.8 5 14.3 4 8.9 13 11.4
Permissive 7 20.6 7 20 7 15.6 21 18.4
Uninvolved 2 5.9 2 5.7 3 6.7 7 6.1
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Table 9 presents the parenting style profile. It shows that 64 percent of the
pupils’ parents used authoritative style of parenting. However, there was about 6
percent who used uninvolved style of parenting. These findings show that in terms
of parenting styles majority of the parents used authoritative style of parenting.
The data indicates that almost 64 percent of the pupil’s parents employed
authoritative style of parenting because they directs the child’s activities but in a
rational, issue-oriented way. The parent encourages verbal give and take, and shares
with the child the reasoning behind the policies. They value both expressive and
instrumental attributes and both autonomous self-will and disciplined conformity.
Therefore, parents exert firm control at points of parent-child divergence, but not
hem the child in with restrictions.
According to Steifert (2000), authoritative parents set clear standards for
mature and responsible behavior and expect their children to meet their standards.
Enforcement of roles is firm but parents unduly restrict their children’s activities
and issues, and give reasons for limits. Learning to take responsibility is a high
priority.
Table 10. Number of Siblings Profile of the Respondents
Number of School Total
Siblings A B C
F % F % F % F %
1 to 2 26 76.5 19 54.3 22 48.9 67 58.8
3 to 4 8 23.5 14 40 20 44.4 42 36.8
5 to 6 2 5.7 3 6.7 5 4.4
Total 34 100 35 100 43 100 114 100
67
Table 10 shows that numbers of siblings were enclose in the 1 to 2, 3 to 4
and 5 to 6 bracket. There were almost 60 percent pupil respondents who were under
1 to 2 bracket number of siblings while 4.4 percent were in the 5 to 6 bracket
number of siblings. These findings show that in terms of number of siblings most of
them are in the 1 to 2 bracket number of siblings.
The data shows that almost 60 percent of the parents prefer to have 1 to 2
children only maybe because of the reason that nowadays it is hard to have more
children to take care of and to be responsible with many things especially parents
who are employed.
According to Meltz (2007), some of the reasons why parents raised only 1
to 2 children because it is easy to overlook things, fewer distractions in the family,
bond between 1 to 2 child and his/her parents tends to be stronger and tighter than in
bigger families.
Table 11. Housemaid Profile of the Respondents
Presence of School Total
Housemaid A B C
F % F % F % F %
Yes 16 47.1 7 20 17 37.8 40 35.1
None 18 52.9 28 80 28 62.2 74 64.9
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Extended Family Profile of the Respondents
Is Family School Total
Extended A B C
F % F % F % F %
Yes 15 44.1 6 17.1 19 42.2 40 35.1
None 19 55.9 29 82.9 26 57.8 74 64.9
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Table 11 presents the presence of housemaid of the respondents. It
indicates that among 114 respondents there were almost 65 percent who does not
have housemaid while 35.1 percent have maids at home. However, concerning the
extended family as to have or not to have extension, it shows that there were almost
65 percent who does not have extended family while 35.1 percent whose families
were extended. These findings show that many of the families can manage the tasks
at home therefore need not to have housemaids and as to the family whether
extended or not, most of the families were not extended.
68
In addition, instead of having housemaids if there were relatives in the
family who are capable enough and can be trusted to take care of the children then
parents would rather choose it.
Table 12. Relatives in the Family
Who lives with School Total
the Family A B C
F % F % F % F %
Grandparents 1 7.1 2 10 3 7.5
Parents 8 57.1 4 66.7 11 55 23 57.5
Brothers / Sisters 4 28.6 2 33.3 4 20 10 25
Tito / Tita 2 10 2 5
Nieces / Nephew 1 7.1 1 5 2 5
Total 14 100 6 100 20 100 40 100
Table 12 presents the presence of relative in the family. This was
categorized as grandparents, parents, brothers or sisters, tito or tita, and nephews or
nieces. There were almost 60 percent whose parents were living with the family
while 5 percent were tito / tita, nieces and nephew. These findings show that in
terms of the presence of relative in the family, the pupils were mostly with their
parents’ parents or so called grandparents.
In the Philippines, Filipinos are said to be family – oriented people. In that
case, when a child becomes adult and decides to marry his/her parents will reside
and assist him in building the family and in the absence of the parents for work
grandparents are there to help and they take the responsibility of their children.
69
Table 13. Social Readiness of the respondents
Social School Total
Readiness A B C
F % F % F % F %
Low 1 2.9 1 0.9
Moderate 16 47.1 23 65.7 20 44.4 59 51.8
High 18 52.9 11 31.4 25 55.6 54 47.4
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Mean 103.62 99.46 102 101.7
Verbal High Moderate High Moderate
Interpretation
Legend
53 and below Very Low
54 – 77 Low
78 – 101 Moderate
102 – 125 High
126 – 150 Very High
Table 13 presents social readiness of the pupils. About 51.8 percent of the
pupil had a moderate social readiness and 47.4 percent of them had high social
readiness. As regards to school, both A and C had high social readiness with a mean
of 103.62 for school A and 102 for school C. These findings show that social
readiness of pupil respondents with an overall mean of 101.7 were interpreted
moderate in their social readiness.
The data indicates that they were moderate in social readiness maybe
because at times they tend to become brat, bossy and not a good follower. They
enjoy playing alone, like to put things in the mouth, does not begin true give and
take and understand values such as telling the truth, being honest and showing
responsibility. More so, they do not want his/her parents to be out of sight and needs
to get clear and consistent rules and to understand the consequences of breaking
them.
According to Belen (1997), one area of significant development during
childhood is the socialization of the child. To become socialized, the child needs
social experiences. Parents and preschool teachers can contribute to readiness by
offering children positive experiences in group settings outside of the home, and by
helping children strengthen their social skills and understanding.
70
Table 14. Intellectual Readiness of Respondents in Reading
Reading School Total
A B C
F % F % F % F %
Deficient 1 2.9 2 4.4 3 2.6
Borderline 1 2.9 1 0.9
Low Average 2 5.9 1 2.2 3 2.6
Average 10 29.4 7 20 7 15.6 24 21.1
High Average 5 14.7 7 20 5 11.1 17 14.9
Superior 3 8.8 9 25.7 11 24.4 23 20.2
Very Superior 13 38.2 11 31.4 19 42.2 43 37.7
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Mean 118.71 120.63 126.13 122.23
Verbal High Superior Superior Superior
Interpretation Average
Legend
69 and below Deficient
70 – 79 Borderline
80 – 89 Low Average
90 – 109 Average
110 – 119 High Average
120 – 129 Superior
130 and above Very Superior
Table 14 shows the intellectual readiness of the pupils in reading. There
were almost 60 percent whose reading readiness was considered very superior and
superior. However, there were 3.5 percent who were deficient and in borderline in
intellectual reading readiness. These findings show that the intellectual readiness of
pupil respondents in reading had a mean of 122.23 which was verbally interpreted
as superior.
The data revealed that about 60 percent of the pupil respondents were
superior and very superior in their reading intellectual readiness and they can read
words applied for Grade 1 and 2 levels. However, it also revealed that there were
3.5 percent of the pupil respondents who were under deficient and borderline.
Hence, these were the children who had problems in their reading readiness because
71
they cannot relate to the topics discussed by their teachers, cannot even recognized
letters neither produced sounds of the alphabets, blends and three-letter words.
Children are more likely to feel competent in school if they can understand
and use the language of the peers and the adults they meet in school. They are also
more likely to have confidence in their own ability to cope with school if they can
relate to the ideas and topics introduced by the teacher and other children in class
discussion and activities (Katz & McClellan, 1991).
Table 15. Intellectual Readiness of Respondents in Spelling
Spelling School Total
A B C
F % F % F % F %
Deficient 2 4.4 2 1.8
Borderline 1 0.9
Low Average 1 2.9 1 2.9 3 6.7 5 4.4
Average 11 32.4 6 17.1 7 15.6 24 21.1
High Average 10 29.4 8 22.9 7 15.6 25 21.9
Superior 3 8.8 10 28.6 7 15.6 20 17.5
Very Superior 9 26.5 9 25.7 19 42.2 37 32.5
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Mean 116.26 119.69 122.53 119.79
Verbal High High Superior High
Interpretation Average Average Average
Legend
69 and below Deficient
70 – 79 Borderline
80 – 89 Low Average
90 – 109 Average
110 – 119 High Average
120 – 129 Superior
130 and above Very Superior
Table 15 shows the intellectual readiness of the pupils in spelling. There
were 50 percent whose spelling readiness was very superior and superior. However,
there were almost 3 percent who were deficient and in borderline. These findings
show that the intellectual readiness of pupil respondents in spelling had a mean of
119.79 and thus verbally interpreted with high average in the spelling readiness.
72
The data indicates that about 50 percent of the pupil respondents were
superior and very superior in their spelling intellectual readiness and they can spell
words applied for Grade 1 and 2 levels. However, it also revealed that there were
almost 3 percent of the pupil respondents who were under deficient and borderline.
Hence, these were the children who had problems in their spelling readiness
because of the reason that they could hardly read so they could not write words
through dictation.
According to Billman & Sherman (1997), as children develop more
concepts and vocabulary, their causal reasoning becomes more advanced and they
are able to offer reasonable cause-and-effect explanations. When you observe
preschoolers, you will notice that when they do not know the reason for something,
they will invent one.
Table 16.Intellectual Readiness of Respondents in Arithmetic
Arithmetic School Total
A B C
F % F % F % F %
Deficient 2 4.4 2 1.8
Borderline 1 2.9 1 0.9
Low Average 2 5.7 1 2.2 3 2.6
Average 5 14.7 7 20 11 24.4 23 20.2
High Average 12 35.3 4 11.4 7 15.6 23 20.2
Superior 6 17.6 6 17.1 6 13.3 18 15.8
Very Superior 11 32.4 15 42.9 18 40 44 38.6
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Mean 124.29 121.14 121.47 122.21
Verbal Superior Superior Superior Superior
Interpretation
Legend
69 and below Deficient
70 – 79 Borderline
80 – 89 Low Average
90 – 109 Average
110 – 119 High Average
120 – 129 Superior
130 and above Very Superior
73
Table 16 shows the intellectual readiness of the pupil respondents in
arithmetic. There were 44 or 38.6 percent whose arithmetic readiness were very
superior, 23 or 20.2 percent were high average and average, 18 or 15.8 percent were
superior, 3 or 2.6 percent were low average, 2 or 1.8 percent were deficient and 1
or .9 percent were under borderline. As regards to school, all got superior in terms
of intellectual readiness in arithmetic. These findings show that the intellectual
readiness of pupil respondents in arithmetic had a mean of 122.21 and thus verbally
interpreted with superior in the arithmetic intellectual readiness.
The data indicates that about 60 percent of the pupil respondents were
superior and very superior in their arithmetic intellectual readiness and they can do
counting and do simple calculations that are to add and subtract numbers applied for
Grade 1 and 2 levels. However, it also revealed that there were almost 3 percent of
the pupil respondents who were under deficient and borderline. Hence, these were
the children who had problems in their arithmetic readiness because they could
hardly identify and write numbers correctly, cannot count consistently especially the
process of addition and subtraction.
According to Belen (1997) cognition or understanding of concepts is
dependent on the child’s readiness to understand himself, his ability and his
environment. This comes from the level of maturation of the brain and the rest of
nervous system and of his sense organs.
Table 17. Summary Table of Intellectual Readiness
Intellectual School Total
Readiness A B C
F % F % F % F %
Deficient 2 4.4 2 1.8
Borderline 1 2.9 1 0.9
Low Average 1 2.9 1 2.9 1 2.2 3 2.6
Average 10 29.4 4 11.4 7 15.6 21 18.4
High
Average 8 23.5 8 22.9 9 20 25 21.9
Superior 6 17.6 12 34.3 7 15.6 25 21.9
Very
Superior 9 26.5 9 25.7 19 42.2 37 32.5
Total 34 100 35 100 45 100 114 100
Mean 119.75 120.49 123.38 121.41
Verbal High Superior Superior Superior
Interpretation Average
74
Table 17 presents the summary table of intellectual readiness of the pupil
respondents. About 50 percent of the pupil had a superior and very superior
intellectual readiness and 3 percent of them had deficient and borderline intellectual
readiness. As regards to school, both B and C had superior intellectual readiness
with a mean of 120.49 for school B and 123.38 for school C. These findings show
that intellectual readiness of pupil respondents with an overall mean of 121.41 were
interpreted superior in their intellectual readiness.
The data indicates that they were superior in intellectual readiness because
they can do simple calculations like adding and subtracting numbers, they can read
words and spell it out correctly, they can follow simple instructions as to how
something is to be done, they can relate to the ideas and topics introduced by their
teacher and other children in class discussion and activities.
According to Berger (1999) parents who provide active support of their
children contribute more to their child’s success in school than those who provide
passive support. The least effective parents in terms of the child’s ability to succeed
are those who are non-supportive. Parents must actively help their children as well
as encourage them to achieve. Parent’s behaviors that support the child’s cognitive
include teaching of specific skills, opportunities for the child to explore and try out
skills, conversations and play with the child, high expectations for achievement, and
knowledge about child’s development.
The Spearman rank and point biserial correlation coefficient were used to
determine the degree of relationship between personal characteristics of pupils and
their level of intellectual and social readiness at 0.05 level of significance.
Table 18.Age of the pupil and its relationship to Social and Intellectual Readiness
Intellectual and Social Correlation* Significance Decision
Readiness Coefficient
Social -0.127 0.178 Accept Ho
Intellectual -0.646 0.000 Reject Ho
* Spearman Rank
Social Readiness. It can be gleaned from Table 18 that the computed spearman rank
correlation coefficient between age of the pupil respondents at their level of social
readiness was -0.127 with a probability value of 0.178 which is not significant at 5
percent level. Hence, the null hypothesis of no significant relationship between age
of the pupil respondents at their level of social readiness was accepted. This
indicates that age of the pupil respondents does not affect their level of social
readiness. The data also revealed that regardless of the age of pupil respondents
their level of social readiness were the same.
75
The data indicates that age does not affect the social readiness of the pupil
respondents maybe because the attachment process continues to be formative and
helps to shape the internal working model of social relationships the child creates.
They develop the ability to share, to read others’ cues well and to respond positively
to others.
Intellectual Readiness. As shown in Table 18, the computed correlation
coefficient of -0.646 indicates that age is significantly related to the intellectual
readiness of pupils. The hypothesis of no significant relationship between age of the
pupil and their level of intellectual readiness was rejected. This means that the
intellectual readiness of the pupil respondents could be affected by their age. It
further shows that younger pupil respondents were more intellectually ready than
those older pupil respondents.
This finding is supported by Katz, et al. (1990) that age is one of the
biggest factors that determine whether a child is intellectually ready or not for
school. If the child with his age does not actively construct meaning as he/she
explores the world around him/her, do not add concepts, vocabulary, and
representation to the process therefore may affect his/her intellectual readiness.
However, data resulted that younger pupils were more intellectually ready than
those older pupils probably because as they grow older they begin to explore and
become aware of the social and physical reality, achieve personal independence and
develop attitudes toward social group and institutions, that is why they become
more playful and do not give so much importance on the academic areas.
Table 19. Gender of the pupil and its relationship to Social and Intellectual
Readiness
Intellectual and Social Correlation* Significance Decision
Readiness Coefficient
Social -0.007 -0.0719 Accept Ho
Intellectual -0.235 -2.5566 Reject Ho
* Point Biserial
Critical value of t-test = 1.96
Social Readiness. The point biserial correlation coefficient was used to
measure the degree of relationship between gender and their level of social
readiness of pupil respondents. The computed point biserial correlation coefficient
was -0.007 which is significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of no
significant relationship between gender and social readiness was accepted. This
implies that social readiness of pupil respondents was not affected by their gender
maybe because both male and female have already had some positive experience in
group settings outside of the home.
76
Intellectual Readiness. The point biserial correlation coefficient was used
to measure the degree of relationship between gender and their level of intellectual
readiness of pupil respondents. The computed point biserial correlation coefficient
was -0.235 which is significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of no
significant relationship between gender and intellectual readiness was rejected. This
implies that the intellectual readiness of pupil respondents was affected by their
gender. It also shows that intellectual readiness of female pupil respondents were
statistically higher than those male respondents.
This finding is supported by Wyckoff & Unell (2002) that boys’ brains
develop more slowly than girls’. In boys, the left half of the brain, which controls
thinking, develops more slowly than the right half, which controls spatial
relationships. As a result, the connection between the two hemispheres is not as
fully formed in boys, who generally enjoy greater ability in math and reasoning, but
lesser ability in language and reading. However, girls’ brains develop more evenly,
giving them the ability to use both hemispheres for such activities as reading and
emotional awareness. The female brain is at work most of the time, allowing girls to
be more skilled at multi-tasking.
Table 20. Grade level of the pupil and its relationship to Social and Intellectual
Readiness
Intellectual and
Social Correlation* Significance Decision
Readiness Coefficient
Social -0.005 -0.0493 Accept Ho
Intellectual 0.142 1.5206 Accept Ho
* Point Biserial
Critical value of t-test = 1.96
Social Readiness. The point biserial correlation coefficient was used to
measure the degree of relationship between grade level and their level of social
readiness of pupil respondents. The computed point biserial correlation coefficient
was -0.005 which is significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of no
significant relationship between grade level and social readiness was accepted. This
implies that the social readiness of pupil respondents was not affected by their grade
level maybe because the child’s social skills were strengthened.
Intellectual Readiness. The point biserial correlation coefficient was used
to measure the degree of relationship between grade level and their level of
intellectual readiness of pupil respondents. The computed point biserial correlation
coefficient was 0.142 which is significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of
no significant relationship between grade level and intellectual readiness was
accepted. This implies that the intellectual readiness of pupil respondents was not
affected by their grade level maybe because at certain grade level they can relate to
the ideas and topics introduced by the teacher and other children in class discussions
and activities.
77
Table 21. Sibling position of the pupil and its relationship to Social and Intellectual
Readiness
Intellectual and
Social Correlation* Significance Decision
Readiness Coefficient
Social 0.095 0.314 Accept Ho
Intellectual -0.129 0.173 Accept Ho
* Spearman Rank
Social Readiness. It can be gleaned from Table 21 that the computed
spearman rank correlation coefficient between sibling position of the pupil
respondents and their level of social readiness was 0.095 with a probability value of
0.314 which is not significant at 5 percent level. Hence, the null hypothesis of no
significant relationship between sibling position of the pupil respondents and their
level of social readiness was accepted.
The data indicates that each child regardless of his/her sibling position in
the family developed his/her own coping strategies well.
Intellectual Readiness. As shown in Table 21, the computed spearman rank
correlation coefficient was -0.129 with a probability value (significant value) of
0.173 which is significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of no significant
relationship between sibling position of the pupil and their level of intellectual
readiness was accepted. This means that the intellectual readiness of the pupil
respondents was not affected by their sibling position.
The data indicates that the child’s intellectual readiness is not dependent on
his/her sibling position. But the child’s ability to learn affects both genetic make –
up and the reactions a child has to his/her environment (Billman & Sherman, 1997)
78
Table 22 Parents’ Educational Attainment and its relationship to Social and
Intellectual Readiness
Intellectual and Social Correlation* Significance Decision
Readiness Coefficient
Social 0.089 0.9426 Accept Ho
Intellectual 0.059 0.6265 Accept Ho
* Point Biserial
Critical value of t-test = 1.96
Social Readiness. The point biserial correlation coefficient was used to
measure the degree of relationship between parents’ educational attainment and
their level of social readiness of pupil respondents. The computed point biserial
correlation coefficient was -0.089 which is significant at 5 percent level. The null
hypothesis of no significant relationship between parents’ educational attainment
and social readiness was accepted. This implies that the social readiness of pupil
respondents was not affected by their parents’ educational attainment.
The data indicates that social readiness is not dependent to parents’
educational attainment maybe because the child has nothing to do with what his/her
parents’ achievements.
Intellectual Readiness. The point biserial correlation coefficient was used
to measure the degree of relationship between parents’ educational attainment and
their level of intellectual readiness of pupil respondents. The computed point
biserial correlation coefficient was 0.059 which is significant at 5 percent level. The
null hypothesis of no significant relationship between parents’ educational
attainment and intellectual readiness was accepted. This implies that the intellectual
readiness of pupil respondents was not affected by their parents’ educational
attainment maybe because what is important is the amount of care that they were
going to receive.
Table 23 Mothers’ Occupation and its relationship to Social and Intellectual
Readiness
Intellectual Chi Degrees Contingency Significance Decision
and Social Square Of Coefficient
Readiness Computed Freedom
Social 0.694 2 0.078 0.707
Accept
Ho
Intellectual 5.055 4 0.206 0.282
Accept
Ho
79
Social Readiness. The chi-square statistics was used to detect significant
relationship/association between social readiness and mothers’ occupation of pupil
respondents while the contingency coefficient was used to measure the degree of
their association.
As presented in Table 23 the computed chi-square value between mothers’
occupation and social readiness was 0.694 with a probability (significant) value of
0.707 which is not significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of no
significant relationship between mothers’ occupation and social readiness was
accepted. Hence, the level of social readiness of the pupils is not significantly
influenced by their mothers’ occupation maybe because the child tends to be more
independent in the absence of his/her parents for work.
Intellectual Readiness. The chi-square statistics was used to detect
significant relationship/association between intellectual readiness and mothers’
occupation of pupil respondents while the contingency coefficient was used to
measure the degree of their association.
As presented in Table 23 the computed chi-square value between mothers’
occupation and intellectual readiness was 5.055 with a probability (significant)
value of 0.282 which is not significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of no
significant relationship between mothers’ occupation and intellectual readiness was
accepted. Hence, the level of intellectual readiness of the pupils is not significantly
influenced by their mothers’ occupation maybe because the child and his/her early
experiences and the genetic endowment shape the child’s intellect.
Table 24 Mothers’ Position and its relationship to Social and Intellectual Readiness
Intellectual Chi Degrees Contingency Significance
Decisio
n
and Social Square of Coefficient
Readiness
Compute
d Freedom
Social 0.135 2 0.034 0.935
Accept
Ho
Intellectual 3.015 4 0.161 0.555
Accept
Ho
* Chi-Square Test
Social Readiness. The chi-square statistics was used to detect significant
relationship/association between social readiness and mothers’ job status of pupil
respondents while the contingency coefficient was used to measure the degree of
their association.
As shown in Table 24 the computed chi-square value between mothers’ job
status and social readiness was 0.135 with a probability (significant) value of 0.935
which is not significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of no significant
relationship between mothers’ job status and social readiness was accepted. Hence,
80
the level of social readiness of the pupils is not significantly influenced by their
mothers’ job status maybe because parents regardless of their job status at work
tend to be the caregiver at home.
Intellectual Readiness. The chi-square statistics was used to detect
significant relationship/association between intellectual readiness and mothers’ job
status of pupil respondents while the contingency coefficient was used to measure
the degree of their association.
As shown in Table 24 the computed chi-square value between mothers’ job
status and intellectual readiness was 3.015 with a probability (significant) value of
0.555 which is not significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of no
significant relationship between mothers’ job status and intellectual readiness was
accepted. Hence, the level of intellectual readiness of the pupils is not significantly
influenced by their mothers’ job status maybe because parents regardless of his/her
job status do his/her ultimate goal to mold their children to become a better citizen
of the world as they grow old.
Table 25. Fathers’ Occupation and its relationship to Social and Intellectual
Readiness
Intellectual and
Social Correlation* Significance Decision
Readiness Coefficient
Social 0.081 0.8586 Accept Ho
Intellectual 0.060 0.6310 Accept Ho
* Point Biserial
Critical value of t-test = 1.96
Social Readiness. The point biserial correlation coefficient was used to
measure the degree of relationship between fathers’ occupation and their level of
social readiness of pupil respondents. The computed point biserial correlation
coefficient was 0.081 which is significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of
no significant relationship between fathers’ occupation and social readiness was
accepted. This implies that the social readiness of pupil respondents was not
affected by their fathers’ occupation.
Intellectual Readiness. The point biserial correlation coefficient was used
to measure the degree of relationship between fathers’ occupation and their level of
intellectual readiness of pupil respondents. The computed point biserial correlation
coefficient was 0.060 which is significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of
no significant relationship between fathers’ occupation and intellectual readiness
was accepted. This implies that the intellectual readiness of pupil respondents was
not affected by their fathers’ occupation.
81
The data indicates that social and intellectual readiness had nothing to do
with fathers’ occupation because this is the time when the peer group tends to
become more important to the child than his family.
Table 26 Fathers’ Job status and its relationship to Social and Intellectual
Readiness
Intellectual and Social Correlation* t-computed Decision
Readiness Coefficient
Social 0.122 1.2959 Accept Ho
Intellectual 0.076 0.8037 Accept Ho
* Point Biserial
Critical value of t-test = 1.96
Social Readiness. The point biserial correlation coefficient was used to
measure the degree of relationship between fathers’ job status and their level of
social readiness of pupil respondents. The computed point biserial correlation
coefficient was 0.122 which is significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of
no significant relationship between fathers’ occupation and social readiness was
accepted. This implies that the social readiness of pupil respondents was not
affected by their fathers’ job status .
Intellectual Readiness. The point biserial correlation coefficient was used
to measure the degree of relationship between fathers’ job status and their level of
intellectual readiness of pupil respondents. The computed point biserial correlation
coefficient was 0.076 which is significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of
no significant relationship between fathers’ job status and intellectual readiness
was accepted. This implies that the intellectual readiness of pupil respondents was
not affected by their fathers’ job status .
Table 27
Parenting Styles and its relationship to Social and Intellectual Readiness
Intellectual Chi Degrees Contingency
Significanc
e Decision
and Social Square of Coefficient
Readiness Computed Freedom
Social 0.055 2 0.022 0.973
Accept
Ho
Intellectual 2.525 4 0.147 0.640
Accept
Ho
* Chi-Square Test
82
Social Readiness. The chi-square statistics was used to detect significant
relationship/association between social readiness and parenting styles of pupil
respondents while the contingency coefficient was used to measure the degree of
their association.
.
As shown in Table 27 the computed chi-square value between parenting
styles and social readiness was 0.055 with a probability (significant) value of 0.973
which is not significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of no significant
relationship between parenting styles and social readiness was accepted. Hence, the
level of social readiness of the pupils is not significantly influenced by their
parenting styles.
Intellectual Readiness. The chi-square statistics was used to detect
significant relationship/association between intellectual readiness and parenting
styles of pupil respondents while the contingency coefficient was used to measure
the degree of their association.
As shown in Table 27 the computed chi-square value between parenting
styles and intellectual readiness was 2.525 with a probability (significant) value of
0.640 which is not significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis of no
significant relationship between parenting styles and intellectual readiness was
accepted. Hence, the level of intellectual readiness of the pupils is not significantly
influenced by their parenting styles.
The data indicates that parenting style had nothing to do with the social
and intellectual readiness of the child maybe because the amount of care given is
much more important than the styles of parenting.
Table 28.
Number of Siblings and its relationship to Social and Intellectual Readiness
Intellectual and Social Correlation* Significance Decision
Readiness Coefficient
Social 0.027 0.776 Accept Ho
Intellectual -0.061 0.518 Accept Ho
* Spearman Rank
Social Readiness. It can be gleaned from Table 28 that the computed
spearman rank correlation coefficient between number of siblings of pupil
respondents at their level of social readiness was 0.027 with a probability value of
0.776 which is not significant at 5 percent level. Hence, the null hypothesis of no
significant relationship between number of siblings of the pupil respondents at their
level of social readiness was accepted. This indicates that number of siblings of the
pupil respondents does not affect their level of social readiness. The data also
revealed that regardless of the number of siblings of pupil respondents their level of
social readiness were the same.
83
Intellectual Readiness. As shown in Table 28 the computed spearman rank
correlation coefficient was -0.061 with a probability value (significant value) of
0.518 which is not significant at 5 percent level. The hypothesis of no significant
relationship between number of siblings and their level of intellectual readiness was
accepted. This means that the intellectual readiness of the pupil respondents was not
affected by the number of siblings.
The data indicates that number of siblings had nothing to do with the social
and intellectual readiness of the child maybe because the child individually received
the amount of attention needed to their development.
Table 29
Presence of Housemaid and its relationship to Social and Intellectual Readiness
Intellectual and Social Correlation* t-computed Decision
Readiness Coefficient
Social 0.077 0.8176 Accept Ho
Intellectual 0.051 0.5408 Accept Ho
* Point Biserial
Critical value of t-test = 1.96
Social Readiness. The point biserial correlation coefficient was used to
measure the degree of relationship between presence of housemaid and their level of
social readiness of pupil respondents. The computed point biserial correlation
coefficient was 0.077 which is not significant at 5 percent level. The null hypothesis
of no significant relationship between presence of significant others and social
readiness was accepted. This implies that the social readiness of pupil respondents
was not affected by the presence of housemaid.
Intellectual Readiness. The point biserial correlation coefficient was used
to measure the degree of relationship between presence of housemaid and their level
of intellectual readiness of pupil respondents. The computed point biserial
correlation coefficient was 0.051 which is significant at 5 percent level. The null
hypothesis of no significant relationship between presence of housemaid and
intellectual readiness was accepted. This implies that the intellectual readiness of
pupil respondents was not affected by the presence of housemaid.
The data indicates that presence of housemaid had nothing to do with
social and intellectual readiness of the child may be because children do not merely
listen to the housemaids.
84
Table 30. Presence of Relative in the family and its relationship to Social and
Intellectual Readiness
Intellectual and Social Correlation* t-computed Decision
Readiness Coefficient
Social 0.185 1.9883 Accept Ho
Intellectual -0.072 -0.7674 Reject Ho
* Point Biserial ,
Critical value of t-test = 1.96
Social Readiness. The point biserial correlation coefficient was used to
measure the degree of relationship between presence of relative in the family and
their level of social readiness of pupil respondents. The computed point biserial
correlation coefficient was 0.185 which is not significant at 5 percent level. The null
hypothesis of no significant relationship between presence of relative in the family
and social readiness was rejected. This implies that the social readiness of pupil
respondents was affected by the relative in the family.
The data indicates that presence of relative in the family affects the social
readiness of the pupil respondents maybe because in the absence of the pupils’
parents grandparents are of help to develop/increase their social readiness. They
also teach, advise, guide and support their grandchildren as to how to behave and
handle different situations.
Intellectual Readiness. The point biserial correlation coefficient was used
to measure the degree of relationship between presence of relative in the family and
their level of intellectual readiness of pupil respondents. The computed point
biserial correlation coefficient was -0.072 which is not significant at 5 percent level.
The null hypothesis of no significant relationship between presence of relative in the
family and intellectual readiness was accepted. This implies that the intellectual
readiness of pupil respondents was not affected by the relative in the family.
The data indicates that the presence of relative in the family had nothing to
do with the intellectual readiness of the child maybe because the child wants to
discover, invent and develop on his own.
What are the predictors of social and intellectual readiness of the preschoolers?
The multiple regression analysis was used to determine significant
predictors of social and intellectual readiness of pupil respondent. The family and
personal characteristics of the pupil respondents which were significantly related to
social and intellectual readiness were considered as the predictors. The stepwise
regression analysis was also applied to determine the best of social and intellectual
readiness.
85
Table 31. Predictors of Intellectual Readiness of the Respondents
Variables Coefficient Standard t-computed Significance
Error
Constant 226.465 10.563 21.440 .000 s
Age child -16.580 1.654 -10.022 .000 s
ns – not significant at 5% level , S – significant at 5% level, Multiple r = 0.688
Adjusted r square = 0.468
Intellectual Readiness. The personal and family characteristics of pupil
respondents which significantly related to the intellectual readiness were the age
and gender of the pupil. Hence, they were considered as the predictors of
intellectual readiness.
Result of the stepwise regression analysis shows that the better predictor of
intellectual readiness of the pupil respondents was their age as shown in Table 30. It
further shows that the value of multiple correlation coefficient was 0.688 which is
significant at 5 percent level. It also shows that the adjusted r – square was 0.468
which implies that 46.8 percent of the variability of intellectual readiness can be
explained by the variability of the pupil’s age.
The regression equation was
Y = 226. 465 – 16.580X1
Where Y – Intellectual Readiness
X1 – Age of child
The regression equation above shows that if the age of the pupil is five (5)
years old then it can be expected that the level of intellectual readiness of the pupil
will be 143.55 which can be interpreted as very superior, while if the age of the
pupil is seven (7) years old, then it can be expected that their level of intellectual
readiness was 109.79 which can be interpreted as High Average. Hence, it can be
concluded that the older the pupil the lower is their level of intellectual readiness
and the younger the pupil the higher is the level of intellectual readiness.
The data indicates that age is the better predictor of intellectual readiness.
According to Morrison (1997) in determining school readiness age does not appear
to constitute an accurate determinant of intellectual readiness but actually involves
number of factors, such as specific skills, health and nutritional status, social
competence, psychological preparedness and other background such as social class,
parental education, and child-care experience are more influential than the child’s
age. In addition, the data revealed that younger pupil had the higher level of
intellectual readiness than the older ones maybe because as the child progresses
priorities regarding academics had been continuously changing they tend to focus
more on play and social interactions.
86
Table 32. Predictors of Social Readiness of the Respondents
Variables Coefficient Standard t-computed Significance
Error
Constant 100.473 1.039 96.743 .000 s
Presence
of 3.502 1.753 1.997 .000 s
relatives in
the family
ns – not significant at 5% level, S – significant at 5% level
Multiple r = 0.185 , Adjusted r square = 0.026
Y = 100.473 + 3.502X1
Where Y - Social Readiness
X1 - Presence of Relatives in the Family
Social Readiness. The presence of relatives in the family is the only
personal and family characteristic which is significantly related to their social
readiness.
Result of the regression analysis was shown in Table 31. It further shows
that the value of multiple r was 0.185 and the adjusted r–square was 0.026 which
are significant at 5 percent level.
The regression equation was
Y = 100.473 + 3.502X1
Where Y - Social Readiness
X1 - Presence of Relatives in the Family
The regression equation above can be expected that if the pupil does not
have a relative in the family the social readiness of the pupil will be 100.473 which
can be interpreted as moderate .On the other hand, if there is a presence of relative
in the family the expected level of social readiness will be 103.975 which can be
interpreted as high level of social readiness.
The data indicates that presence of relative in the family had something to
do with social readiness of the child maybe because the child does not feel alone
and even feels complete even in the absence of their parents, also because they have
grandparents who care.
87
Findings
Based on the data gathered, the following results have been obtained.
The personal characteristic of the pupil respondents were as follows:
Most of the preschoolers’ age in the three schools was within 6 years old to
6 years and 11 months with a percentage of 48.2 percent and with an
overall mean of 6.34.
Concerning gender, most of them were female with a percentage of 54.5
percent.
A little less than the majority of the preschoolers were in the preparatory
level with a percentage of 48.2 percent.
The data under sibling position revealed that most of the preschoolers were
first born or eldest sibling in the family with a percentage of 48.2 percent
and with an overall mean of 1.88.
The family characteristic of the pupil respondents were as follows:
About parent’s educational attainment, majority were college level with a
percentage of 91.2 percent.
In terms of parents’ occupation, data revealed that majority of parents were
employed. To further, mothers’ occupation had a little less than the
majority with a percentage of 47.4 percent while fathers’ occupation had
the majority with a percentage of 88.9 percent.
Parent’s job status revealed that many were full time employee. Mothers
had a percentage of 50.9 while fathers had a percentage of 90.7.
The parenting style inventory showed that the most frequent parenting
style used by the parents was the Authoritative Parenting Style with a
percentage of 64 percent.
Number of siblings’ profile of the respondents also revealed that most of
the pupil respondents were in the 1 to 2 bracket with a percentage of 58.8
percent.
Profile of the presence of housemaid showed that majority of the families can
work without housemaids with a percentage of 64.9 percent. However, presence of
relative in the family marked that majority of the grandparents live in the family
with a percentage of 57.5 percent.
The social readiness inventory showed that pupil respondents had a moderate
social readiness with a percentage of 51.8 percent and had an overall mean of
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101.7. However, the intellectual readiness showed that pupil respondents had a
superior intellectual readiness with a mean of 121.41.
The relationship between the personal characteristics of the respondents in
terms of age, gender, grade level and sibling position and the social and
intellectual readiness of preschoolers were as follows:
The relationship of age and social readiness with the computed spearman rank
correlation coefficient of -.127) with a probability value of .178 at 5 percent level of
significance was accepted. More so, relationship of age and intellectual readiness
with the computed spearman rank correlation coefficient of -0.646 with a
probability value of .000 at 5 percent level of significance was rejected.
The relationship of gender and social readiness with the computed point biserial
correlation coefficient of -.007 at 5 percent level of significance was accepted. The
relationship of gender and intellectual readiness with the computed point biserial
correlation coefficient of -0.235 at 5 percent level of significance was rejected.
The relationship of grade level and social readiness with the computed point
biserial correlation coefficient of -.005 at 5 percent level of significance was
accepted. The relationship of grade level and intellectual readiness with the
computed point biserial correlation coefficient of 0.142 at 5 percent level of
significance was accepted.
The relationship of sibling position and social readiness with the computed
spearman rank correlation of 0.095 with a probability value of 0.314 at 5 percent
level of significance was accepted. The relationship of sibling position and
intellectual readiness with the computed spearman rank correlation of -0.129 with a
probability value of 0.173 at 5 percent level of significance was accepted.
The relationship between the family characteristics of the respondents and the
social and intellectual readiness of the preschoolers are as follows:
The relationship of their parents’ educational attainment to social readiness
with the computed point biserial correlation coefficient of 0.089 at 5 percent level of
significance was accepted. The relationship of their parents’ educational attainment
to intellectual readiness with the computed point biserial correlation coefficient of
0.059 at 5 percent level of significance was accepted.
The relationship of their mothers’ occupation to social readiness with computed
chi-square value of 0.694 was accepted. The relationship of their mothers’
occupation to intellectual readiness with computed chi-square value of 5.055 with
probability value of 0.282 was accepted. However, the relationship of their fathers’
occupation to social readiness with computed point biserial correlation coefficient
of 0.081 was accepted. More so, the relationship of their fathers’ occupation and
intellectual readiness with the computed correlation coefficient of 0.060 was
accepted.
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The relationship of their mothers’ job status to social readiness with
computed chi-square value of 3.015 was accepted. The relationship of mothers’ job
status and intellectual readiness with the computed chi-square value of 3.015 was
accepted. On the other hand, the relationship of their fathers’ job status to social
readiness with the computed point biserial correlation coefficient of 0.122 was
accepted. The relationship of fathers’ job status and intellectual readiness with the
point biserial correlation coefficient of 0.076 was accepted.
The relationship of parenting style and social readiness with the computed chi-
square value of 0.055 with a probability value of 0.973 was accepted. The
relationship of parenting style and intellectual readiness with the computed chi-
square value of 2.525 with a probability value of 0.640 was accepted.
The relationship of number of siblings and social readiness with a computed
spearman rank correlation coefficient of 0.027 with a probability value of 0.776 was
accepted. The relationship of number of siblings and intellectual readiness with a
computed spearman rank correlation coefficient of -0.061 with a probability value
of 0.518 was accepted.
The relationship of the presence of housemaid and social readiness with the
computed correlation coefficient of 0.077 was accepted. The relationship of
presence of housemaid and intellectual readiness with the computed correlation
coefficient of 0.051 was accepted. Moreover, the relationship of relatives in the
family and social readiness with the computed point biserial correlation coefficient
of -.072 which is not significant at 5 percent level, was rejected. On the other hand,
the relationship of the relatives in the family and intellectual readiness with the
computed point biserial correlation coefficient of .072 which is not significant at 5
percent level was accepted.
Based on the result the of the multiple regression analysis the personal and
family characteristics of pupil respondents which is significantly related to
intellectual readiness were the age and gender of the pupil. Hence, they were
considered as the predictors of intellectual readiness. However, the result of the
stepwise regression analysis shows that the better predictor of intellectual readiness
of the pupil respondents was their age. On the other hand, the presence of relatives
in the family is the only personal and family characteristic, which is significantly
related to their social readiness.
Recommendations
In the light of the foregoing data, here are some ideas that the researcher wanted to
recommend:
1. Since the social readiness of the pupil respondents was moderate,
parents should continuously provide their children positive social
experiences that will improve their readiness. School Administrators
should make and design programs for the preschoolers to improve
their level of social readiness. Teachers should also be aware and work
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hand in hand with the school and parents in facilitating the said
programs.
2. Since the intellectual readiness of the pupil respondents were superior,
school administrators should set and make programs to improve the
intellectual readiness of the pupil respondents and avoid its decline but
to improve more. Also, parents should be aware to continuously
provide ample time to educate their children as to the best they can.
3. Age is the better predictor of the intellectual readiness. The school
administrators should consider the age of the child who will enter
preschool before they will admit him/her. Teachers should be aware of
this result to further help the young ones. Parents should also take into
consideration the age of their children before entering school.
4. Relative in the family is the only predictor of the social readiness.
Parents of the pupil respondents should encourage their parents to
continuously give support for the family. To further, there should be
seminars or trainings as to how grandparents will educate their
grandchildren to become more socially ready.
5. Further studies can be conducted on the predictors of social and
intellectual readiness in order to validate the result of this study.
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REFERENCES
Bee, H. (1995). The developing child. Seventh Edition.
Belardo, M.J.P. (1997). Factors affecting the nutritional status of preschoolers of
Blessed Christ Academy Dasmariñas, Cavite SY 1996 - 1997. De La Salle
University – Dasmariñas, Cavite.
Belen, L..M. (1997). Early childhood experiences program (ECEP): Success or
Failure?. De La Salle University – Dasmariñas, Cavite.
Billman, J. and Sherman, J. (1997). Observation and participation in early
childhood settings. A practicum guide. Second Edition.
Alexander: e-magazine.adoption.com/articles/462/the-world-of-the%20adopted-
child.php.
http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/eecearchive/digests/191/kats91.html
http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/hstein/birthord.htm
http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/psychosoci al_2.htm
http://www.visualstatistics.net/web%20Visual%20Statistics/Visual%
20Statistics%20Multimedia/point biserial_coefficient_of_correlation
http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9219/readiness.htm
Lally: hsnrc.org/CDI/rlally1.cfm
Knitzer & Leftkowitz: nccp.org/publications/pdf/text_648.pdf
Sweeney, T. (1998). Adlerian Counseling: A practitioners approach. Fourth
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Prof. Ma. Teresita Lunar Ingles’ penchant for history
dates back during her collegiate years in St. Scholatica’s
College where she obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree major
in History in 1993. She graduated in 2010 from the
University of the Philippines in Diliman with her MA in
History. In November 2010, she was elected to serve a
three-year term as Auditor of the Asosasyon ng mga
Dalubhasa, may Hilig at Interes sa Kasaysayan (ADHIKA)
ng Pilipinas, Inc., a national organization on history and
culture. She is currently the Research & Planning Assistant
of SBCA- CAS, and a full time professor for the
International Studies Department.
Prof. Jhino B. Ilano completed his Master of Arts in
Political Economy with Specialization in International
Relations and Development from the University of Asia and
the Pacific in 2010. The author has presented in a number of
conferences both here and abroad. Currently he is a full time
assistant professor in the College of Arts and Sciences –
International Studies Department and at the same time the
moderator for the SBCA CAS Debate Society.
Dr. Ernesto D. Dimaculangan earned his PhD in
Management, from Adamson University, where he
graduated with distinction- Benemeritus/Magna Cum Laude.
Formerly, he was the Deputy Academic Director of SIC
College of Business and Technology in Singapore where he
taught for three years. He had distinguished himself in the
field of marketing and management in the biggest
pharmaceutical company in the Philippines for more than
three decades. He is a part-time Associate Professorial
Lecturer 4 at the Business Administration and
Entrepreneurship Department.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Prof. Jean A. Ariola finished her Master of Arts in
Education Major in English from the University of Perpetual
Help Rizal. She is currently a full time assistant professor
for the Languages Department. She is also the current
Prefect of Student Formation.
Prof. Fatima V. Bullecer completed her Master of Arts in
Education Major in Guidance and Counseling from the De
La Salle University Dasmarinas. She is at present
completing her doctoral degree in Counseling Psychology
from the same university. She is a full time assistant
professor for the Psychology Department
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