BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS OUTLINEDEFINITION OF RESEARCHWHY RESEARCH?TYPES OF RESEARCHHOW MANAGER FACILITATES RESEARCHSELECTION OF A RESEARCHERINTERNAL VERSUS EXTERNAL CONSULTANT-RESEARCHER 1

RESEARCH DEFINITIONSTHE PROCESS OF FINDING SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS AFTER STUDYING AND ANALYSIS OF THE SITUATIONAL FACTORS. THE PROCESS OF REFINING HUMAN EXPERIENCE FOR ADDING INTO THE STOCK OF KNOWLEDGEANY ORGANIZED INQUIRY CARRIED OUT TO PROVIDE INFORMATION FOR SOLVING PROBLEMS. 2

BUSINESS RESEARCH DEFINEDSYSTEMATIC INQUIRY THAT PROVIDES INFORMATION TO GUIDE BUSINESS DECISIONS BY REPORTING,DESCRIBING,EXPLAINING AND PREDICTINGORGANIZED,SYSTEMATIC,DATABASED, CRITICAL,OBJECTIVE,SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY INTO A SPECIFIC PROBLEM TO FIND SOLUTIONS. 3

WHY RESEARCH?NEED FOR INFORMATION FOR INFORMED RATIONAL DECISION MAKING DUE TO :IMPROVED INFO AVAILABILITY TO COMPETITORS.BETTER DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYTICAL TOOLS FOR OPTIMAL DECISIONMAKING.PUBLIC MANDATE FOR BETTER QUALITY AT AFFORDABLE PRICES.THE BASIS FOR RESEARCH IS THE CURIOSITY-THE EXCITEMENT TO KNOW THE UNKNOWN. 4

AREAS OF BUSINESS RESEARCHACCOUNTS;BUDGETS,COSTS PRICESFINANCE,OPERATIONS,MERGERS, INFO SYSTEMS,STOCK EXCHANGESATTITUDES,HRM,STRATEGIESMARKETING,PRODUCT IMAGE,CONSUMER PREFERECES,PROMOTION,NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT ETC. 5

THE TYPES OF RESEARCHAPPLIED RESEARCH PRACTICAL PROBLEM SOLVING OF CURRENT NATURE.RELATE TO POLICY,PERFORFANCE AND ACTIONS.BASIC RESEARCH PROBLEMS OF THEORETICAL NATURE-GENERAL PROBLEMS. NO IMPACT ON ACTIONS,POLICY,PERFORMANCE.ADDS TO BODY OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE. 6

WHY MANAGER SHOULD BE FAMILIAR WITH RESEARCH TOOLSIDENTIFY SOLVE PROBLEMSDIFFERENTIATE GOOD AND BAD RESEARCHFACTORS INFLUENCING RESEARCH PROBLEM SITUATIONTAKE CALCULATED RISK BY DECISIONSPREVENT POSSIBLE VESTED INTEREST IN A SITUATIONCOMBINE EXPERIENCE WITH SCIENTIFIC APPROACH IN DECISION MAKING. 7

ISSUES IN ENGAGING RESEARCHERSPROBLEM SELECTIONLOCATION ,SELECTION ,COMPARE CREDENTIALSUNDERSTANDING WITH CONSULTANTRELEVANCE OF INFORMATION,VARIABLES, METHODOLOGY,CONSULTANT REQUIREMENTS.EXPLICT ROLES AND EXPECTATIONS OF CONSULTANT-RESEARCHER. ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES 8 CARIFICATION

INTERNAL CONSULTANTADVANTAGESACCEPTANCE BY EMPLOYEESLESS TIME NEEDED-KNOW THE ORGANIZATIONAVAILABLE FOR IMPLEMENTATION.LESS EXPENSIVEDISADVANTAGESLESS INNOVATIVE-STEREOTYPEVESTED INTERESTSEXPERTISE NOT VALUED 9

EXTERNAL CONSULTANTADVANTAGESDIVERSE EXPERIENCECREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVINGSUITABLE FOR COMPLEX PROBLEM OR IF VESTED INTERESTSDISADVANTAGESEXPENSIVENEED MORE TIMEDIFFICULTY IN GETTING EMPLOYEES COOPERATION 10

RESEARCH KNOWLEDGE ENHANCES MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESSFACILITATE DECISION MAKING BY MANAGERBETTER UNDERSTANDING OF MODEL SUGGESTED BY CONSULTANTFACILITATE IMPLEMENTATIONOPENS PROMOTION AVENUES BY BETTER DECISION MAKINGUNDERSTANDS NEED ,COST AND BENEFIT OF RESEARCH 11

ETHICS IN RESEARCHSTANDARDS OF BEHOVIOUR IN RESEARCH.SAFE GUARDS INTERESTS OF MANAGERS,RESEARCHERS,ANALYSTS, DATA PROVIDERS ETC.NEED FOR ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR AT ALL STAGES OF RESEARCH PROCEESS-DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS,PRESENTATION OF RESULTS. 12

WHAT DOES RESEARCH DO?VERIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS,QUESTIONS,ANSWERS.TESTS LOGICAL VALIDITY OF HUNCHESEXAMINES EMPIRICAL SUPPORT OF DEFINITIONS,ACCEPTED BELIEFS.IDENTIFIES SOURCES CAUSES OF TENDENCIESFINDS INTERRELATIONSHIPS BY EXAMINING HYPOTHESIS. 13

SCIENTIFIC THINKING OUTLINETHE NATURE OF SCIENCETHE STYLES OF THINKINGTHE HALLMARKS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONTHE HYPOTHETICO DEDUCTIVE METHOD 14

THE NATURE OF SCIENCECRITICAL ACCOUNT OF LOGICAL JUSTIFICATIONBEST CONCEIVED TRUTH IN EACH PERIODTESTED KNOWIEDGE-FINDINGSNO UNIVERSALLY ACCEPTED AND STABLE AUTHORITY OF ASCERTAINING TRUTHS-LIKE WITCHCRAFT,MYSTIC POWERS,PARAPSYCHOLOGY,INHERITED TRAITS ETC. 15

SCIENCE CONTIUEDPHYSICAL SCIENCES BETTER DEVELOPED AND FUNDED,MORE OBJECTIVE,TESTABLE AND GENERALIZABLE THAN SOCIAL SCIENCESTHE HUMAN BEHAVIOUR CHANGESNO FIELD OF SCIENCE IS FREE FROM GLARING IGNORANCE AND CONTRADICTIONS 16

STYLES OF THINKINGIDEALISM-INTERPRET IDEAS-UNTESTED OPINION--LITERARYINFORMAL-EXISTENTIALISM .EMPIRICAL-DATA BASED -SCIENTIFIC METHODRATIONALISM-REASON BASED-SELFEVIDENT TRUTH-DEATH,R.DRIVE 17

CONTINUED..-PERSONS OF AUTHORITY BY STATUS,RATHER THAN EXPERTISE,INTEGRITY,QUALITY-POSTULATIONAL REDUCE PROBLEMS TO MATH .TERMS ANDDEDUCE FROM RELATIONSHIP OF VARIABLES.E.G.SIMULATION OF PRICES,OUTPUTS TO OPTOMIZE PROFITS 18

THINKING CONTDDEDUCTION-REASONED CONCLUSION BY GENERALIZING A KNOWN FACT.MUST HAVE A VALID PREMISE AND TRUE IN REAL WORLDINDUCTION-CONCLUSION FROM OBSERVED EVIDENCE NOT STRONGLY RELATED.INFERENTIAL JUMP BEYOND THE EVIDENCE PRESENTEDCOMBINE INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION

HALLMARKS OF SCINTIFIC INVESTIGATION PURPOSIVENESSRIGORTESTABILITYREPLICABILITYPRECISION AND CONFIDENCEOBJECTIVITYGENERALIZABILITYPARSIMONY

HALLMARKS CONTD.PURPOSIVENESS-AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH PROJECTRIGOR-EXACT METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS,CONCLUS.TESTABILITY-STATISTICAL TEST OF CONCLUSION

CONTINUED..REPLICABILITY-REPEATED UNDER SIMILAR CNDITIONS BY OTHERSPRECISION-CONFIDENCE INTERVAL,LIMITSOF ACCURACYCONFIDENCE-LEVEL,PROBABILITY OF RESULT WITHIN INTERVAL.

HALLMARKS CONT.OBJECTIVE-BASED ON REASONING EMPIRICAL DATA,NOT SUBJECTIVEGENERALIZABILITY-RESULTS OR CONCLUSIONS CAN BE GENERALIZED FOR USE BY OTHERSPARSIMONEY-SIMPLE TO HANDLE VARIABLES,ANALYSIS AND INTERPRET

HYPOTHETICO DEDUCTIVE METHOD STEPSOBSERVATIONPREL.INFO GATHERING-PROBLEM IDENTIFICATIONTHEORY FORMULATIONHYPOTHESIZINGFURTHER DATA COLLECTIONDATA ANALYSIS DEDUCTION-CONCLUSION

STEPS CONTOBSERVATION-SENSE CHANGES IN THE ENVIRONMENT WHICH ARE UNSATISFACTORY.E.G.MIS NOT USED WELL BY MANAGERSPREL.INFORMATION GATHERING-PROBLEM AREA IDENTIFICATION.-INTERVIEW AND LITERATURE SURVEYTHEORY FORMULATION.-IDENTIFY VARIABLES AND THEIR RELATIOSHIP TO THE PROBLEM

STEPS CONT.HYPOTHESIZING-FROM THEORETICAL RELATIONSHIP OF VARIABLES CERTAIN TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS CAN BE GENERATEDFURTHER DATA COLLECTION-DATA NEEDED TO TEST THE HYPOTHESIS

CONTINUEDDATA ANALYSIS-STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA TO SEE IF IT SUPPORTS THE HYPOTHESISDEDUCTION-BY INTERPRETATION OF ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

RESEARCH PROCESS OUTLINEOBSERVE BROAD PROBLEM AREAPRELLIM.DATA COLLECTIONPROBLEM IDENTIFICATIONTHEORETICAL FRAMEWORKHYPOTHESIS GENERATIONRESEARCH DESIGNDATA COLLECT,ANALYSE ,INTERPRETHYPOTHESIS CONCLUSIONPRESENTATION OF RESULTSMANAGERIAL DECISION MAKING 28

BROAD PROBLEM AREA CURRENT PROBLEMS ,COMPLAINTS,CONCEPTUAL ISSUES,POLICIES NEEDING IMPROVEMENT /EMPIRICAL ANSWERS.E.G.SALES NOT PICKING UPFLEXI TIME PROBLEMSTRAINING PROG.EFFECTIVENESSNEW INFORMATION SYSTEM NOT UTILISED

PRELIMINARY DATA COLLECTIONPRIMARY,SECONDARY DATA SOURCESUNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWBACKGROUND DATA CONCEPTUAL FACTORSSTRUCTURAL FACTORS ,MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHYWORK ATTITUDES AND ENVIRONMENTLITERATURE SURVEY

BACKGROUND DATAORIGIN,HISTOY,OWNERSHIPCHARTER,PURPOSELOCATION,DEVELOPMENTHUMAN,FINANCIAL AND OTHER RESOURCESFINANCIAL POSITION 5-10 YEARS

STRUCTURAL FACTORS MANAGEMENT PHILOS.ROLES,POSITIONS,WORK FLOWSPECIALISATIONCOMMUNICATION CHANNELSCNTROL SYSTEMS AND SPAN

WORK ATTITUDES ENVIRONMENTBELIEFS IN JOBWORK INTERRELATIONSHIPSSUPERVISORY STYLEPARTICIPATIONPROMOTION,DEVELOPMENT ,REWARD SYSTEMSOCIAL ORIENTATION OF FIRMUNDERSTANDING ISSUES RATHER THAN THE SYMPTOMS

WHY LITERATURE SURVEY?REVIEW PUBLISHED AND UNPUBLISHED SOURCESNO REINVENTING THE WHEELREVIEW ALL ASPECTS OF PROBLEMHELPS DEVELOP THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTIMPROVES TESTABILITY/REPLICABILITYCLEAR AND CONCISE PROBLEM STATEMENTPERCEIVED TO BE SCIENTIFIC AND SIGNIFICANT

CONDUCT LIT. SURVEYBASED ON ISSUES AND INTERVIEW SURVEY RELEVANT VARIABLESBIBLIOGRAHICAL CITATION DATA BASES[DB]ABSTRACT DB-CITATIONS AND SUMMARIESFULLTEXT DB;GLOBAL NATIONAL SUBJECT AUTHOR TOPIC TEXT EXTRACT RELEVANT INFO ON LINELIT. REVIEW WRITING TO INCL.SUBJECT INTRODUCTION,RESEARCH QUESTION AND TO BUILD ON PREV.RESEARCH

PROBLEM DEFINITIONA WELL DEFINED STATEMENTGAP BETWEEN ACTUAL AND DESIRED STATE-PROBLEMSYMPYOMS NOT TO BE DEFINED AS PROBLEMSCLEAR CONCISE ISSUE STATEMENT TO BE INVESTIGATED FOR SOLUTION.E.G.HOW DOES NEW PACKAGING AFFECT PRODUCT SALES?WHAT ARE THE COMPNENTS OF GUALITY OF LIFE?

IMPORTANT ISSUESMANAGERS TREAT SYMPTOMS AS PROBLEMSANTECEDENTS-PROBLEMS-CONSEQUENCESINFORM WORKERS HOW RESAERCH FACILITATE THEIR WORKCONFIDENTIALITY OF RESEARCH PURPOSE?

WHY THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK?CONCEPTUAL MODEL THAT DISCUSSES RELATIONSHIPS OF VARIABLES IMPORTANT TO INVESTIGATIONFROM IT TESTABLE HYPOTHESIS FOR EXAMINING DEVELOPEDIT IS CENTRAL TO PROBLEM INVESTIGATION

OUTLINE:THEORY AND HYPOTHESIS VARIABLESDEPENEDENT,INDEPENDENT,MODERATING,INTERVENINGTHEORETICAL FRAMEWORKHYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT 39

VARIABLE DEFINEDANYTHING THAT CAN TAKE DIFFERENT VALUES AT VARIOUS TIMES FOR THE SAME PERSON/OBJECT OR SAME TIME FOR DIFFERENT PERSONS/OBJECTS E.G.EXAM SCORES,ABSENTEEISM, MOTIVATION

DEPENDENT VARIALE?OF PRIMARY INTEREST TO RESEARCHER FOR ANALYSIS TO FIND OUT WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE THE DV. EXAMPLES:-WHY SALES ARE NOT UPTO THE MARK?DV-SALES -ANALYSIS OF DEBT EQUITY RATIO OF PRODUCTION FIRMS IN KARACHI DV-DEBT EQUITY RATIO

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE?[IV]INFLUENCES THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE IN +/- WAYTO ESTABLISH CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP THE IV IS MANIPULATED EXAMPLES:-NEW PRODUCT SUCCESS>HIGHER FIRM STOCK PRICE[DV]-SUPERVISOR TRAINING>HIGHER PRODUCTION LEVEL[DV]

MODERATING VARIABLESTRONG EFFECT ON IV-DV RELATIONSHIP AND MODIFIES IT >>NO.OF BOOKS AT HOME>READING ABILITY PARENT LITERACY{MV} >>WORKFORCE DIVERSITY>ORGAN.EFFECTIVENESS MANAGEMENT EXPERTISE{MV}

DISTINCTION IV-MV EXAMPLESTRG PROGRAM>WILLINGNESS TO LEARN MV GROWTH NEEDS FORMAL TRG>EMPLOYEE PRODUCTIVITY-MV EMPLOYEE AGE WORKER INTERACTION>JOB WELL DONE- MV STAY TIME AFTER WORK

INTERVENING VARIABLESSURFACES BETWEEN THE TIME IV OPERATES TO INFLUENCE DV UNTIL THEIR IMPACT ON DV WORK FORCE DIV.>MANGMT EFFECT{MV}-CREATES SYNERGY[INT V]>ORG EFFECTIVENESS OCCURRENCE OF EACH VARIABLE DEPENDS ON GIVEN SITUATION FOR WHICH THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ADVANCED

VARIABLES SUMMARIZEDIV CAUSES INT VMV EXPLAINS DEPENDENT EFFECT BETWEEN IV AND INT V INT V IS FUNCTION OF IV AND SURFACES BETWEEN TIMES IV AND ITS IMPACT ON DV-TIME DIMENSION DV VARIANCE EFFECT CAUSED BY IV CONCERNS THE ANALYST TO FIND OUT WHAT INFLUENCES THE VARIABLE

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FEATURESIDENTIFY AND LABEL RELEVANT VARIABLE S DISCUSS RELATIONSHIP OF VARIABLES TO EACHOTHER INDICATE DIRECTION OF RELATIONSHIP + OR -- REASONS FOR RELATIONSHIP LITERATURE SURVEY SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

THEORET FRAMEW EXAMPLECOMMUNICATION COCKPIT CREW COMMUNICATIN GROUND STAFF DECENTRALIZATION INDEPENDENT VARIABLES TRAINING- MODERATING VARIABLE AIR SAFETY CONTROL VIOLATIONS-DEPENDENT VARIABLE

HYPOTHESIS DEFINEDA FORMAL TESTABLE STATEMENT LOGICALLY ASSUMED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES AS A TESTABLE STATEMENT THEORIZED RELATIONSHIP OF VARIABLES THAT CAN BE SCIENTIFICALLY TESTED BY ANALYSIS FOR CLUES TO PROBLEM SOLUTION

HYPOTHESIS EXAMPLESIF THEN STATEMENT-IF EMPLOYEES ARE HEALTHY THEY WILL TAKE LEAVE LESS FREQUENTLY DIRECTIONAL-MORE OR LESS THAN THE GREATER THE STRESS IN THE JOB THE LOWER THE JOB SATISFATION NON DIRECTIONAL-THERE IS A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGE AND JOB SATISFATION

NULL HYPOTHESISSTATES NO SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES OR NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEANS OF TWO GROUPSHo:Um=Uw MOTIVATION LEVEL OF MEN AND WOMEN Ho:p=o

ALTERNATE HYPOTHESISSTAEMENT EXPRESSING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES-DIFF.BETWEEN GROUPSHa:Um< Uw Ha:po

RESEARCH DESIGN OUTLINEPURPOSE OF STUDYTYPE OF INVESTIGATIONRESEARCHER INTERFERENCESTUDY SETTINGUNITS OF ANALYSISTIME HORIZON 53

PURPOSE OF STUDYEXPLORATION:SITUATION UNKNOWN,PRELIM.INFO FOR COMPREHENSIVE STUDY LATERE.G.ETHICAL VALUES OF DIFF.CULTURESDESCRIPTION:TO ASCERTAIN/DESCRIBE FEATURES OF A VARIABLE E.G.EMPLOYEES CHARACTERISTICS

Continued.TESTING HYPOTHESIS:EXPLAIN NATURE OF RELATIONSHIPS-DIFFERENCES-INTERDEPENDECES E.G.SALES VOLUME PROMOTION EFFORTSCASE STUDY:CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF SIMILAR SITUATIONS FOR GENERALIZATION

TYPE OF INVESTIGATIONCAUSAL RELATIONSHIP:ESTABLISH DEFINITE CAUSE OF A PROBLEM E.G.DOES SMOKING CAUSES CANCER?CORELATION:IDENTIFY IMPORTANT FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH PROBLEM E.G.ARE SMOKING AND CANCER RELATED?GROUP INFERENCES:RANKS-SMALLER-GREATER E.G.ARE WOMEN MORE MOTIVATED THAN MEN AT WORK?

RESEARCHER INTERFERENCEMINIMAL IF STUDY IN NATURAL SETTING E.G.TRAINING EFFECTIVENESS BASED ON DATA MANIPULATION,CONTROL OR SIMULATION:ANALYST CONTROLS VARIABLES E.G.EFFECT OF LIGHT ON WORKER OUTPUT

STUDY SETTINGNON CONTRIVED:NATURAL SETTING-FIELD EXPERIMENT E.G ARE THE RATES OF INTEREST RELATED TO EXTENT OF DEPOSITS?CONTRIVED:INDEPENDENT VARIABLE CHANGED TO SEE EFFECT ON DP LAB EXPERIMENT E.G.TO STUDY REL.OF RATE OF INTEREST ON INCLINATION TO SAVE THE RATES OF INTEREST IN VARIOUS BRANCHES ARE CHANGED

UNITS OF ANALYSISINDIVIDUALS:E.G.STUDY MOTIVATION OF EMPLOYEES DYADS:INTERACTION OF SUPERVISOR SUBORDINATE PAIR GROUP:E.G.PATTERN OF MISUSE BY VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS ORGANIZATIONS:EMOLUMENTS OF EMPLOYEES IN VARIOUS UTILITIESCULTURES:E.G.PROFITS MADE BY SUBSIDIARIES OF A CORPORATION IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES

TIME HORIZONCROSS SECTIONAL:ONE SHOT STUDY-ONE TIME OR PERIOD E.G DATA STUDY OF STOCK MARKET APRIL-JUNELONGITUDINAL:STUDY OF INFORMATION AT MORE THAN ONE PERIOD OF TIME E.G.CHANGE IN BEHAVIOUR OF EMPLOYEES BEFORE AND AFTER MANAGEMENT CHANGE

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN OUTLINELAB EXPERIMENTINTERNAL VALIDITYEXTERNAL VALIDITYWHAT AFFECTS INTERNAL VALIDITY ?THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITYEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS AND INTERNAL VALIDITY 61

LAB EXPERIMENTCAUSAL STUDY OF IV-DV AND COTROL OR ISOLATE CONTAMINATING VARIABLES MANIPULATE-TREAT IV TO SEE EFFECT ON DV E.G.EFFECT OF LIGHT ON WORKER OUTPUT CONTROL CONTAMINATING VARIABLE BY MATCHING E.G.SPREADING SUBJECTS EQUALLY ACROSS CONTRL-EXP.GROUPSRANDOMIZATION:RANDOM SELECTION OF SUBJECTS OF GROUPS ALSO CONTROLS CONTAMINATING VARIABLES

INT. AND EXT. VALIDITYINT.VALIDITY IS THE CONFIDENCE IN CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP IV-DV IT IS HIGH IN LAB EXPERIMENT EXT.VALIDITY IS THE EXTENT THE RESULTS FOUND IN LAB EXP ARE GENERALIZABLE FIELD EXP BEING IN NATURAL SETTING HAS MORE EXT VALIDITY THE HIGHER THE EXTERNAL VALIDITY THE LOWER THE INTERNAL VALIDITY AND VICE VERSATO ENSURE BOTH FIRST LAB EXP THEN FIELD EXP

FACTORS AFFECTING INT VALIDITYHISTORY:DURING LAB EXP OTHER FACTORS EFFECT DV E.G PROMOTION BY FIRM AND ASSOCIATIONMATURATION:EFFECT OVER TIME E.G. OLDER,TIRED,HUNGER,EXPERI.TESTING:SUBJECT TREATMENT EFFECTS POST TEST BY SENSITIZINGINSTRUMENTATION:CHANGE IN FRAME OF MEASUREMENT PRE AND POST TEST E.G.MEASURE DIFFERENT OUT PUTS

FACTORS CONTSELECTION BIAS:IN SELECTION OF MEMBERS OF EXP-CONTROL GROUPS STATISTICAL REGRESSION:SELECTION OF EXTREME SCORE SUBJECTS E.G.HIGHLY OR LOW MOTIVATED WORKERSMORTALITY:ATTRITION OF GROUP MEMBERSTHE ABOVE EFFECTS CAN BE REDUCED BY SOPHISTICATED RESEARCH DESIGN

EXAMPLEDEMOCRATIC STYLE BEST TO RAISE EMPLOYEE MORALE? 3EXP GRPS FOR PRE TEST AUTOCRATIC,DEMOCRATIC,PARTICIPATIVE AND CONTROL GRP NO TEST TWO MEMBERS MOVE TONOTHER GROUP-HISTORY EFFECT. TWO MEMBERS FROM AUTO G. LEFT-MORTALITY EFFECT A POST TEST WAS GIVEN TO ALL-TEST EFFECT

INT VALIDITY AND EXP DESIGNSSHORTER TIME SPAN REDUCES HISTORY,MATURATION,MORTALITY EFFECTS QUASI EXP DESIGNS: .1 EXP G-PRE AND POST T>TEST EFFECT --E=02-01 NO CONTROL G. .1EXP G-POST T AND 1 CONTROLG.E=02-01 >MATURATION EFFECT

CONTTRUE EXP DESIGNS: 1EXP,1CONTROL G.PRE.AND POST TEST ,CONTROL G.NO TREATMENT E=[02-01]-[04-03] >MORTALITY EFFECT SOLOMON 4 GROUP DESIGN: 1 EXP ,1CONTROE G.AS ABOVE1 EXP G .1CONTROL G.POST TEST,CONTROL G.NO TREATMENT >MORTALITY EFFECT

SIMULATIONALTERNATIVE TO LAB/FIELD EXPCOMPUTER BASED MODEL BUILDING TECHNIQUECREATES SETTING RESEMBLING NATURAL ONE PARTIPANTS RANDOMELY EXPOSED TO REAL WORLD EXPERIENCE IN SIMULATED ENVMANIPULATION AND CONTROL BY RESEARCHERDATA COLLECTION BY OBSERV.TAPING,INTERVIEW EXPENSIVE, MORTALITY EFFECT

IT IS UNETHICAL TOTO FORCE SUBJECTS TO PARTICIPATE IN EXP GIVE MENIAL WORK DISALLOW WITHDRAWAL USE RESULTS AGAINST EXPOSE TO HAZARD NOT PRESERVE SECRECY NO DEBRIEFING AFTER EXP WITH HOLD BENEFITS

MANAGERIAL CONSIDERATIONSIS EXPERIMENT DESIGN REQUIRED?NEED FOR CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP OR CORRELATION ? IS HIGH VALIDITY NEEDED?HOW IMPORTANT IS COST?

SCALES OUTLINEOPERATIONAL DEFINITIONNOMINAL SCALEORDINAL SCALEINTERVAL SCALERATIO SCALE 72

OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONVARIABLES HAVE TO BE MEASURED IN THEORETICAL FRAMEW TO TEST HYPOTHESISPHYSICAL MEASURES EASY-TEMPERATURE,LENGTH SUBJECTIVE FEELINGS,ATTITUDES,PERCEPTIONS DIFFICULT TO MEASURE AND ARE ABSTRACT CONCEPTS-LIKING,HAPPINESS OPERATONALLY DEFINING A CONCEPT IS TO RENDER IT MEASUREABLE

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVAT. DIMENSIONS-TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS: 1.DRIVEN BY WORK-CONSTANTLY WORKING,RELUCTANT TO TAKE TIME OFF,EFFORT DESPITE SETBAC 2.UNABLE TO RELAX-THINKS OF WORKAT HOME,NO HOBBIES 3.IMPATIENT WITH INEFFECT-DISLIKE MISTAKES,DISLIKE WORK WITH SLOW P. 4.SEEKS MODER.CHALLENGE-OPTS FOR CHALLENG ING JOB 5.SEEKS FEEDB-ASKS FOR,IMPATIENT FOR FEEDBACK

LEARNING EXAMPLEUNDERSTANDING:ANSWER Qs,GIVE EXAMPLE TO EXPLAINRETENTION:RECALL MATERIAL SAME TIME APPLICATION:SOLVE PROBLEMS APPLYING CONCEPT,INTEGRATE WITH OTHER RELEVANT MATERIALMOST CONCEPTS HAVE BEEN MEASURED OPERATIONALLY DEFINED

SCALESSCALE:A TOOL /MECHANISM TO DISTINGUISH /MEASURE VARIABLE NOMINAL SCALE:ALLOWS TO ASSIGN SUBJECTS TO MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE CATEGORIES E.G.MALE-FEMALE,PAKISTANI-AMERICAN TO DISTINGUISH/DIFFERENTIATE ORDINAL SCALE:DISTINGUISHES AND RANKS VARIABLES E.G. BEST TO WORST,FIRSTBTO LAST,RANK JOB CHARACTERICS LIKE INTERACTION,SKILL USE,WHOLE TASK,SERVE OTHERS,INDEPENDENT

SCALES CONTINTERVAL SCALE:DIFFERENTIATES,RANKS,DISTANCE BET VARIABLES,GROUPS SUBJECTS IN CATEGORIES E.G.THERMOMETER SCALE, PREFERENES ON A 5/7 POINT SCALE STRONG.DISAGREE,DISAGREE,NEITHER AGREE NOR DISAGREE ETC RATIO SCALE:DIFFERENCE ,ORDER,DISTANCE AND UNIQUE ORIGIN E.G. WEIGHING SCALE,USE ARITH OR GEOMETRIC MEAN,STANDARD DEVIATION,VARIANCE,,TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE T,F

SCALES CONTRATIO SCALES USED WHEN EXACT NUMBERS ARE CALLED FOR E.G HOW MANY ORDERS DO YOU OPERATE?INTERVAL SCALE USED FORB RESPOSES TO VARIOUS ITEMS ON 5/7 POINTS USE OF STATS MEASURES AS RATIO SCALE,A.MEAN,STAND.DEVIATION,VARIANCE,T,F ORDINAL SCALE:FOR PREFERENCE IN USE,STATS MEASURES ARE MEDIAN,RANGE,RANK ORDER CORRELATIONS NOMINAL SCALE:USED FOR PERSONAL DATA,STATS MEASURES,MODE,X2

SCALING OUTLINESCALINGRATING SCALESRANKING SCALESGOODNESS OF MEASURESRELIABILITYVALIDITY 79

SCALINGASSIGN NUMBERS OR SYMBOLS TO ELICIT ATTITUDINAL RESPONSES TOWARDS OBJECTS,EVENTS ,PERSONS ETC NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH 4 SCALESRATING SCALES:DICHOTOMY,CATEGORY,LICKERT,NUMERICAL,SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL, ITEMISED,FIXED CONSTANT SUM,STAPEL,GRAPHICAL RATINGRANKING SCALES:PAIRED COMPARISON,FORCED CHOICE

RATING SCALESDICHOTOMY S.:YES NO RESPONSE TO A QUESTION.E.G.DO YOU LIKE TO WORK?CATEGORY S.:ELICIT ONE RESPONSE FROM SEVERAL E.G.DO YOU LIVE IN A/B/C/D ?LIKERT S.:E.G.5POINT/STRONGLY AGREESTRONGLY DISAGREENUMERICAL S.:5 TO 7 POINTS BIPOLAR ADJECTIVE AT EACH ENDE.G.EXTREMELY PLEASED..EXTREMELY DISPLEASED

RATING SCALES CONSEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL S.:BIPOLAR ATTRIBUTES AT ENDS E.G.BEAUTIFUL-UGLYITEMISED RATING S.:5 TO 7 POINTS WITH ANCHOR E.G.VERY UNLIKEYVERY LIKELY

RATING SCALES CONT.FIXED CONSTANT SUM S.:ASSIGN NUMER TO EACH ITEM FROM POINTS E.G. COLOUR,SHAPE,SIZESTAPEL S.:DIRECTION AND INTENSITY OF ATTITUDE E.G. 3 TO +3GRAPHIC RATING S.:PLACE MARK ON GRAPHIC SCALECONSENSUS S.:A PANEL OF JUDGES SELECTS ITEM WHICH MEASURES CONCEPT

RANKING SCALES CONT..PAIRED COMPARISON S.:RESPONDENTS TO SELECT TWO OBJECTS AT A TIME.RESPONDENTS FATIGUE IF NUMBER LARGEFORCED CHOICE S.:RANK OBJECTS RELATIVE TO EACH OTHER TO ASSESS ATTITUDES TOWARDS OBJECTS E.G.FINANCIAL ENVITONMENT MOST USEFUL ..LEAST USEFUL

GOODNESS OF MEASURESVALIDITY: RIGHT MEASURE FOR THE CONCEPT[IN EXP DESIGN EXACT CAUSE EFFECT REL/GENERALIZ.]RELIABILITY:ACCURACY TO MEASURE THE CONCEPT .TO BE STABLE AND CONSISTANTSTABILITY:MEASURES THE CONCEPT EVEN IF CHANGE OCCURS CONSISTANCY:ITEMS IN THE INSTRUMENT SOLICT SIMILAR IMPACT ON RESPONDENTS

ITEMS ANALYSISTO SEE IF ITEMS BELONG IN THE INSTRUMENTTHE MEANS BETWEEN HIGH SCORE S AND LOW SCORES ITEMS GROUP ARE TESTED BY t VALUES TO FIND HIHLY DISCRIMINATING ITEMS TO BE INCLUDED IN THE INSTRUMENTTHE VALIDITY OF MEASURES IS ESTIMATED

RELIABILITY/STABILITYTEST RETEST RELIABILITY:REPEAT INSTRUMENT WITH SAME GROUP AND ANOTHER TIME.CORRELATIONPARALLEL FORM RELIABILITY:RESPONSES OF TWO COMPARABLE SETS OF MEASURES FOR SAME CONCEPT.HIGHLY CORRELATED

RELIABILITY/CONSISTAN.INTERNAL CONSISTANCY:ITEMS AS A SET MEASURE THE SAME CONSTRUCT RELIABLYCONSISTANCY TEST:RESPONDENTS ANSWERS TO ALL ITEMS ARE CORRELATED CRONBACH A COEFFSPLIT HALF RELIABILITY:CORRELATION OF ITEMS OF BOTH HALVES OF INSTRUMENT AFTER SPLIT

VALIDITYINSTRUMENT MEASURES THE INTENDED CONCEPTCONTENT V.:ENSURES THAT MEASURES INCLUDE REPRESENTATIVE,ADEQUATE SET OF ITEMSFOR CONCEPT APPROVED BY PANEL OF JUDGESFACE VALIDITY:DO THE ITEMS MEASURE THE CONCEPT ON THE FACE OF IT[LOOK LIKE]

VALIDITY CONCRITERION V.:THE MEASURE DIFFERENTIATES INDIVIDUALS ON A CRITERION.CORRELATIONPREDICTIVE V:DIFFERENTIATES A FUTURE RELATED CRITERIONE.G.APTITUDE TEST FOR JOB/SUBJECTCONCURRENT V.:DISCRIMINATES INDIVIDUALS KNOWN TO BE DIFFERENTE.G.SCORE FOR WORK ETHICS FOR A HARD WORKER

VALIDITY CONT..CONSTRUCT V.:DOES THE MEASURE FIT THE CONCEPT AS THEORIZED BY FACTOR ANALYSIS?CONVERGENT V.:DO 2 INSTRUMENTS MEASURING THE CONCEPT CORRELATE HIGHLY?DISCRIMINATING V.:DOES THE MEASURE HAVE A LOW CORRELATION WITH THE VARIABLE THAT IS SUPPOSED TO BE UNRELATED TO THE VARIABLE?

EXAMPLES TESTED INSTRUMENTSJOB ENRICHMENT,PARTICIPATIVE MANAGEMENT,ROLE CONFLICT,CAREER SALIEN,LEAST PREFFERED COWORKER,PRODUCTIVITY AUDIT,ADS,SELLING,MARKETING AND QUALITY SERVICE RESPONSES,RELIABILITY RESPOSIVENESS,TANGIBLE PERSONAL ATTITUDES ETC

DATA COLLECT.METHODS OUTLINEINTERVIEW METHODSQUESTIONNAIRE METHODSOBSERVATION SURVEYSSETTINGSOURCES 93

INTERVIEW METHODSUNSTRUCTURED:PRELIMINARY,TO IDENTIFY CRITICAL FACTORSSEQUENCE OF Qs NOT PLANNEDFROM BROAD TO SPECIFIC QsSTRUCTURED:TO ELICIT INDEPTH,DIRECT INFORMATION TYPE OF INFO NEEDED IS KNOWNPREDTERMINED Qs LISTED /POSEDVISUAL AIDS USED

BIAS FREE INTERVIEWINTERVIEWER RAPPORT WITH RESPONDENTNOT TO INFLUENCE RESP. BY BODY LANGUAGERECORD RESPONSES ACCURATELYCORRECT ANALYSIS,INTERPRET.TACTFUL QUESTIONINGREPEAT AND CLARIFY QsCONFIDENCE BY CREDIBILITY/ABILITYALLEY FEARS AND SUSPICION

BIAS FREE CONT..INTERVIEWEE TO UNDERSTAND QsEXPRESSES TRUE OPINIONAVOIDS PERSONAL LIKING/DISLIK.AVOID PRESENCE OF NON PARTICIPANTS WHO RESTRICTRAPPORT FOR OPENNESSENSURE AVAILABILITY FLEXIBILITY BY APPOINTMENT

QUESTIONING TECHNIQUEFUNNELING:START WITH OPEN ENDED Qs,FROM BROAD TO SPECIF.Qs TO IDENTIFY KEY ISSUESUNBIASED:ASK Qs IN A WAY OF LEAST BIAS IN RESPONSECLARIFY ISSUES:REPHRASE IMPORTANT INFO OF RESPONDENTHELP RESP.UNDERS.ISSUES:Qs IN A SIMPLE WAYTAKE NOTES DIRECTLY /THEREAFTER

INTERV.METHODS +/-FACE TO FACE:ADAPT THE Qs,CLARIFY DOUBTS,OBSERVE NON VERBAL CUES,MAY BE EXPENSIVE,NEED TRAINED STAFFTELEPHONIC:REACH RESPONDENT FAST,DISCOMFORT OF FACING AVOIDED,ABRUPT TERMINATIONCOMPUTER ASSISTED:INDEXES RESPONSES,FILTERS OUT OF RANGE RESPOSES TO ENHANCE ACCURACY,SELECTS RESPONDENTS AND CALLS FROM FILES,RECORDS RESPONSES

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNSET OF Qs FOR RESPONSEPERSONALLYADMINISTERED: QUICK,LESS COST LOCALLY,DOUBTS CLARIFIED,NEED LESS TRAINED STAFF,MAIL QUESTIONNAIR:FOR WIDE AREA COVERAGE,LOW RESPONSE[30 %] , PROVIDE MONETARY AND OTHER INCENTIVES TO RESPOND,FACILITATE BY ENCLOSING SELF ADDRESSED STAMPED ENVELOPE ,KEEP Qs SIMPLE TO ANSWER

Q.DESIGN WORDINGCONTENT/PURPOSE:TAP DIMENSIONS AND ELEMENTS OF CONCEPT BY BEHAVIOURAL QsLANGUAGE/WORDING:ACCORDING TO THE LEVEL OF UNDERSTANDING OF RESPONDENTSOPEN ENDEDQs:RESP.CHOOSES WAY TO DECIDECLOSED Qs:CHOICE FROM GIVEN ALTERNATIVESPOSITIV.AND NEGATIV.WORDED Qs:NOT TO BE USED FOR SAME CONCEPT TOGATHER,USE TO AVOID MECHAN.RESP.

BIAS IN QsDOUBLE BARRELED:WHERE TWO PARTS LEND TO DIFFERENT ANSWERS.E.G.GOOD MARKET SELLS WELLAMBIGUOUS:RESPONDEND MAY NOT BE SURE OF MEANINGRECALL:RECALL PAST EVENT HAZYLEADING:TO PHRASE A Q.TO ELICIT RESPONSE OF RESEARCHER LIKING E.G.EMPLOYEE TO GET RAISE IN INFLTIONARY SITUATION

BIAS IN Qs CONT..LOADED:MAY SOLICIT EMOTIONALLY CHARGED RESPONSE E.G.WILL IT BE VINDICTIVE IF UNION DECIDES TO STRIKESOCIALLY UNDESIRABLE:E.G.DO YOU THINK OLDER PEOPLE BE LAID OFF?LENGHTY:NOT OVER 2O WORDSSEQUENCE:FROM GENERAL TO SPECIFIC

CROSS CULTURAL RESEARCHCORRECT ASSESSMENT OF ATTITUDES BY MULTINATIONALSTRANSLATION OF INSTRUMENT ITEMS:BACK TRANSLATION TO ESTABLISH IDIOMATIC EQUIVALENCESPROCEDURES:UNIFORM PROCEDURE OF DATA COLLATION ALSO WITHIN A TIME FRAME

PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENTWORDING TO MINIMISE BIASMEASURES TO BE RELIABLE AND VALIDSCALES AND SCALING APPROPRIATEESTABLISH GOODNESS OF DATAEASY CODING AND CATEGORIZATION OF DATA

QUESTIONNAIRE GETUPLOGICALLY ORGANIZEDSECTIONS NEATLY PLACEDINSTRUCTIONS FOR RESPONDENTSMINIMUM AMOUNT OF EFFORT BY RESPONDENTPRE TESTING OF Qs NO AMBIGUITYEXAMPLES PERSONAL DATA,INCOME,ENDING ETC

ELECTRONIC Q.DESIGN SURVEYCHECKS LOGICAL/SYMMETRICAL ERRORDATA EDITING PROGRAMMESCOMPUTING AND MEASURESMULTIPLE REGRESSIONON LINE Q.SURVEY,MAIL DATA DISC TO RESPONDENTS

OBSERVATION SURVEYOBSERVE BEHAVIOUR,ACTIVITIES,BODY LANGUAGE,PROCESSES,CHILDRENUNSTRUCTURED:NO SPESIFIC IDEA OF ASPECT TO BE STUDIED-NATURALSTRUCTURED:PREDTERMINED EVENTS OBSERVED,RECORDED AS NEEDEDLESS RESP.BIAS,EASY TO OBSERVE ENVIRONMENT EFFECTS,CHILDRENNEED PRESENCE,SLOW,EXPENSIVE,DOES NOT OBSERVE COGNITIVE EFFECT,NEED TO TRAIN OBSERVERS

BEHAVIOURAL OBSERV.NON VERBAL:BODY MOVEMENT , GLANCES,FACE EXPRESSIONLINGUISTIC:SOUNDSEXTRA LINGUISTIC:VOICE,PITCH;RATE OF SPEAKINGSPATIAL :HOW ONE RELATES PHYSICALLY TO OTHERSNON BEHAVIOURAL:RECORD ANALYSIS,PHYSICAL PROCESSES,CONDITIONS

BIASES IN OBSERVATIONERRORS IN RECORDING , MEMORY LAPSES,BOREDOM,FATIGUESRESPONDENT REACTIONSLACK OF TRAINING:WHAT TO OBSERVE[EVENT,TARGET],HOW AND WHENUSE OF CAMERAS,RECORDING ETCCONCEALMENT OF OBSERVER ,EQUIPMENT AND PURPOSEUNOBTRUSIVE OBSERVATION,AVOID HALLO EFFECT,OBSERVER DRIFT

FURTHER METHODS/SOURCESWORD ASSOCIATION:E.G.WORK IS THEMATIC TEST:STORY AROUND A PICTUREINKBLOT TEST:INTERPRETATIONMULTI METHODS USEFOCUS GROUP:GROUP DISCUSSION UNDER MODERATOR-RESPONSESPANEL:FOCUS GROUP TO STUDY INTERVENTION EFFECT OVER TIME E.G. EFFECT OF ADS TRACE MEASURES:E.G .CANS IN TRASH FOR BRAND USE

SAMPLING OUTLINEDEFINITIONWHY SAMPLING?NORMAL DISTRIBUTIONSAMPLING DESIGNPROBABILITY SAMPLINGNON PROBAB.SAMPLINGPRECISION AND CONFIDENCECALCULTION OF SAMPLE SIZE 111

DEFINITIONSPOPULATION:GROUP,EVENTS TO BE INVESTIGATEDELEMENT:A MEMBER OF POPULATIONPOPULATION FRAME:LIST OF ELEMENTS E.G.TEL.DIRECTORYSAMPLE:RESEARCHER DRAWS SUBSETOF POPULATION TO DRAW CONCLUSIONS FROM IT FOR WHOLE POPULATIONSUBJECT:AN ELEMENT OF A SAMPLE

DEFINITIONS CONSAMPLING :PROCESS OF DRAWING A SAMPLE FROM A POPULATION TO UNDERSTAND,ANALYSE ITS PROPERTIES TO GENERALIZE FOR THE WHOLE POPULATIONSAMPLING R EDUCES EFFORT AND COST IF POPULATION IS LARGEREPRESENTATIVE S.:IN A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE ITS CHARACTERISTICS ARE THE SAME AS THOSE OF THE POPULATION

SAMPLING DESIGNEXPLORATORY DESIGN: REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE IS NOT NEEDED-RESULTS NOT GENERALIZED, FOR CLUES TO ISSUESFOR DESIGN OF SAMPLE ONE NEEDS TARGET POPULATION,PARAMETER TO STUDY,SAMPLING FRAME,SAMPLE SIZE,TIME AND RESOURCES REQUIRED

PROBABILITY SAMPLINGELEMENTS HAVE SAME CHANCE OF BEING SELECTED,USED WHEN REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE IS IMPORTANTUNRESTRICTED RANDOM SAMPL.:EACH ELEMENT HAS KNOWN AND EQUAL CHANCE OF BEING SELECTEDLEAST BIAS AND MOST GENERALIZABLE.EXPENSIVE AND CUMBERSOME

RESTRICTED PROBAB.S.SYSTEMATIC:DRAW Nth ITEM RANDOMLY ,EFFICIENT AND USED FOR ATTITUDE SURVEYS ETC.STRATIFIED RANDOM:HOMOGENITY WITHIN GROUP,HETROGENITY AMONG GROUPS,SELECT SUBJECTS AT RANDOM EACH SUBGROUP IF SUBGROUPS WITHIN POPULATION HAVE DIFFERENT PARAMETERS

PROBABILITY S. CONTPROPRTIONATE STRATIFIED RANDOM:PROP.SELECTION FROM EACH GROUP E.G .JOB LEVELSDISPROPORTIONATE STRAT.RANDOM:IF STRATA TOO SMALL OR TOO LARGE AND MORE PROB.SUSPECTED WITHIN SUB GROUPSCLUSTER:GROUPS HETROGENOUS WITHIN AND HOMOGENOUS AMONG THEM ,LESS EFFICIENT MULTISTAGE CLUSTER:CLUSTER IN EACH AREA AND SUB CLUSTERS AND RANDOM SELECTION

PROBA.SAMPLING CON..AREA SAMPLING:POPULATION WITH IN EACH GEOGRAPHICAL CLUSTER,LESS COSTLYDOUBLE SAMPLING:1st SAMPLE FOR PRELEMINARY INFORMATION OF INTEREST,2nd TIME PREVIOUS SAMPLE USED FOR FURTHER DETAIL

NON PROBAB. SAMPLINGELEMETS PROBABILITY OF SELECTION NOT KNOWN,FOR QUICK PREL.FINDINGSCONVENIENCE :EASILY AVAILABLE SAMPLE ELEMENTS TAKENPURPOSIVE:CONFINED TO SPECIFIC GROUP WHO CAN PROVIDE DESIRED INFORMATIONJUDGEMENT:BEST PEOPLE TO PROVIDE INFOQUOTA:ENSURE CERTAIN PEOPLE ARE REPRESENTED IN A STUDY BY QUOTA

PRECIS. AND CONFIDENCEPRECISION:HOW CLOSE ESTIMATE IS TO TRUE POPULATION STATS STANDARD SAMPLING ERROROF MEANS=Sx=S/SQUARE ROOT[n-1] CONFIDENCE:LEVEL OF CERTAINTY TO HAVE THAT PRECISION E.G 95% FOR k=1.96 Sx=10/(49^1/2)=1.43 U=X+kSx=105+-1.96*1.43=1o5+-2.35BY LAERGER n MULTIPLY BY [N-n]/N-1LARGER THE SAMPLE SIZE HIGHER THE PRECISION OR SMALLER THE SAMPLING ERROR.THE NARROWER PRECISION RANGE THE LOWER THE CONFIDENCE LEVEL

PRECISION AND CONFIDNO SAMPLE HAS EXACTLY SAME CHARACTERISTICS AS POPULATIONPROBABILITY SAMPLING COMES CLOSER TO POPULATION STATISTICSX,S,S^2 MEAN,STANDARD DEV., VARIANCE OF SAMPLEU,SIGMA,SIGMA^2 OF POPULATIONn SAMPLE SIZE,N POPULATION

SAMPLE SIZEEFFECTED BY VARIABILITY OF POPULATIONPRECISION/ACCURACY NEEDEDCOST /BENEFIT OF INVESTIGATIONMOST RESEARCH SAMPLES SIZE>30AND

OUTLINE D ATA ANALYSIS/INTERPRETDATA READY FOR ANALYSIS: EDIT,CODING,CATEGORIZATION,DATA ENTRYDATA ANALYSIS:OBJECTIVES OF DATA ANALYSIS:TEST GOODNESS,HYPOTHESIS TEST,ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION:DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS,INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 123

DATA READY.EDIT:CHECK INCOMPLETENESS AND INCONSISTANCY,LOGICALLY RECTIFY DATABLANK RESPONSES:LACK OF UNDERSTANDING,UNWILLINGNESS TO ANSWER,INDIFFERENCETAKE MID POINT OF SCALEIGNORE BLANK RESPONSESASSIGN MEAN VALUE OF RESPONSESASSIGN RANDOM NUMBER IN SCALE

DATA CONT.CODING:ASSIGN UNIQUE NUMBERTO EACH VARIABLE AND ITEM E.G AGE,EDUCATIONCHECK 10% FOR ACCURACYCATEGORIZATION:VARIABLES SUCH THAT SEVERAL ITEMS MEASURING SAME CONCEPT ARE GROUPED TOGETGER.E.G. VARIOUS CATEGORIES OF AGEENTRY:BY SCANNER DIRECTLY OR MANUALLY USING STATS PACKAGE DATA EDITOR

DATA ANALYSISUSE STATS PACKAGE SS-9 FOR WINDOWS FOR TESTS,EXCEL FOR DISPLAY RESULTSFEEL FOR DATA:MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY,DISPERSION,DISTRIBUTION, INTERRELATIONS OF VARIABLES TO DETECT INCORRECTNESS ,BIAS,OUT OF RANGE DATAGOODNESS OF DATA:RELIABILITY ANALYSIS CRONBACH ALPHA COEFF. CLOSER TO 1 THE HIGHER INTERNAL CONSISTANCY RELIABILITY OF ITEMS OF MEASURES

DATA ANALYSIS CONTSPLIT HALF RELIABILITY COEFF.FOR CORRELATION OF SPLIT ITEMSSTABILITY OF MEASURES:PARALLEL FORM RELIABILITY,TEST RETEST RELIABILITY TEST FOR CORRELATION OF MEASURES VALIDITY:FACTORIAL VALIDITY BY MULTIVARIATE TECHNIQUES TO CONFIRM CORRECTNESS OF DIMENSIONS OF CONCEPTS CRITERION VALIDITY:TEST MEASURES TO DIFFERENTIATE INDIVIDUALS KNOWN TO BE DIFFERENT

DATA ANALYSIS CONTCONVERGENT V.:TWO SOURCES RESPONDING TO SAME MEASURES HIGHLY CORRELATEDDISCRIMINATORY V:TWO DISTINCTLY DIFFERENT CONCEPTS ARE NOT CORRELATEDIF VALIDATED MEASURES ARE USED NO NEED FOR VALIDITY TEST ONLY TEST RELIABILITY

HOYPOTHESIS TESTING EXAMPLEEXAMINE CRONBACH ALPHA FOR MEASURESFREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE VARIABLESDESCRIBE MEAN,STANDARD DEVIATION OF MEASURESPEARSONS CORREL.COEFFICIENTRESULTS OF HYPOTHESES

EXAMPLE CONTRELIABILITY:CRONBACH ALPHA 0.82, MEASURES INTERNALLY CONSISTANT, CORRELATED FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF PERSONAL DATA E.G.DEPT WISE % RESPONDENTSDESCRIPTIVE STATS MAX,MIN,MEAN,STD DEV.,VARIANCE OF VARIABLES E.G JOB SAT AVERAGE,ITL LOW,INFERENTIAL STATS:PEARSON CORRELATION,BELOW 0.59 MEASURES VALIDITY-IF>0,75 VARIABLES NOT DISTINCT

EXAMPLE CONTE.G. ITL IS NEGATIVELY CORREL TO JOB SAT,EQUITY,JOB ENRICHHYPOTHESIS TEST 1:NO DIFFERENCE BET.MEN AND WOMEN IN PERCEIVED EQUITY Ho:Uw=Um t-Test TCAL=0.75

EXAMPLE CON FCAL=3.327FCRIT=3 H REJECTED,SIG=0.04 D=3-1=2,DF=171-12-4=159HYPOTHESIS 3:NO DIFFERENCE IN ITL OF EMPLOYEES AT 5 JOB LEVELS H0:U1=U2=U3=U4=U5ANOVA TEST- fcal1.25

EXAMPLE CONT.HYPOTHESIS 5:4 VARIABLES DO NOT SIGNIFICANTLY EXPLAIN VARIANCE IN ITL-MULTIPLE CORREL ANALYSIS R CORREL.OF VARIABLES 0.58,R^2=0.3 VARIANCESIG..001,DF4=5-1,DF156=160-4 F=2.4 FCAL=16.7>FCRIT HO REJECTED

HELP IN CHOICE OF TESTTHE TYPE OF TEST DEPENDS ON HYPOTHESIS,SCALE,COST AND BENEFITEXPERT SYSTEMS HELP CHOOSE APPROPRIATE PROCEDURE AND TESTS E.G.STAT NAVIGATOR,THEY ALSO HELP IN RESEARCH DESIGN

RESEARCH PROPOSAL OUTLINEPURPOSESPONSOR USES RESEARCH BENEFITSTYPES OF PRPOSALSSTRUCTURING PROPOSALS PROBLEM STATEMENTRESEARCH OBJECTIVESLITERATURE REVIEWBENEFITS OF STYDYRESEARCH DESIGND ATA ANALYSIS 135

PROPOSAL OUTLINE..NATURE/FORM OF RESULTSQUALIFICATION OF RESEARCHERBUDGETSCHEDULEFACILITIES/SPECIAL RESOURCESPROJECT MANAGEMENTBIBLIOGRAPHYAPPENDICESMEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTEVALUATING THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

PURPOSE OF PROPOSALTHE PROPOSAL INDICATES:SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH PROBLEMRELATED RESEARCH OF OTHERSDATA NEEDED,METHODS OF COLLECT.,ANALYSIS,INTERPRET.PURPOSE,DESIGN AND FITNESS TO RESAERCHBASIS TO EVALUATE RESULTSWORKPLAN ,TIME AND BUDGET ESTIMATES

TYPES OF PROPOSALS-COMPLEXITY STUDENT TERM PAPER,THESIS,DOCTORAL THESISINTERNAL EXPLORATION,SMALL SCALE OR LARGE SCALE STUDYEXTERNAL EXPLORATORY,SMALL TO LARGE SCALE CONTRACTGOVT SPONSORED STUDY NEEDS ALL MODULESDOCTORAL THESIS DOES NOT NEED SUMMARY,RES.QUALIFICATIONS, BUDGET,PROJECT MANAGEMENT,

STRUCTURE OF PROPOSAL

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY:INFO ABSTRACT FOR EXECUTIVE EVALUATION STATING PROBLEM,OBJECTIVES,BENEFITS OF RESAERCH APPROACHPROBLEM STATEMENT:STATE PROBLEM, BACKGROUND,CONSEQUENCES, IMPORTANCE,BENEFITS OF STUDYRESEARCH OBJECTIVES:PURPOSE OF RESAERCH QUESTION/HYPOTHESIS SPONSOR SPECIFIC CONCRETE AND ACHIEVABLE GOALS LISTED IN ORDER OF IMPORTANCE

STRUCTURE CONLIT.REVIEW:HISTORICALLY SIGNIFICANT,RECENT,RELATED RESEARCH,DATA,REPORTS AS BASIS OF PROPOSED STUDY,DISCUSSIMPORTANCE/BENEFITS OF STUDY:A FEW PARAS HOW STUDY WOULD BENEFIT THE SPONSORRESEARCH DESIGN:TECHNICAL DETAILS OF PHASES OF THE PROJECT,SAMPLE SELECTION,DATA COLL.METHODS,INSTRUMENTS, ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

STRUCTURE CONDATA ANALYSIS:FOR COMPLEX RESEARCH STUDIES -METHODS/TESTSNATURE/FORM RESULTS:TO SEE IF OBJECTIVE OF STUDY,CONTRACTUAL STATEMENT ACHIEVED, CONCLUSIONS, ACTION PLANS,PLANS,MODELSRESEARCHER QUALIFICATIONS: ACACDEMIC,RELEVANT EXPER. ENTIRE RESUME IF SPCIFICALLY ASKEDBUDGET:1-2 PAGES SUB HEADINGS NEED.SCHEDULE:MAJOR PHASES,DURATION, MILESTONES,COMPLETION-PERT PLAN.

STRUCTURE CONPROJECT MANAGEMENT:TEAM ORG RESPONSIBILITIES,CONTROL PROCEDURES,REPORTING ,COMPETENCYBIBLIOGRAPHY:STANDARD FORMAT RESEARCH AND QUOTATIONSAPPENDICES:GLOSSARY,SAMPLE OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTEVALUATION:CRITERIA ESTABLISHED BEFORE PROPOSAL RECEIVED,NEATLY PRESENTED,LOGICALLY ORGANIZED,GUIDELINES FOR BUDGET,SCHEDULE,EASILY UNDERSTOOD PROBLEM STATEMENT

STATISTICS OUT LINEDESCRIPTIVE STATSFREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONMEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCYMEASURES OF DISPERSIONINFERENTIAL STATSCORRELATION ANALYSIS REGRESSION ANALYSISTESTS OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES 143TEST OF SIGNIFICANT MEAN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROUPS

DESCRIPTIVE STATSCHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRAL TENDENCY,DISPERSION,SHAPE DESCRIBE DISTRIBUTIONSDISTRIBUTION:THE VALUES ALONGWITH FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCESTANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION:MOST PHENOMENA TEND TO CLUSTER AROUND MEAN-INVERTED BELL SHAPED CURVEMEAN:ARITHMATIC AVERAGE-FOR INTERVAL AND RATIO DATAMEDIAN:MIDPOINT OF A DISTRIBUTION ORDINAL DATA

DESCRIPTIVE CONTMODE:MOST FREQUENTLY OCCURRING VALUE-NOMINAL DATAVARIANCE:AVERAGE OF SQUARED DEVIATION SCORES FROM DISTRIBUTIONS MEANSTANDARD DEVIATION:SQUARE ROOT OF VARIANCERANGE:DIFFERENCE BET.LARGEST AND SMALLEST SCORE IN A DISTRIBUTION-ORDINAL DATAINTER QUARTILE RANGE DIFF BETW.FIRST AND THIRD QUARTILE OF DITRIBUTION-ORDINAL DATA

STATISTICAL TESTSPROCEDURE:STATE NULL HYPOTHESISCHOOSE THE STATS TEST:DEPENDS ON EFFICIENCY,POPULATION,SAMPLE DRAW,SCALESELECT LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE:0.001-0.1-WITHIN RANGECOMPUTE THE CALCULATED DIFFERENCE VALUE:APPROPRIATE SIGNIFICANCE TEST E.G. t TEST,CHI SQUARE TEST ETC.

STATISTICAL CONOBTAIN THE CRITICAL VALUE FROM TABLES FOR REGION OF REJECTION/ACCEPTANCE OF NULL HYPOTHESISMAKE THE DECISION:FOR MOST TESTS IF CALCULATED VALUE IS LARGER THAN CRITICAL VALUE WE REJECT NULL HYPOTHESIS

STATIST.TESTS CONT..STAT.TEST SIGNIFICANCE OF CHANGE/DIFFERENCE IF DIFF DOES NOT REPRESENT SAMPLING FLUCTUATION ONLYNON PARAMETRIC TESTS FOR NOMINAL AND ORDINAL DATA-CHI SQUAREPARAMETRIC TESTS FOR INTERVAL/RATIO SCALES AND RELIABLE ,INDEPENDENT OBSERVATIONS, POPULATION NORMAL DISTRIBUTION, EQUAL VARIANCES OF POPULATION

INFERENTIAL STATSTO KNOW FROM ANALYSIS THE RELATIONSHIP BETW.VARIABLES, DIFFERENCE AMONG VARIABLES FROM SUBGROUPS,HOW SEVERAL IVs MIGHT EXPLAIN THE VARIANCE IN A DVMEASURING DEGREE OF RELATIOSHIP BETWEEN 2 VARIABLES IS CORRELATION ANALYSISUSING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A KNOWN VARIABLE AND AN UNKNOWN VARIABLE TO ESTIMATE THE UNKNOWN IS REGRESSION ANALYSIS

PEARSON PROD.CORRELATIONSHOWS DIRECTION,STRENGHT,SIGNIFICANCE OF REL. OF 2 VARIABLES+1 TO 1,SIGNIFICANCE 0.001-0.1r= SUM [X-x][Y-y]/[N-1].Sx.SyFOR SMALL SAMPLES SAMPLING ERROR BELOW r=0.5

T-TEST OF SIGNIFICANCEWHEATHER r IS CHANCE DEVIATION FROM A POPULATIONFOR INDEPEND.SAMPLE,NORMAL DISTRIBUTION,BIVARIATEHo:P=0 NO CORRELATIONt=r/square root[1-r^2]/n-2=0.93/1-0.86/8^1/2=7.03CRITICAL VALUE df 2 and p=0.005 CALCULATED VALUE>2*CRIT.VALUE,NULL HYPOTHESIS REJECTED

CHI SQUARE TESTUSED TO FIND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NOMINAL VARIABLESBY SMALL SAMPLE SIZE CHI SQUARE=SUM[O-E]^2/E. O=OBSERVED E=ESTIMATED VALUEE.G 4 RETIRE.PLANS [P]INDEPENDENT OF 3CLASSES OF EMPLOYEES df=[4-1][3-1]=6CALCULATED VALUE28.08>CRITICAL VALUE 12.593NULL HYPOTHESIS REJECTED

LINEAR REGRESSION PHI T.CHI SQUARE BASED BIVARIATE T.WHEN OBSERVED VALUES OF X TAKEN TO ESTIMATE CORRESPON. Y VALUES IT IS SIMPLE REGRESSIONBY MORE THAN ONE VARIABLES IT WOULD BE MULTIPLE REGRESSION.E.G. CORRELATION OF JOB ACCIDENT AND SMOKING PHI=SQUARE ROOT CHI SQUARE/N=SQUARE ROOT 6.11257/60=0.305MODERATE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCEWHEN 2 OR MORE POPULATION MEANS HYPOTHESIS IS TESTED FOR ANOVA ,WHEATHER TWO DIFFERENT SAMPLE MEANS COME FROM THE SAME POPULATIONF DISTRIBUTION VARIES WITH df ACCOUNT FOR ENUMERATOR AND DENOMINATOR.E.G RECOVERY DAYS NOT INFLUENCED BY 3 TYPES TREATMENTS IN 4 HOSPITALS:COMP.VAL.TREATM. O.99

MULTIVARIATE ANALYSISFOR COMPLETE BUSINESS PROBLEMS MULTIPLE IV AND DV E.G.BUYER PREFERENCES/PRODUCT OPTIONS USE MANOVA,MULTIPLE REGRESS.OR DISCRIMINATORY TECHNIQUESFOR INTERDEPENDENT VARIABLES USE :FACTOR ANALYSIS,CLUSTER ANALYSIS,MULTIDIMENSION SCALINGFOR METRIC DATA USE SCALES :INTERVAL AND RATIOFOR NONMETRIC DATA USE NOMINAL AND ORDINAL SCALES

MULTPLE REGRESSIONFOR DESCRIPTION,HYPOTHESIS TEST AND FOR ESTIMATINGY=Bo+B1.X1+B2.X2+Bn+Xn WHERE Bs ARE REGRESSION COEFFICIENTSE.G.HAS ANN FAMILY INCOME X1,FAMILY SIZE X2,FAMILY LOCATION X3INFLUENCE ON ANN FAMILY FOOD SPENDING YIF B1=0.6 B2=0.2 X1 HAS 3TIMES INFLUENCE ON Y THAN X2

DISCRIMANT ANALYSISFIND PREDICTORS FOR BEST ANALYSIS OF SUBSETSJOINS NOMINAL DV WITH I OR MORE INTERRVAL/RATIO SCALED VARIABLESDi=do+d1.x1+d2.x2+.dp.xp e.g.ADMINISTRATOR SUCCESSFUL OR NOT[Di],ability to work with others[x1],motivation for administration[x2],professional skill[x3] Di=o+0.6 x1+0.45x2+0.3x3 x1 is more important than x2,x3MANOVA USED TO DIFFERENTIATE RELATIONOF 2 OR MORE DV AND FACTORS

INTERDEPENDENT TECH.FACTOR ANALYSIS:REDUCE MANY FACTORS TO MANAGEABLE WITH OVERLAPPING CHARACTERISTICSREPLACE DEPENDENT RELATIONSHIPS TO MATRIX OF INTERRELATIONSHIPS BY PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSISTRANSFORM SET OF VARIABLES TO NEW SET VARIABLES,NOT CORRELATED PRINCIPAL COMPONENTSECOND COMPONENT AND LINEAR COMBINATION TILL 100% VARIANCE IS ACCOUNTED FOR