under the sun or in the shade? jua kali in african countries...jua kali in swahili means ‘hot...

Projet internationalpour l'enseignement technique etprofessionnelInternational Project on Technical and Vocational Education

Under the Sun or in the Shade?Jua Kali in African Countries

National Policy Definition in Technical andVocational Education: Beyond the Formal Sector

A Subregional Seminar for Eastern and Southern African CountriesNairobi, Kenya, 15-19 September, 1997

Jua Kali in Swahili means ‘hot sun’. Over the course of years it has come to be usedto refer to the informal or non-formal sector of the economy in Kenya.

An excellent reference to the Jua Kali is given in the recently printed book:King, Kenneth, Jua Kali Kenya: Change & Development in an Informal Economy 1970-95,East African Publishers, Kijabe Street, P.O. Box 45314, Nairobi, Kenya, 1996.

The photograph on the cover of this publication is found on page 95 of that book.

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UNEVOC BerlinThe International Project on Technical and Vocational Education (UNEVOC) is a project of theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). Its purpose is tocontribute to the development and improvement of technical and vocational education in Member States.

Based on an agreement between UNESCO and the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany onUNEVOC, a project implementation unit has been established in Berlin. UNEVOC Berlin was officiallyopened on the occasion of the first session of the UNEVOC International Advisory Committee inSeptember 1993.

UNEVOC Berlin assists the overall planning of UNEVOC and is responsible for the implementation ofcertain activities specified in the UNEVOC programme.

The Seminar in Nairobi was presented by UNEVOC Berlin.

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This report has been prepared and processed by UNEVOC Berlin, with the editorial assistance ofMr Jim Sullivan.

The designations employed in this study do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on thepart of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities,or concerning its frontiers or boundaries.

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This report was prepared by UNESCO’sUNEVOC Implementation Unit in Berlin • Fehrbelliner Platz 3 • D-10707 Berlin • Germany

6 [+49] (30) 86 49 15 41Electronic Mail: [email protected]

WorldWideWeb : http://www.unevoc.de

© UNESCO 1998

Document Nr ED/IUG/014

Contents Page 1

ContentsForeword ....................................................................................................................................... 31 Introduction: What is UNEVOC?.................................................................................... 52 Opening and Closing Ceremonies and Speeches ............................................................. 7

2.1 Introductory statement by Professor R. Barry HOBART, UNESCO/UNEVOC Consultant ..............72.2 Opening speech by Professor Shem WANDIGA, representative of Kenya on the

UNESCO Executive Board...............................................................................................................72.3 Closing speech by Mr S. M. KYUNGU, Director of Education, Ministry of Education,

Kenya................................................................................................................................................83 Discussion and Debate...................................................................................................... 10

3.1 Parameters of the discussion and debate ........................................................................................103.2 Points of agreement that were highlighted .....................................................................................103.3 Discussion and debate addressing specific issues...........................................................................11

4 Recommendations............................................................................................................. 155 Participants’ Presentations.............................................................................................. 16

5.1 A Position Paper: “Technical and Vocational Education and Training Policy in Kenya”by Mr Peter O. OKAKA ...................................................................................................................16

5.2 A Position Paper by Professor B. Wanjala KERRE.........................................................................235.3 TVET Beyond the Formal Sector in BOTSWANA by Mr M. M. KEWAGAMANG

and Mr K. KABECHA.......................................................................................................................305.4 Existing Set-Up in ETHIOPIA by Mr Mesfin TEREFE...................................................................345.5 Brief Description of the Jua Kali Movement in KENYA by Eng. G. K. N. MBUGUA...................395.6 Non-Government Organisations and Enterprise in LESOTHO by Mr Mota SEKONYELA .............405.7 The National Policy Definition in MALAWI by Mrs Joyce PHEKANI

and Mr Maston M. MTAMBO ..........................................................................................................435.8 Beyond the Formal Sector in MAURITIUS by Dr Feroze COOWAR..............................................485.9 An Effective System for Non-Formal TVET in SOUTH AFRICA

by Mr Siphamandla I. XULU ...........................................................................................................515.10Essential Features of the Non-Formal Sector in SWAZILAND

by Mr William S. A. SHONGWE......................................................................................................555.11TVET at Mwanza Rural Housing Programme in TANZANIA by Mr Lunogelo L. SAKAFU ........575.12A Case for UGANDA by Dr Ben M. MANYINDO ..........................................................................595.13 Training for the Informal Sector in ZAMBIA by Mr Joseph S. MUKUNI

and Mr Joseph P. KALUNGA ...........................................................................................................63Appendices .................................................................................................................................. 67

(A) The Daily Schedule.........................................................................................................................67(B) Information Document....................................................................................................................68(C) List of Main Participants ................................................................................................................71(D) Convention on Technical and Vocational Education

adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO...........................................................................75

Foreword Page 3

ForewordThis is a comprehensive report on a Subregional Seminar for Eastern and Southern African Countries titledNational Policy Definition in Technical and Vocational Education: Beyond the Formal Sector. It wasorganised and conducted by the UNEVOC Implementation Unit in Berlin of the UNESCO International Projecton Technical and Vocational Education. The host country was Kenya.

Without doubt, one of the greatest concerns of the world today is that of providing sufficient support to all peoplefor them to enjoy a reasonably happy life. Of course, there are many factors that will determine this outcome.However, among these is the opportunity for meaningful employment that will provide at least the basic neces-sities for freedom from the fear of hunger and of economic oppression. However, it is evident that the world, inboth developing countries and those that are developed, is not succeeding in alleviating this tragic problem ofunemployment, and the suffering that results as a consequence of it.

As is well-known, UNESCO is committed by its basic mission to be concerned for the welfare of people in what-ever sphere they are situated. In particular, it addresses this concern through the means of science, education andculture. It fully appreciates the central role of education as a means of constructive human development and ofattaining the human welfare to which it is committed. However, it is also conscious of the fact that the problemsmentioned above need individual human initiative and freedom as well as support from appropriate organisations.Thus, it has included in its mandate a commitment to supporting effective education for the world of work. Thiscommitment has been made tangible over the past five years through support for the UNEVOC Project.

An important sphere of such education and training is that which is needed by individuals who are self-employedor employed in small-scale businesses. This is often referred to as the non-formal sector, or the informal sector.The majority of people around the world work in this sector. Yet the provision that has been made to assist themin their endeavours has been very little and, in many cases, just non-existent. Therefore UNESCO, through itsUNEVOC Project, has made a commitment to reach out to these people that are beyond the formal sector ofeducation and employment and seeks to encourage appropriate authorities, including governments, formal enter-prises and non-governmental organisations, to assist the development of an effective non-formal sector withinnational economies.

The Seminar, of which this is a report, addressed the multifarious issues associated with this endeavour and hasboth identified the many problems and suggested some solutions. It is to be hoped that the report will alert theappropriate authorities around the world to the urgent need to make tangible commitments to develop andstrengthen the non-formal sector including small-business enterprise.

It is my pleasure to recommend the report to you and to urge you to consider its contents in such a way as willencourage your own motivations to develop this economic and social sector to the extent that is within your ownpowers. Without doubt, one important initiative that needs to result from these endeavours is for all nations todevelop National Policy Definitions in Technical and Vocational Education that is Beyond the FormalSector.

Colin N. PowerAssistant Director-General for EducationUNESCO

Introduction: What is UNEVOC? Page 5

1 Introduction: What is UNEVOC?UNEVOC is the International Project on Technicaland Vocational Education of the United NationsEducational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation(UNESCO). It was launched in 1992, following aresolution of UNESCO’s General Conference in 1991.It has established a world wide network of entities thatare committed to co-operating to achieve its overallgoal. This goal is to strengthen the development andimprovement of technical and vocational educationin UNESCO Member States. In 1992, the GermanGovernment made a commitment to UNESCO for on-going, substantial support. Other countries, such asthe Republic of Korea, Japan, France, are also pro-viding significant contributions in various forms.

What are the objectives of UNEVOC?The objectives are clustered into three programmeareas that focus on technical and vocational educationand its relationship to the world of work. These areasare:

P rog ram m e A rea C

In fo rm a tionC om m u n ica t ion

N etw ork in gP ro g ram m e A rea B

In frastru c tu res

P rog ram m e A rea A

S ystem d eve lop m en t

Programme Areas of UNEVOC

Programme Area A:This area fosters the international exchange of ideasand experiences and promotes studies on policy issues.It is devoted to the development of technical andvocational education systems.

Programme Area B:This area strengthens national research and develop-ment capabilities in order to improve the infra-structures of technical and vocational education.

Programme Area C:This area increases access to data bases and documen-tation and strengthens the UNEVOC Network. Itaddresses information, communication andnetworking.

What constitutes the UNEVOC Network?The UNEVOC network includes teaching, training,planning, research and development institutions, andentities within government ministries, that are active intechnical and vocational education. It is a Networkthat constitutes a world wide perspective of this area ofeducation. UNESCO Headquarters in Paris serves thisnetwork through interaction on the political level withgovernments, UN specialised agencies, and other inter-national organisations. The Implementation Unit inBerlin contributes significantly to the design andimplementation of the Project. It is pivotal to the net-working of UNEVOC Centres. Many UNEVOCactivities are also executed by UNESCO’s fourRegional Offices: in Africa, the Arab States, Asia andthe Pacific, and Latin America and the Caribbean,assisted by over 50 UNESCO Offices. National Com-missions for UNESCO are also involved in selectedUNEVOC activities. An International AdvisoryCommittee advises the Director-General of UNESCOon the design and implementation of the Project.

What are UNEVOC Centres?Member States, through their National Commissionsfor UNESCO, have nominated relevant national insti-tutions to become UNEVOC Centres and AssociateCentres. At the end of 1997, some 150 Centres andAssociate Centres in 104 Member States had beennominated. These Centres are expected to give leader-ship and thrust to the education and development thatresults in effective performance within occupationalroles. The responsibilities of the UNEVOC Centresinclude:• developing and leading a national network;• ensuring information flow to and from UNESCO

and other UNEVOC Centres;• ensuring that expertise is shared among UNEVOC

Network members;• providing research as requested by the UNESCO

Secretariat;• contributing to UNESCO publications and data

bases;• updating the data of the UNEVOC Directory with

information on all UNEVOC Centres and otherrelevant institutions.

What are the strategies of UNEVOC?The following are the important strategies that areapplied within the UNEVOC Project as a means ofattaining the objectives:

Advocacy, policy and monitoringUNEVOC advocates, supports the development ofappropriate policy, and monitors, through variousmeans, a number of fundamental principles relating to

Introduction: What is UNEVOC?

technical and vocational education that are embracedby UNESCO. These include: the correlation of effec-tive and efficient technical and vocational educationwith human development; the primary support for theleast developed countries; the access for women totechnical and vocational education; the increasing ofco-operation between technical and vocationaleducation institutions and the world of work;the improved status of technical and vocationaleducation.

Information source and communicationUNEVOC initiates and encourages the identification,collection, description and dissemination of informa-tion and knowledge concerning innovation, ideas andexperience in technical and vocational education. Thisis achieved through studies and publications, throughworkshops and expert meetings, and through the inter-national exchange of specialists in technical and voca-tional education.

The quarterly newsletter “UNEVOC INFO”, availablein both English and French, is compiled and distrib-uted. The UNEVOC Directory presents comprehen-sive information about UNEVOC Centres andAssociate Centres, and other relevant bodies. An up-to-date Inventory of UNEVOC activities around theworld is available. A series of UNEVOC Studies isalso published.

In order to present information in as clear and user-friendly way as possible, UNEVOC employs the mostcontemporary means of communication available to itand to its partners. One such means is the Internet.Increasingly, information about UNEVOC, its activi-ties and its publications, is available on the World-WideWeb.

Professional development and exchangeAs a means of harvesting the ideas, experiences andrecommendations of significant professionals worldwide within the field of technical and vocationaleducation and of human resource development withinenterprises, seminars, symposiums and workshops areorganised and conducted. This is frequently done inco-operation with other important players in the field.

Examples:• Co-operation between Educational Institutions and

Enterprises in Technical and Vocational Education:A Seminar for Key Personnel from Africa and Asia

• The Promotion of Equal Access of Girls andWomen to Technical and Vocational Education:An International Expert Meeting

Consultancy and advisory servicesUNEVOC assists Governments and institutions in thedevelopment of technical and vocational education, asrequested. This endeavour extends beyond theUNEVOC Network. International experts are includedin this activity. Thus, a comprehensive, internationalperspective of technical and vocational education andthe world of work is brought into focus.

Example:Advise on projects that would assist the developmentof technical and vocational education in Azerbaijan

Co-operationThe need for co-operation and mutual support amongentities responsible for technical and vocational edu-cation, both nationally and internationally, is increas-ingly obvious. UNEVOC encourages and supports thisco-operation in a number of ways. One important wayis through the process of twinning. This is anarrangement whereby a UNEVOC Centre forms a jointassociation with another Centre, with a work enter-prise, with a research institution, or possibly with someother training or educational institution, in order to co-operate in professional endeavours and to gainincreased benefit therefrom.

UNEVOC PartnersInternational and intergovernmental organisations,such as the International Labour Organisation, nationalgovernmental and non-governmental organisations,and specialised institutions in Member States, co-operate with UNEVOC. The expertise available inthese institutions enhances the capacity of UNEVOCto make a significant impact on the development oftechnical and vocational education around the world.

UNESCO Headquarters, ParisThe UNEVOC Project is implemented underUNESCO’s Education Sector in Paris. The AssistantDirector-General for Education has the overall respon-sibility for the planning and management of theProject, with the support of the Section for Technicaland Vocational Education.

In accordance with UNESCO’s decentralisationpolicy, responsibility for the management of theProject is shared among UNESCO Paris, UNEVOCBerlin and UNESCO’s Regional Offices.

UNEVOC BerlinUNEVOC Berlin is the “logistic centre” for support-ing, serving and networking UNEVOC Centres. It co-operates with other entities within the Network in thedesign, planning, implementation and evaluation of thestrategies and activities for attaining the objectives ofthe Project.

Opening and Closing Ceremony and Speeches Page 7

2 Opening and Closing Ceremonies and SpeechesThe Opening Ceremony was chaired by Mr C. J. Chacha-Ogwe, Secretary General, Kenya National Commission forUNESCO, within the Ministry of Education of Kenya. Thespeeches were presented to the media. Experts werereported by the press and a recorded interview by the mediaof Dr R. Barry Hobart addressing the objectives and role ofUNEVOC within UNESCO, and of this particular Seminar,was aired on national radio.

2.1 Introductory statementby Professor R. Barry HOBART,UNESCO/UNEVOC Consultant

“Kenya shows the way, through one significantmeans, of dealing in part with the world’s naggingunemployment problem”During this week, Kenya, through the co-operation ofthe Kenya National Commission for UNESCO and theUNESCO Nairobi Office, will host a most importantSeminar addressing the issues of training and employ-ment in the non-formal sector, termed Jua Kali inKenya. Unemployment is one of the most pressingproblems facing the world today, whether we considersophisticated European countries like Germany orFrance, or developing countries in Latin America, inSouth East Asia, in the African continent, or in coun-tries in transition like Hungary and Poland. Even acountry like Sweden, that has traditionally been freefrom this problem, is now facing serious levels ofunemployment. Every government around the worldhas to grapple with this issue!

There are many and varied causes for this phenomenonand the solutions to it are by no means easy. But onemost significant contribution to its solution is thesupport, to the greatest extent possible, of the indi-vidual initiatives of people to create their ownemployment, and, as a consequence, sufficient wealthto meet at least their most basic needs. The Jua Kaliprogramme of Kenya, that has been encouraged andsupported for some years by President Moi, is a realand practical example of releasing the entrepreneurialinitiatives of the very ordinary person, by which 75%of the world can be classified, to create effectivesmall-business enterprises.

UNESCO, that has always been concerned for theneeds of the underprivileged through its programmesin basic education, literacy, and the like, has nowextended this concern, in the past four years, bycreating a project that is called UNEVOC. Thisproject addresses all the many and varied issuesrelating to education and training for the world ofwork, and to maintaining the efficient performance ofpeople within that work. This embraces people

employed in government enterprises, in large scaleenterprises, small-business enterprises, or in the non-formal sector.

This UNESCO/UNEVOC Programme has been sup-ported by a number of different countries, such asFrance, Japan, the Republic of Korea; but mostespecially by Germany that has matched financiallythe contribution of UNESCO to the UNEVOC Projectsince its inception.

In fulfilment of the special concern that UNESCO hasfor the African continent, this Seminar is being con-ducted in Nairobi this week and is titled: NationalPolicy Definition in Technical and VocationalEducation: Beyond the Formal Sector. The Seminarwill lead twenty participants from twelve Africancountries as they address the multitude of issuesrelated to the effective support for the development ofsmall-business enterprise and of the entrepreneurialattitudes and skills needed for the non-formal sector tomake its invaluable contribution to the alleviation ofunemployment around the world. This support mustcome from governments, from the many other financialentities within the economy, from society as a wholeand its attitudes, and from the social partners, whichincludes the important role of unions. The discussionand debates that will characterise this Seminar will beas relevant to the developed world as to the developingworld and to the countries in transition. UNESCOfeels privileged to make this small contribution to whatis a pre-eminent problem within our societies today.

2.2 Opening speechby Professor Shem WANDIGA ,representative of Kenya on theUNESCO Executive Board

Secretary General, Mr Chacha-Ogwe, of the KenyaNational Commission for UNESCO, Professor BarryHobart, Seminar Organisers, Distinguished Partici-pants, Ladies and Gentlemen.

I feel highly honoured to be with you here as the Guestof Honour during the official opening of this importantSeminar. I also wish to welcome you to Kenya. I hopethat you enjoy our tourist attractions as well as partici-pating in this Seminar.

In presenting this speech, I must firstly say that I feelat home. One aspect I enjoy most on these types ofoccasions is the meeting of many people from variedbackgrounds. This enhances the prospects of peaceworldwide.

Opening and Closing Ceremony and Speeches

In Kenya, since 1963, we have struggled to createemployment by creating industries, businesses, and ourown institutions. This experience has taught us thatwe still lack something; and that is training. We haveabout 40,000 university students of which about 8,000come out each year to find employment. Other sectorsof education also produce some 8,000 people each yearto add to the employment field. But the jobs are notsufficient to cope with these numbers. With this expe-rience, the Kenya community needs to make athorough assessment to determine where failure mayhave occurred. Thus, it is appropriate that thisSeminar is organised by UNEVOC, the arm ofUNESCO that is concerned with education and train-ing for the world of work.

UNEVOC is the International Project on Technicaland Vocational Education of UNESCO. This Projectwas launched in 1992 resulting from a resolution ofUNESCO’s General Conference in 1991. UNEVOChas established a worldwide network to achieve theoverall goal of strengthening the development andimprovement of technical and vocational education inUNESCO Member States. The activities of UNEVOCfocus on programmes related to system development,infrastructures and information communication net-working.

Mr Chairman, the organisation of this Seminar isindeed an implementation of a section of theUNEVOC Workplan for 1996-1997 which states that“In order to assist the efforts of African Member Statesto develop broad-based national policies in technicaland vocational education, a subregional Seminar willbe held in technical and vocational education. Basedon this Seminar, and subsequent to it, national follow-up activities will be initiated.”

Mr Chairman, this Seminar is being held at an oppor-tune time: a time when our countries are faced witheconomic hardships caused by high population growthrates and urbanisation that have put considerablepressure on education, training, health and employ-ment. The region’s economic problems have beencompounded by the adverse effects of world economicrecession, drought, refugee problems, externally influ-enced structural adjustment programmes and externaldebt problems.

These problems have posed a major challenge for thecountries within the region in their quest for theprovision of quality education and training. It is there-fore imperative that the current technical educationand training policies are reviewed to ensure that theyaddress the contemporary socio-economic challengesappropriately. For example, the adoption of externally

influenced structural adjustment programmes haveushered in economic liberalisation, privatisation ofcertain parastatals, retrenchment of staff within publicand private sectors of the economy, reduction ofGovernment grants to public institutions, the intro-duction of cost sharing and other cost recoverymeasures, and the encouraging of more autonomywhile emphasising transparency and accountability.

The second issue that must be taken into account whenformulating a technical training policy is the growingunemployment among technically skilled people due toslow growth within the formal sectors of our econo-mies. This creates a need for a sustained focustowards rapid industrialisation and the strengtheningof the small-scale industries and the informal sector toprovide additional employment. Emphasis on self-employment is a must! Bringing our training pro-grammes into line with self-employment is thereforeessential.

Professor Hobart, as co-ordinator of this Seminar, youand your participants have a very challenging andimportant task ahead of you within the next five days.In order to accomplish this task satisfactorily it willindeed be necessary to at least develop an agreed-uponvision. The ideal, or desired end-product, is to developa national training policy, to carry out a survey basedon demographic economic factors that influencedecisions on education and training, to review thecurrent policies, to discuss labour market issues, tobenefit from the report of a subregional workshop on“The Financing and Management of VocationalEducation and Training in Eastern and SouthernAfrica” and, finally, to carry out a comparative analy-sis of the policies of the countries attending theSeminar.

I hope that you come up with recommendations thatwill go a long way towards bringing out appropriatepolicies for the region.

It is now my pleasure to declare the Seminar officiallyopen. Thank you.

2.3 Closing speechby Mr S. M. K YUNGU, Director ofEducation, Ministry of Education,Kenya

Mr. Chairman, Professor Hobart, DistinguishedParticipants,

It gives me great pleasure to be invited to conclude thisUNESCO/UNEVOC Seminar today with some partingobservations.

Opening and Closing Ceremony and Speeches Page 9

First, let me say that not only is it evident, from thetitle of this Seminar, that you have been addressingissues of education and training related to the world ofwork that are of considerable importance, but also, Iam informed, that you have addressed these issues insignificant depth and from a wide variety of perspec-tives.

As we all appreciate, education and training is ulti-mately designed to expand the human person andenable that person to move towards a maximum devel-opment of individual potential. By so doing, theperson, in whatever context, should increasingly enjoythe pleasure of living and of meeting the challengesthat confront each one of us, in one form or another,every day of our lives. Perhaps the most significant ofthese challenges is finding a satisfying role in theworld of work, and progressing in it. Sadly, we haveto admit, that for many in this world they are unsuc-cessful in that challenge.

The problems of unemployment, underemployment,unsatisfying employment, that are compounded byexcessive levels of population growth and grosslyuneven distribution of the world’s wealth, compels usto look long and hard at the world of work and thestrategies that we can devise, develop, implement, andevaluate to make that world meet human needs in a farmore effective way than it does in most areas of theworld today. Even in much of the developed worldthis statement is true. And it is patently true in thedeveloping world!

Thus, your analysis in this Seminar of the informalsector in Kenya, which we call the Jua Kali, or what iselsewhere called the non-formal sector, even the small-business sector, is of primary importance to theworld’s need for increasing wealth and a better distri-bution of it. The needs to devise more effective means

of training for this sector, of lifting its status andacceptability as an area of employment, of encouragingit as an effective and satisfying potential for entre-preneurship, of integrating it more fully into the totaleconomy, of giving it the financial support fromvarious sources it needs to develop, of lifting thestandards of its output to enable it to succeed in theglobal economy with its rigorous competition, andmany other such issues that you have addressed in thisSeminar: all these urgently need effective and efficientsolutions.

I look forward, therefore, to receiving a copy of thepublication that will be produced by UNEVOC Berlinwhich will record the deliberations and recommenda-tions that you have made during this week as animportant attempt to influence decision-making enti-ties around the world in terms of significantlyimproving the non-formal sector and small-businessenterprise for meeting the production and employmentneeds that confront us today.

It is encouraging to know that UNESCO has extendedits efforts to achieve its goals of improving humanwelfare through education, science and culture, by ad-dressing the issues of education for the world of workthrough the UNEVOC Project. I would encourage youparticipants to return to your own individual countriesand make every effort to assist in and support theapplication of the recommendations you have madethrough this Seminar. I would also encourage theUNEVOC Project to continue in its efforts to assistUNESCO to achieve its worthy goals, by furtheringUNEVOC’s own particular endeavours, such as thisSeminar held in Nairobi this week.

I wish you a safe return to your individual countries,and hope that we can welcome you once again in thenear future to Kenya. Thank you.

Discussion and Debate

3 Discussion and DebateThe following is a record of the discussion and debate thatoccurred among the participants of the Seminar. Thisinteraction for each day was typed out during the eveningand tabled the next morning. This was amended by theparticipants, corrected, and tabled again in the correctedform. It was then endorsed by the participants. The reportof the discussion and debate below is a consolidation of theinteraction that occurred during the Seminar. It has beenwritten by the co-ordinator of the Seminar, Prof. R. BarryHobart.

3.1 Parameters of the discussion and debate.................................... 103.2 Points of agreement that were highlighted ................................. 103.3 Discussion and debate addressing specific issues ...................... 11(a) The economy................................................................................. 11(b) Employment.................................................................................. 12(c) Finance ......................................................................................... 12(d) Education and training ................................................................ 12(e) Curriculum.................................................................................... 13(f) Teachers/trainers........................................................................... 13(g) Jua Kali in Kenya......................................................................... 14

3.1 Parameters of the discussion anddebate

Some themes emerged throughout the Seminar thatbecame, in effect, the parameters of the discussion anddebate. These were:• That the non-formal sector, or informal sector,

differs significantly from country to country andeven within a country. The differences tend to stemfrom: the context of the non-formal sector, thesupport given it by governments and other relevantentities, the attitudes of the society towards it, themarket that it addresses, the level of competenciesof those engaged in it, the recognition it is givenwithin the total economy, and the degree to which itis encouraged within the society as a whole.

• That, as a result of the above, it is well-nigh im-possible to agree on a definition of the non-formalsector, and a delineation of it from the formalsector that would apply universally. For example,there was considerable debate as to whether‘hawkers’ should be included within the sector ornot. It became obvious that an answer to thisquestion depended upon the traditions of a par-ticular society, the attitudes of people to the sector,and, quite importantly, the concepts and philosophyheld as to what constitutes genuine economicactivity and, therefore, what actually does con-tribute to the economic development of a nation.

• That the measure of autonomy and independencethat the non-formal sector should have is difficult todetermine. Vigorous debate centred around theproposition that the non-formal sector should beformalised. Again, there was uncertainty withrespect to the degree to which there should be

intervention within the sector without that inter-vention becoming an intrusion that inhibits personalinitiative and personal freedom.

• That, while there was general agreement that legalsupport should be given to the non-formal sector,and that such support should be thorough, it wasalso recognised, flowing from the above, that it isdifficult to define the exact nature that such legalsupport should take.

3.2 Points of agreement that werehighlighted

The following points of agreement reoccurred time andagain during the discussion and debates.• Population growth is of primary importance to the

economic, employment and social development ofthe non-formal sector. In some countries there hasbeen a tendency for population growth to outstripthe employment possibilities within the totaleconomy, let alone within the non-formal sector.This impacts seriously upon the non-formal sector,upon the potential for increasing training within it,on its employment potential, upon the infrastructureneeded to support its development and its increas-ing efficiency, and on the logistics of control.Thus, it was affirmed that the control of popula-tion growth is of primary importance to the devel-opment of an effective non-formal sector within theeconomy.

• There needs to be a greater articulation among thevarious economic sectors within a nation. Thus,the non-formal sector must be included in the totaleconomy in such a way as to allow for transitionfrom that sector to small business, to employmentwithin the formal sector, to the extending of com-petencies for progress within, or change of,employment, etc. To achieve this aim it was recog-nised that greater emphasis must be given totraining for the sector, to standards both ofproduct and employment, and to lifting the statusof the non-formal sector.

• Considerable importance was given to the need fortraining for the sector and within the sector. Theprovision of that training needs to be characterisedby flexibility , relevance, dynamic curricula thatreflect, as immediately as possible, the changes intechnology, and the diversification of competenciesneeded for sustained employment and employ-ability within the economy. In this context,emphasis was given to the need for competencies(knowledge, skills and attitudes) that go beyondtools and equipment to the preparation of people forthe real world of work . In the non-formal sector

Discussion and Debate Page 11

especially, these competencies would includesupport for self-employment, entrepreneurshipand individual initiative . Further, these compe-tencies need to be contextually relevant, andenable and encourage lifelong learning and devel-opment.

• The need for planning that develops co-ordinatedand well-thought-out plans for the various sectorsof the economy, especially the non-formal sector,and that are applied rigorously and consistently,was thoroughly endorsed. It was perceived thatsuch planning would facilitate the articulationamong the sectors mentioned above, would addressthe whole issue of training and the personnelneeded, and the essential competencies required bysuch personnel to deliver the training that willeffect the standards of production and outputnecessary for the informal sector to be integratedinto the economy. This planning would alsoaddress the legal framework necessary for theefficient functioning and development of the non-formal sector, the financial support of it that isessential, the provision of the infrastructurerequired for its development and diversification,and an appropriate balance between the inter-vention that is necessary for its controlled devel-opment within the context of the total economy,and the preservation of the freedom necessary forpersonal enterprise and entrepreneurship toflourish.

• The non-formal sector (especially if small-businessenterprise is included in that term) is of enormousimportance to employment and to the productionnecessary for the satisfaction of basic human needsin every part of the global economy. However, itwill not develop and flourish unless its statuswithin the economy and the society as a whole islifted. It was recognised that the whole issue of thestatus needed for education and training for theworld of work to be chosen by potential learners,and to be appropriately rewarded, is complex. Yetit was acknowledged to be of primary importance tothe addressing of employment and employability,of the levels of production necessary to satisfyhuman needs, of the lifting of productivity withinthe context of the global economy, and, thus, for itto be competitive within the economy as a whole.

• Closely related to the above issue was the recogni-tion that attitudes affect the economy, especiallythe non-formal sector, across a wide spectrum ofdimensions that are relevant to an efficient world ofwork. As a consequence, the formation of appro-priate and supporting attitudes must be an essentialpart of any education and training that relates to theworld of work. Such attitudes affect the attainingof the essential standards needed within the non-formal sector, the desire for the creative inde-

pendence needed for the choosing by appropriatepeople to engage within that sector, for people toenjoy a sense of satisfaction from their activitywithin the sector, for employment mobility acrosssectors to be maintained, and for financial supportto be given to the initiatives of people wanting toparticipate in the sector.

• It was generally agreed, in the light of the paperspresented, that the issue of gender and the supportthat needs to be given to girls and women in termsof the non-formal sector were, generally around theworld, not adequately addressed. There were someexceptions to this observation. However, all agreedthat this area of universal human concern todayshould also be in the forefront of support given forthe development of the non-formal sector.

• As could be expected from a group of highly-expe-rienced people who were seeking to analyse care-fully the needs of the non-formal sector, it becameincreasingly obvious as the discussion and debateswent on that there were more areas of uncertaintythan of certainty among the group. This led to arepeated affirmation by the participants of the needfor thorough research and studies to be under-taken in the various settings that allow for contex-tual relevance and reliable and valid data on whichthe multitude of decisions to be made over the nextdecade can be based. This strong consensus amongthe participants forms the most pressing recom-mendation that came from the Seminar. This isrecorded in the next section that enumerates therecommendations from the Seminar.

3.3 Discussion and debate addressingspecific issues

During the three days of discussion and debates,certain more global and common issues were con-stantly addressed. The following is a record of theconcepts and ideas expressed.

(a) The economyTechnical and vocational education is frequently rele-gated to a secondary position by politicians because aninsufficient number of them understand how vitallyimportant this area of education is and its primarycontribution to economic development. This is evenmore true of the politicians’ understanding of andattitudes to the non-formal sector. It was also assertedthat, frequently, formal education, and especially thehigher education sector, has a stronger lobby withinthe political world than does the non-formal sector andsmall-business enterprise. Thus, politicians must behelped to develop an increased understanding of thissector and its needs in order that it commands theattention and power over resources that are appropriatefor its healthy development.


It was felt that a paradox existed between the necessityfor the liberation of the market economy in order toestablish standards, high productivity and effectivecompetition on the one hand, but, on the other hand,the need to maintain sufficient protection to maintain aviable market for the output from the non-formal andsmall-business sector.

The control of land and space was also seen as animportant economic problem with respect to the sector.The congestion that is occurring in cities causes con-siderable difficulties and frequently causes land for useby the non-formal sector to become impossibly scarceand expensive. This again related to the infrastructurethat is essential to support the healthy development ofthe non-formal sector.

(b) EmploymentIt seems that increasingly market forces are allowed todetermine vital areas of decision-making without beingmodified by other social considerations. For theinformal sector to be able to succeed in this arena, self-employment competencies need to be developed.These competencies include the wide range of know-ledge, skills and attitudes needed to become an effec-tive and efficient entrepreneur. However, it was feltthat these competencies are difficult to develop, andthat the many failures in the non-formal sector tend toindicate this. This led to an expression of the need toimprove considerably the curricula and teaching re-lated to the development of entrepreneurial skills.

When discussing “employment” and “unemployment”it was recognised that these terms have tended tochange over the past years. Thus, to address the issuesthat relate to them fruitfully, there is an urgent need todefine the terms.

Various areas of the economy were seen to be signifi-cantly important with respect to employment. Theproblems relating to the immigrant population, to themobility of the worker, to the globalisation of theworld of work and its impact on training, to displacedpersons such as refugees, to gender within the workforce, and particularly to youth unemployment were allseen to be highly relevant to the non-formal sector andits potential for employment. It was noted that theSessional Paper Number One of 1986 (Kenya) on“Economic Development for Renewed Growth”recommended the encouragement of self-employmentas a partial solution to the unemployment problem.However, in this context, the problems that existwithin this sector are manifest crudity in standards:lack of quality, lack of organisational skills, lack ofmarketing skills and financial know-how. Theseproblems are closely linked to training. In this respect,it was felt that the formal institutions could help thenon-formal sector by including entrepreneurial com-

petencies in their own courses, and by assisting peoplein the non-formal sector and small-business enterpriseto undertake entrepreneurial initiatives. But emphasiswas placed on the complexity and comprehensivenessof entrepreneurial competencies. Thus, they need tobe developed well if the non-formal sector is tosucceed.

(c) FinanceIt was agreed that there are serious problems relatingto finance in the non-formal sector. Small-scale enter-prises must be established on a cost-effective basis. Ifthey are not, it is impossible for them to obtain theloans, from the government or other financial institu-tions, that they need. They must tap into financialdonors, and be genuinely income-generating entities.

A serious difficulty with respect to technical and voca-tional educational and training institutions becomingincome-generating entities that could contribute to thefinancial resources for the sector is that the incomegenerated often goes back to the Ministry and does notbecome a reward for entrepreneurial efforts. Thisdampens motivation.

Considerable discussion was held on the training levyas a means of finance. But the money obtained fromsuch a levy is often available to formal education andto creating jobs; not to the informal sector. Access tofinance is a very important issue for the non-formalsector. Frequently this is not possible for small busi-ness enterprises, and especially the non-formal sector.

It was also noted that many activities in the non-formalsector are donor-funded and, thus, they become diffi-cult to sustain when the donors pull out.

(d) Education and trainingThe problems with technical and vocational educationand training that seem to be common among most ofthe countries represented in the Seminar are relevance,equity, access, quality and lack of a national trainingstrategy. It was felt that there is a great need for theintegration of technical and vocational education andtraining with secondary and general education.

In terms of teaching/learning strategies, it was stronglyasserted that education and training should go to wherethe people are; and not always expect that the learnermust come to where the training institutions are.Again, too often foreign syllabuses are used in theeducation systems of developing countries. These maynot be at all relevant. Nor may they suit the appropri-ate teaching/learning strategies for a particular com-munity. With respect to the syllabuses, it was felt thatthere is also a real mismatch between training pro-grammes and industrial experience in most of thecountries addressed. Again, it was voiced that students

Discussion and Debate Page 13

may have toolkits, and gain the necessary knowledge,but still not be successful. Education is not just aboutknowledge and equipment, but about standards, atti-tudes and competencies.

The problems of lack of education and training aremarginalising a significant portion of the population.We need to evaluate our educational experience: whathave we learned from it? People must be able to takein the changes that are in their context of the world ofwork and apply their learning to these, or adapt theirlearning to them. Thus, people must learn how tolearn so that they can adapt themselves to, and prog-ress in, the light of change.

Some discussion was had about the place of standards.Some felt that if we insist too much on standards thenwe may marginalise the marginalised – the non-formalworkers. Others felt that standards were of primarysignificance. Most felt that with the reality of globali-sation and competition, standards and quality areimperative. Agitating for acceptable standards fromboth the formal and informal sector should not be con-strued as marginalising the informal sector producers,but rather as taking them aboard so that they ultimatelymake it into the competitive global world. Further, itwas felt that the possibility of providing protection ofindustry in a particular country was fast becomingimpossible. It was also recognised that there is a closeand important relationship between evaluation andcertification of learning experiences.

The stakeholders in this area of education and trainingneed to be co-ordinated. Such stakeholders are:private training institutions, public training institu-tions, industry, various government departments andministries, and trade unions. This related to thequestion of how people graduate up the career andemployment ladder. Is it possible for them to go fromthe non-formal sector, to small-business enterprise,and on to larger institutions of employment? Thishighlighted the reality that many people who areengaged in the non-formal sector have no education atall. Thus the transition, or progress, within the worldof work becomes very difficult.

This caused the group to consider also the question ofthe retraining of graduates and the reality of lifelonglearning. It is possible to upgrade the skills of appren-tices who have graduated many years ago? What areinstitutions doing about retrenchment? It seems thatthere is no education directed towards people who getinto the non-formal sector. That is, there is really no,or very little, preparation for the world of work. Thereis also the problem that courses given to assist thedevelopment of competencies for this sector do notlead to formal qualifications.

Another problem is that equipment on which studentsare trained may be very sophisticated: for example, inmedicine. But then the graduate goes back to a villagewhere the facilities are much less sophisticated. Also,many of the best facilities are situated in urban areasand are therefore inaccessible to many rural dwellers.

Whenever training takes place it should allow foradaptability to new situations and be responsive totechnological change and to changing social needs.Open-air training was recommended as adjusting to theproblems of insufficient equipment and facilities.Distance education was recommended as a way ofbringing education to the learner. Competency-basededucation was seen as a means of establishing relevantopen-entry open-exit systems of learning and thedevelopment of competencies as they are needed andrelevant. There is a need to open up workshops andtheir equipment, etc. to be used for a fee by the in-formal sector over weekends for the purposes oftraining and production. The question of the adapt-ability of skills needs to be addressed in the light of thedifferences that exist between the world of work andtraining institutions.

(e) CurriculumSerious problems were expressed in terms of curricu-lum development for technical and vocational educa-tion and training. It was felt that curriculum develop-ment was not fast enough to keep up with the changesin technology. The computer is a good example. Bythe time a curriculum has been developed to deal withthe competencies needed with present understandingand skills, those competencies have become out-dated.Thus, the curriculum tends always to be draggingbehind the contemporary knowledge and practice.This exacerbates the problems of relevance of theskills developed by graduates and limits the demandfor their employment Thus, curricula must be flexibleand ready to adapt to change. Participatory develop-ment of curricula was advocated where all the stake-holders would contribute.

Cultural thinking and appreciation should be includedin all technical and vocational training curricula.Further, an appreciation for the environment and thedevelopment of attitudes to protect it should charac-terise all technical and vocational education and train-ing curricula. Again, all education should develop andextend the capacity of learners to become criticalthinkers. This is important in technical and vocationaleducation and training as well as in general education.

(f) Teachers/trainersThe corollary of these problems with the curricula isthat of teacher/trainer training. If the curriculum iskept up to date, how are the teachers up-dated in their


knowledge and skills to teach and demonstrate the newcompetencies? In the face of change and the dynamicsof development, how do we effectively train the train-ers? That is, if we are to have good teaching, then thequestion must be asked as to how to prepare the im-plementers of training: teachers and industry trainers.This was seen as a vital issue to be addressed.

(g) Jua Kali in KenyaJua Kali in Swahili means ‘hot sun’. Over the courseof years it has come to be used to refer to the informalor non-formal sector of the economy. It is now knownin Kenya as the Jua Kali Development Programme.

Kenya is experimenting. There are no clear results andsometimes the experiments are not really relevant andto the point. However, it is trying to find answers tothe most pressing problems facing this vital sector. Ithas faced the difficulties of Kenya in recent years thathave included problems of drought, structural adjust-ment, high debt, and refugee influx that have sloweddown economic growth. Kenya is working in asituation in which the economy, the society, technol-ogy and many other aspects of human behaviour andthinking are dynamic. Thus, it is confronted daily withchange; and we must learn to adjust to it in a positive,creative and constructive way.

The Jua Kali’s value and place needs to be deeplyembedded into the society if it is to develop, improveand increase its economic potential. Again, it needs tohave a very real and effective relationship with othereconomic entities within the society: both the middleman and the larger scale enterprises. Frequently thestatus of the informal sector makes it the ‘next best’ ifthe person fails to get into the formal sector. This doesnot encourage the non-formal sector as a real andimportant entity within the economy and the world ofwork. The image of the sector is, however, rapidlychanging.

Policy seems to be confused and it is hard to develop asubstantive policy. However, significant steps havebeen taken in the process of policy development. Butour aims must be clear in education and, particularly,in technical and vocational education. In general, itmust be focused on improvement in the quality of life.Technical and vocational education and training oughtto contribute to (a) world peace, and (b) the twoessential freedoms: freedom from fear and freedomfrom want.

There is the important question of who should repre-sent the informal sector in the decision-making bodieswithin the society, politics and the economy. This ledto a significant emphasis on the need for flexibility.The question was posed as to how inflexibility can bechanged. Inflexibility is often related to formal pro-cesses, bureaucracies, approving processes, etc. thatcause the outcomes of curricula efforts to be irrelevantby the time they receive approval and are imple-mented. Thus, again, flexibility was emphasised asessential to responding to change.

The political stability of a country is extremelyimportant for the development of a country and itseconomic prosperity. This also affects training andeducation.

Two locations of the Jua Kali were visited by the par-ticipants. These visits were led by the officials of thelocations and explained to the participants. It wasobserved that the problems of space were critical.Plans to improve training were manifested by newbuildings, partly finished, that are designed to providefor training. The general working environment wasfelt by many participants to be inferior and could beimproved. It was obvious that this resulted partly fromthe critical shortage of space. Safety was a factor thatseemed to need careful attention. The need foremphasis on training, standards, and targeting specificmarkets was reinforced by these visits.

Recommendations Page 15

4 RecommendationsA National Strategy is needed to be developed by allcountries that defines:a) a vision for this sector,b) the aims and objectives,c) the time frame for implementation,d) that considers carefully the social and economic

factors operating,e) that looks at the environment, andf) studies carefully the context in which technical

and vocational education and the non-formalsector is operating.

In-depth studies of the non-formal sector and therole of small-business enterprise in economic devel-opment should be undertaken. An attempt at such astudy has been done in Botswana, as evidenced byPEER consultants report of February 1997.

1. Small entrepreneurs who show the will andwhose products and/or services have the poten-tial for improving the lives of those participatingin the enterprise world should be assisted by

government intervention through financial andlogistic support with suitable shelter and basicequipment to enhance the quality of productsand services from the non-formal sector andfrom small-business enterprises.

2. Legal support of the non-formal sector should begiven and should be thoroughly implemented.

3. Governments, and other responsible entities inthe various nations, should address seriously theproblems of school drop-outs and youthunemployment and determine the contributionthat the non-formal sector can make to solvingthese problems.

4. There must be national support of regulatorypopulation growth if the problems ofunemployment are to be solved.

5. Every nation should develop a positive actionfor female participation in technical andvocational education and training.

Participants’ Presentations

5 Participants’ Presentations

5.1 A Position Paper:“Technical and Vocational Educa-tion and Training Policy in Kenya”by Mr Peter O. OKAKA

Mr Okaka is Director of Technical Training, Ministry ofResearch, Technical Training and Technology, Nairobi,Kenya.

(1) Population .................................................................................... 16(2) Economic situation....................................................................... 16(3) Human resource development...................................................... 17(4) Labour market issues ................................................................... 17(5) Technical and vocational education and training system........... 18(6) Objectives of technical and vocational education and training.. 19(7) TVET programmes – policy guidelines........................................ 20(8) Summary of recommendations..................................................... 20(9) Women in TVET ........................................................................... 21(10) Technical teacher training programmes ................................... 21(11) Financing of the TVET............................................................... 22(12) Conclusions and future focus..................................................... 23

(1) PopulationKenya’s population during the 1989 census was esti-mated to be 22.1 million, and subsequent year (1990)estimated population was 22.8 million, a growth of3.6% per annum. It was noted that, if this trend con-tinued, Kenya will have a population of about 30.1million by the year 2000.

According to the same census of 1989, the age compo-sition of its population portrayed the followingfeatures: 59% of Kenyan are people aged less that 20years, and, by contrast, the most productive group aged20 to 59 years constituted only 36% of the populationwhile 18% of the total population (3.8 million) werechildren under 5 years. Further to this, 20% of thesame population, 4.3 million, were women of child-bearing age (i.e. 15 to 49 years old). These populationtrends have continued to remain the same.

To this end, the current population potential will con-tinue to influence the size and expansion of educationand training sectors in an effort to cope with increasingdemands of education and training from the school-going age.

According to the current projections of population forKenya (1980-2000), it is estimated that the number ofprimary school children (6-12 years) by the year 2000will be between 7 and 9 million. As stated earlier,there will be a high demand for education, training andemployment. This is a major challenge to be faced andaddressed by our country, even if fertility andmortality decline or remain constant.

(2) Economic situationThe Kenya government during the last three decadeshas been committed to provide avenues for all her citi-zens to participate fully in the economic developmentof their nation, and consequently endeavour to achievea decent standard of living.

During this period, Kenya has witnessed mixedeconomic performances which have included variedstandards of living of her citizens. The first decade ofKenya’s independence saw Gross Domestic Product(GDP) grow by an average of 6.5% annually. Thisgrowth was indeed far above the population growthrate and ensured that the citizens enjoyed growing per-capita incomes.

This was made possible through expanded agriculturalcultivation of high value crops which indigenousKenyans were denied opportunity to grow during thecolonial era.

During the second decade of Kenya’s Independence,the then good economic performance declined due to anumber of factors. The major factors included adverseeffects of world economic recession, the first oil crisisof 1973, increased population growth rate, drought,refugee influx from other neighbouring countries, andexternal debt problems.

However, since 1986 to 1993, the Governmentaddressed itself to the strategies of reversing the trendby formulating and implementing Structural Adjust-ment Programmes (SAPs) contained in the SessionalPaper No. 1, 1986, on Economic Management forRenewed Growth.

This problem of economic stagnation was tackledthrough three major policy fronts, namely: the integralrole of the private sector in the economy and theimpact of high budget deficits of restrictive foreigntrade policies. New trends and concepts such as cost-sharing, retrenchment, sale of parastatals, pricedecontrols, removal of import licensing, foreignexchange deregulation and removal of Governmentsubsidies have featured very much in our currenteconomic management practices. Although thesepolicies have over-stretched the people, the govern-ment has stabilised the economy and revived growth:GDP grew by 3% in 1994, 5% in 1995 and anestimated 6% in 1996.

In spite of these economic hardships, the governmenthas continued to give high priority to education and

Participants’ Presentations Page 17

training which takes over 38% of the Government’sAnnual Recurrent Budget.

(3) Human resource developmentThe Government has always considered the humanresource as the most critical input in the mobilisationfor national development needs.

In summary, to date there are 5.5 million pupils inprimary schools, 620,000 pupils in secondary schools,64,200 students in vocational and technical traininginstitutes, 20,000 in teachers colleges and 40,000 innational universities. In 1995, of 400,000 pupils whodid the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education, only45% proceeded to secondary schools, and of 140,000who did the Kenya Certificate of Education, only 6.6%will join the national universities. There is, therefore,an urgent need to train and absorb the large numbers ofboth primary and secondary school-leavers in produc-tive economic activities.

In order to establish the changing skill demands in thecountry, the Kenya Government carried out a man-power survey, between 1986-88, which revealed thatan overall demand of occupational employment in themodern sector is expected to grow by 40% per year(Carpentry and Joinery, Textiles and Food Processing– 10%, Electrical Trades – 7%, MechanicalEngineering – 8% and Business Courses – 4%). Theprojected growth is consistent with the prediction ofSessional Paper No. 1 of 1986 on “EconomicManagement for Renewed Growth”.

Since the informal sector is expected to play a majorrole in economic activities, it follows that a good pro-portion of the products of technical training instituteswill be absorbed by the sector. The actual absorptivecapacity of the sector has not been determined but it isestimated that the sector will create about 100,000 jobsper year. What is critical is to develop training pro-grammes which are market-driven in order to achievethis target.

However, the liberal arts related courses will continueto be dormant at under graduate level. The plan is toannually increase the science-based courses so as toachieve a ratio of 50:50 for science to arts disciplines.Increased participation of women will be realised bylowering female entry points by one point.

There is still some degree of uncertainty in the demandfor skills in the economy. To start with, there is a needto carry out a new manpower survey since the onecarried out in 1986 is now outdated. Even when a newmanpower survey is carried out the accuracy ofprojections will depend on, amongst other things,demographic trends and policy changes which openeconomies to international trade and technological

change; factors which in themselves are very difficultto predetermine.

(4) Labour market issues

Labour Market AnalysisThe Kenya Government recognises the importance ofLabour Market Analysis and monitoring as a basis foremployment policy and programme formulation. Asound labour market analysis and monitoring system isnecessary for capturing early signals of disturbances inthe labour market; assessing the changing employmentand unemployment situation; formulation of well-targeted policies and programmes; and for monitoringthe impact of specific policies and programme incen-tives.

The current Development Plan, 1994-1996, and theSessional Paper No. 1 of 1994 on Recovery and Sus-tainable Development to the Year 2010 underscore theimportance of a sound information-base on employ-ment trends and labour market development. TheSessional Paper further states that the Governmentwill:

Pursue active labour market policies, monitor thelabour market situations and trends, undertake occu-pational research to provide accurate and reliablelabour market information, provide vocational guid-ance and counselling services to individuals andgroups and also develop and strengthen employmentpromotion services provided in the District Employ-ment Bureaux, collect reliable information onemployment in different socio-economic sectors,household incomes and standards of living.

Labour Market SituationKenya, like other developing countries, is faced with acomplex employment problem. First is the problem ofopen unemployment characterised by people withoutwork and are either seen idling around or activelylooking for work. This problem is mostly prevalent inthe urban areas and the majority of the openly unem-ployed are young and relatively more educated.

Second is the problem of under-employment and lowproductivity which is most prevalent in the rural agri-culture and the urban informal sector. Under-employ-ment and low productivity are characterised by peoplewho work for long hours yet the income from theirwork is not enough to meet their basic needs and/orpeople who would be better deployed doing somethingelse. Third is the youth employment problem which iswidespread in both the urban and rural areas. Theyouth employment problem is characterised by a mis-match between demand and supply in the labourmarket. Whereas the majority of the youth lack tech-nical and vocational skills, many of the jobs in thelabour market require such skills.


It is estimated that about 25% of the labour force arecurrently openly unemployed. It is further projectedthat the labour force will increase from 11.5 million in1996 to 14.6 million in the year 2000. The task ofproviding enough jobs for the 492,000 persons whowill be entering the labour force every year between1996 and the year 2000 is not an easy one. In order toprovide full employment for this rapidly growinglabour force, it is projected that employment mustgrow at a rate of 4.3% annually between 1996 and theyear 2010, or 492,000 jobs annually totalling to 6.4million jobs over the period 1996-2010.

About 59.9% of all new jobs between 1996 and theyear 2010 are expected to be created in the traditionalagriculture and the rural non-farm sector, and tradi-tional agriculture alone is expected to create about46% of all new jobs over the period. The secondlargest share of new jobs is expected to be created inthe urban informal sector accounting for 23.5%,followed by the modern sector which is expected tocreate 17.4% of all new jobs between 1996 and theyear 2010.

Labour Market PoliciesA number of policy approaches have been pursuedsince Independence in 1963 with regard to employ-ment. The employment policy pursued during the firstdecade of Independence was basically concerned withKenyanisation of jobs previously occupied by foreign-ers and the expansion of education and training to pro-vide required skills for Kenyans.

Other measures that have been pursued to address theunemployment problem include the three TripartiteAgreements implemented in 1964, 1970 and 1979;promotion of informal sector employment; rural worksprogrammes.

The current Government employment policy aims atnot only providing jobs to all Kenyans who are ableand willing to work, but also to ensure that theemployment provided is productive. The elements ofthe policy include:• Improving productivity in all sectors of the econ-

omy.• Providing an enabling environment from private

sector led economic growth.• Promotion of human resources development in line

with the changing needs of the economy.• Accelerating of agricultural sector growth.• Increase in smallholders productivity, and• Expansion of rural employment.• Integration of women and mainstream economic

activities.

• Development of appropriate programmes tailored toalleviate the unemployment problem among theyouth through special youth development pro-grammes.

To this end the MRTT&T has a heavy responsibility toformulate programmes which will meet the aspirationsof this nation.

(5) Technical and vocational education andtraining system

Historical overview of TVETTechnical training as an art and science began inKenya a very long time ago. Long before the arrival ofthe Europeans, Kenyans knew how to build theirhouses, fashion agricultural implements, and makespears, knives, hoes, axes, cooking utensils and watercontainers, etc. The ancient art and technical skillsmade the life of our people relatively more comfort-able to a degree allowed by their own national envi-ronment and skill competencies. Traditionally, theseskills were passed from father to son within the familyor clan in form of an apprenticeship system.

The coming of the Europeans and the decision to buildthe Uganda railway which attracted the Indian tradersand labourers were instrumental in the training of arti-sans and craftsmen at Kabete Native Industrial Train-ing Deport starting from 1924. The Christian Mis-sionaries brought in technicians and made an effort totrain Kenyans in the different skills to assist in themaintenance of the services and the operations. Suchplaces as Mumias, Kikuyu and Machakos were earlysites for technical training.

Growth and DevelopmentThe second world war brought a greater influx ofpeople, more sophisticated equipment and machinery,and a greater need for training. Army corps wereestablished, and recruitment on a very large scalebegan among the Kenyans. The need was for drivers,mechanics, builders, electricians, welders, carpenters,clerks, etc. More so-called fundis brought their skillsafter the war and set themselves up in the locations ascraftsmen and were very useful. In the late forties andearly fifties, there were more young Kenyans qualify-ing from primary schools. The industrial depots wereupgraded to vocational schools and in the early sixtieswere again converted to secondary vocational schools.

Another major breakthrough for technical and voca-tional training in Kenya was the setting up in 1954 of aCommission for Higher Education whose mainrecommendation was the establishment of the RoyalTechnical College, Nairobi. This institution laterbecame Nairobi University College and thereafterUniversity of Nairobi. The Mombasa Institute of


Moslem Education was already in existence havingbeen established in 1948 to provide technical andvocational education to Moslem students of EastAfrica. In 1966, it was converted into MombasaTechnical Institute and became Mombasa Polytechnicin 1972. In 1961, the Kenya Polytechnic was estab-lished to provide basic craft courses which werephased out beginning in 1966 following the intro-duction of similar courses in vocational schools andtechnical high schools.

Since independence, there has been tremendousgrowth and development of technical and vocationaleducation and training as a result of direct governmentinvolvement and community participation. In the late1960s and 1970s, the government developed industrialeducation in 35 secondary schools. At the same time,18 technical secondary schools were established tooffer technical education at secondary level. Thesewere converted into technical training institutes in1986 and started offering artisan courses. In 1987,there were 4 national polytechnics, 17 institutes oftechnology, 4 vocational training programmes forschool-leavers run by Government Ministries, para-statals, non-governmental organisations, industrialfirms and private individuals.

There has been a great increase in student enrolment.In 1964, for instance, technical training institutionshad an enrolment of 2,065 students which increased to8,025 in 1975. To date, these institutions have a totalenrolment of 60,000 students.

Technical and vocational training has come throughmany phases and patterns, and now it is no longerregarded exclusively for the second and third-ratestudent; but is a very important and integral part ofKenya’s education system. It is now accelerated; andprogrammes of far-reaching importance have beendeveloped.

(6) Objectives of technical and vocationaleducation and training

Over the last thirty-three years, during which periodKenya has been independent, the government has con-tinuously reviewed the education and training systemso as to ensure that it serves and satisfies the aspira-tions of the country’s youth as well as cater for thewider interests of national development. It is evidentthat the development of technical and vocational edu-cation and training in Kenya during the three decadescan be traced back to the following four major educa-tion reviews:

1. The Kenya Education Commission of 1964/65under the chairmanship of Prof. S. H. Ominde.

2. The National Committee for Educational Objec-tives and Policies (NCEOP) of 1996 under thechairmanship of the late Mr Peter Gachathi.

3. The Presidential Working Party on Second Univer-sity in Kenya of 1981 under the chairmanship ofProf. C. B. Mackay.

4. The Presidential Working Party on Education andManpower Training for the Next Decade andBeyond of 1988 under the chairmanship of Mr J.M. Kamunge.

The Mackay Report culminated in recommending therestructuring of Kenya’s education system from8:4:2:3 to the 8:4:4 system.

This recommendation was accepted by the governmentin March 1982, and its implementation started inJanuary 1985. As an implementation strategy, theeducation system was divided into four cycles:

PEP – Primary Education ProgrammeSEP – Secondary Education ProgrammeTEP – Technical Education ProgrammeUEP – University Education Programme.

In this system of 8:4:4, each cycle is terminal. Thecurricula developed are diversified by injecting voca-tional oriented subjects at all levels.

The country hopes to achieve the following withimproved TVET systems:• With emphasis on technical and vocational educa-

tion at primary and secondary school levels, thefocus is to ensure that students graduating at everylevel have some scientific and practical knowledgethat can be utilised for either self-employment,salaried employment or further training.

• Reducing the mismatch between supply anddemand of skilled manpower and provide for thosewho would otherwise have wished to pursue furthereducation, moulding the attitudes of the youthtowards the world of work.

To this end, the pre-vocational component at variouslevels of education and training system in Kenyaspecifically aims at achieving the following:

The Primary Education CycleThis target the populations of six-year-old children.The primary education aims at providing the childrenwith adequate intellectual and practical skills usefulfor living in both urban and rural areas.

The primary education curriculum is based on threebroad principles which are: improving its quality,content and relevance to cater for the majority ofchildren for whom primary education is terminal,


availability to all primary-school-age children, anddiversifying primary education in order to enhancecompetence in a variety of development tasks to enablethe pupils to make useful and functional articles.

In addition to academic subjects, the curriculumincludes such practical subjects as:• Home Science (with topics such as needlework,

child care, food preparation and care of home).• Art and Craft (with topics such as drawing,

painting, graphic design, collage/mosaic, weaving,ornament making, clay work/pottery, leatherwork,modelling and carving, fabric, design puppetry,woodwork, metal and building construction).

• Agriculture (with practical activities such asgrowing crops, rearing of domestic animals, poultryand bee-keeping, making farm tools, caring for thesoil and environment).

The Secondary Education CycleThe target population for this level are the children of14 years. The cycle aims at preparing the learner tomake a positive contribution to the development of asociety, building a firm and enriched foundation forfurther education and training, and instilling the kindsof attitudes that are in line with development endeav-ours of both the individual and the nation.

Along with academic subjects, the curricula includesagriculture, woodwork, metalwork, power mechanics,electricity, drawing and design, building construction,home science, business education (accounts, com-merce, typing and office practice), art and design, andmusic. Students are required to take at least one prac-tical subject.

Technical and Vocational Education andTrainingKenya’s main aim of the technical and vocational edu-cation and training policy is to improve the quality oftraining at all levels so that the trained manpower canenhance and sustain a high level of economic devel-opment which would in turn improve the quality of lifeby raising the standards of living.

The technical and vocational education and trainingprogrammes are designed to achieve the followingnational aims and also be in line with the recommen-dations of the Sessional Paper No. 6 of 1988 onEducational and Manpower Training for the NextDecade and Beyond, and that contained in the PolicyDocument on the 8:4:4 System of Education of 1st

December, 1984:• To provide increased training opportunities for the

increasing number of school-leavers to enable themto be self-supporting.

• To develop practical skills and attitudes which willlead to income-generating activities in the urbanand rural areas through self-employment.

• To provide practical education and training skillswhich are responsive and relevant to Kenya’s agri-cultural, industrial, commercial and economicneeds.

• To provide the technical knowledge and vocationalskills necessary to enhance the pace of this nation’sdevelopment.

• To encourage self-employment while at the sametime producing skilled artisans, technicians andtechnologists for both formal and informal sectorsat the ratio of 1 technologist to 5 technicians to 30craftsmen/artisans (1:5:30).

(7) TVET programmes – policy guidelinesThe Ministry of Technical Training and AppliedTechnology was created on 24th March, 1988, andtherefore the implementation of the technical andvocational education and training became its responsi-bility.

In accordance to the government plans to harmoniseand rationalise the curricula currently being offeredand certificates being awarded by all training institu-tions in the country, the National Industrial TrainingCouncil and the Ministry of Technical Training andApplied Technology organised a seminar on Harmoni-sation and Rationalisation of Curricula, Examinationsand Certification in Technical and Vocational Trainingfrom 21-25 November, 1988, at Mombasa BeachHotel. The aim of the seminar was to discuss theexisting technical and vocational training programmesand come up with strategies for harmonisation andrationalising of:• Curricula, examination and certification• Recruitment of trainees• In-plant training (industrial attachment)• Technical teacher training• Jua Kali Development Programmes• Planning and development of training programmes.

The recommendations as listed below, made in theseminar and those of the 1986 committee, laid thefoundation of development of TEP. The emphasis wasto ensure properly harmonised curricula and certifica-tion through KIE and KNEC respectively; for all insti-tutional-based training programmes would substan-tially assist in maintaining comparable standards ofperformance, accuracy in determining job levels, andcreation of linkages which allow flexibility for bothvertical and horizontal mobility of trainees.

(8) Summary of recommendations1. The Government should streamline all training

programmes in order to enhance and sustain highlevel of economic development.


2. For a balanced economy to exist, there should be astable base of adequately trained manpower suchthat the ratio of technologists: technicians, crafts-men and artisan is about 1:10:30.

3. The technical and vocational education andtraining should form an alternative route throughwhich one can rise to the top.

4. The route to technician Diploma programmeshould be through the Artisan and Craft orientationprogrammes. The 8:4:4 should provide linkageson various levels of education and training.

5. The Government should increase training opportu-nities by making full use of Youth Polytechnics,Technical Training Institutes, National Polytech-nics and Public Universities.

6. The Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) andprivate firms should be encouraged to continueproviding training to the youth of this sector.

7. The government should collaborate with industryin curriculum development. In this way, thetraining system will be harmonised through the useof centrally developed curricula.

8. All curricula for courses outside University shouldbe co-ordinated and approved by the Kenya Insti-tute of Education (KIE). KIE should be strength-ened in technical personnel to facilitate co-ordina-tion of these activities.

9. To eliminate the problems of equivalencies andaccreditation, the examination and certificationoutside the University should be the sole responsi-bility of the Kenya National Examination Council(KNEC). The KNEC should, therefore, bestrengthened in the area of skill testing.

10. The Directorate of Industrial Training (DIT)should collaborate with KNEC in the area of skilltesting. Therefore, the Regulations/Legislationgoverning KNEC and DIT should be harmonisedin this regard.

11. University Education Programmes (UEP) shouldbe designed to accommodate candidates from boththe academic route and technical and vocationaleducation and training route.

12. The Kenya Technical Teacher’s College (KTTC)trainees should be exposed to industrial situationsif they have to be effective in their instructing/training activity in the TEP programmes.The Industry, Directorate of Industrial Training(DIT), Federation of Kenya Employers (FKE),Kenya Association of Manufacturers (KAM),Trade Unions and the government should be part-ners in this endeavour.It will be necessary, therefore, to revise somelegislation to facilitate the training, industrialattachment and cost sharing in this exercise.

13. The School Equipment Production Unit (SEPU)should be streamlined in order to produce goodquality, low priced equipment and tools to supportthe 8:4:4 system of education and training. Thewell-developed Harambee Institutes of Technologyshould also be used to produce some hand-workingtools.

14. Legislation governing Harambee Institutes ofTechnology should be streamlined if the Ministryresponsible for training is to have control overthem.

15. The public should be educated to accept vocationaleducation and training as an alternative route forcareer development. The VOK and ProvincialAdministration should be used fully for this exer-cise.

16. The best school-leavers with technical aptitudeshould be selected for vocational and technicaleducation and training. The timing of selectionshould be conducted at the same time when Form1 or University entrants are being selected.

17. The placing of a candidate to the training shouldbe based on interests of the applicant. Theinterests of a candidate should be obtained fromsimple aptitude tests. Continuous assessmentduring Primary and Secondary cycles should givean indication of the candidate’s inclination.

18. A scheme of service should be worked out to har-monise remuneration for technically and vocation-ally trained and academically trained personnel.

(9) Women in TVETWomen comprise approximately 50% of the worldpopulation, yet according to the available statistics,nearly 70% of the low-income earners are women.

In Kenya, the present comparative figures in educationand training are not very encouraging. In PrimarySchools, the population of girls is slightly above 50%and in Secondary Schools it is approximately 40%. InTechnical Training Programmes at tertiary level, it isas low as 3%.

In a country geared for industrial take off, it means thatthe job opportunities for girls and women are going tobe seriously affected. However, it is important to notethat the programmes introduced under the 8:4:4 systemof education are non-discriminatory. The major issuesare more of cultural aspects which need to be focused.

(10) Technical teacher training programmesThe effectiveness of any education system is depend-ent upon quality of teaching and availability of qualityteachers at all levels.

The Kenya Technical Teachers College (KTTC) wasestablished to meet the need for a wide range of teach-


ers in technical and business education. KTTC trainsteachers for business and technical education in YouthPolytechnics, Secondary Schools, Technical TrainingInstitutes, Institutes of Technology, National Polytech-nics, Primary Teachers’ Colleges, Colleges forInstructors and Vocational Training Centres.

Since 1989, Kenya Technical Teachers College phasedout the initial long-term training programmes of 3 to 4years and is now mounting 1 to 2 years technicalteacher training programmes.

The one-year technical training programmes cater forapplicants with technical qualifications and a mini-mum of two years’ work experience in their areas ofspecialisation. A two-years training programme meantto upgrade the technical skills of trainees whileundertaking teacher training is also available.

Technical training programmes offered at the Institutesof Technology and Technical Training Institutes arebeing expanded and diversified. To meet technicalteacher requirements for the new programmes, KTTChas embarked on in-service courses for serving techni-cal teachers in order to upgrade their skills to higherdiploma level.

(11) Financing of the TVETAs stated earlier, the economic conditions caused byglobal economic recession, rapid population growth,adverse weather conditions, influx of refugees andIMF instituted Structural Adjustment Programmeshave generated some negative effects on the socialsystem. The adverse economic conditions haveaffected the efficiency of vocational technical trainingprogrammes both internally and externally. It hastherefore become a very great challenge to all stake-holders in the technical and vocational education andtraining to bring out suitable programmes to meet thedemands of the economy. The greatest constraints inthis endeavour is the scarcity of resources: mainlyfinancial. Financing of technical and vocational edu-cation and training programmes has always beenshared amongst government, local communities, bene-ficiaries, religious and private organisations, donorsand private persons.

The following are the various sources:1. State Budgets. The role played by government in

financing TVET becomes most necessary, and cannever be fully replaced by contributions from othersocial partners or by the market forces.

2. International Aid. Donor agencies have contributedsignificantly to the development of technical andvocational training in Kenya. The funds are eitherdisbursed through the Government or Non-Govern-ment agencies directly to the training institutions.The funds are used for development purposes

especially in the area of buildings, machinery andequipment, as well as for running costs of theinstitutions.The apparent lack of sustainability of the donor-started programmes is a serious problem that needsto be addressed. It was thought that donor agenciesand institutions should conveniently build sustain-ability financing components in the programmes sothat when the donor withdraws the funding of pro-grammes and projects they should still be able toexpand and to maintain the standards in a self-sus-tainable manner, either through fees, multi-pur-poses production units or other sustainable forms offund-raising.

3. Employers Funding. The industrial sector played aleading role in the country in the training of theirrequired manpower especially during the period1960s - 70s. This was mainly because during thisperiod there was a critical shortage of technicallyqualified people and each industry had to train tomeet its needs. Employees were sponsored by theiremployers to undertake courses in approved techni-cal training institutions until 1988 when the policywas changed and self-sponsorship was introduced.

4. Training Levy Fund. Employer funding of trainingis provided for under the Industrial Training Act,Cap 237. The Act provides for the collection of theIndustrial Training Fund through a mandatory levyscheme for all employers of more than four peopleand currently applies to 11 industrial sectors.

5. Beneficiaries Contributions. The beneficiaries payfunds in the form of fees to subsidise their training.In practice, individuals have financed their trainingthrough various ways, including accepting reducedwages during training (e.g. the 20% of salary costsharing in the Civil Service), and the use of familysavings or borrowing of money from other sourcesto pay training fees. The current government policyis to encourage cost sharing in the financing of allaspects of education and training.

The majority of students in the technical training insti-tutions are currently self-sponsored. However, it isworth noting that while the government is encouragingcost sharing, technical training can be expensiveespecially in view of the flexibility currently requiredin the labour market. Also, there are some studentswho cannot afford to pay the cost of training from theirown family sources. To promote equity in the accessto education and training, it is noted that the govern-ment has stated that the current Students’ LoanScheme for University Students will be extended tostudents in other institutions such as the NationalPolytechnics. It is thought that this is a commendablemove by the government and that the scheme shouldbe conveniently extended to cover other levels ofinstitutions particularly the Institutes of Technology


and other approved specialised Industrial TrainingCentres and Institutions. In this way industrial trainingwill be sufficiently geared towards meeting theprofessional/technical manpower required forsustainable industrialisation in the country.

(12) Conclusion and future focusKenya’s TVET is comparatively developed andtargeted at a wider cross-section of the populationincluding the Informal Sector. The current strategiesand policy guidelines for the provision of TVET at alllevels is a clear evidence of ability to aim for a strongco-ordinated, well-planned and managed trainingsystem which is flexible enough to respond to theneeds of society, industry, business and, to a largerextent, to the individual in the Jua Kali Sector.

Numerous issues linked up with training such asexpansion of training to increase the training opportu-nities, the provision of adequate financial and humanresources, creation of employment for both male andfemale, and the promotion of the internal sector as amajor source of employment for our youth are some ofthe issues which need to be continuously streamlinedand rationalised.

As an effort of trying to meet the nation’s developmenttargets including that of job creation to the tune of 4.5million by the year 2010, the training has to continuebeing made relevant to cater for the rapid scientificand technological development necessary to transformthe Kenyan society each day.

The focus for now and future is to mobilise the avail-able human and financial resources to build a capabil-ity sufficient to enable Kenya to achieve her develop-ment targets. The policies the government has put inplace need to be promoted and enhanced. Theseinclude: development of result oriented training poli-cies to stimulate stakeholders’ participation in training;the cost sharing strategies; means to sustain the insti-tutional infrastructure and programmes; institutionalcapacity building – just to mention a few. All thesechallenges need support from our stakeholders in edu-cation and training.

5.2 A Position Paperby Professor B. Wanjala KERRE

Dr Kerre is Associate Professor of Technology Educationwithin the Moi University, in Eldoret, Kenya.

(1) Overview........................................................................................23(2) Introduction...................................................................................24(3) The role of TVET in national development ..................................24(4) TVET in the formal education systems in Africa..........................25(5) Administration of technical and vocational education ................26(6) Financing ......................................................................................27(7) TVET curriculum in schools .........................................................27

(8) Major challenges ..........................................................................28(9) Future prospects ...........................................................................29(10) Government contribution............................................................29(11) Contribution from non-governmental organisations and

enterprises ..................................................................................29(12) Contribution from formal TVET institutions..............................30(13) Conclusions.................................................................................30

(1) Overview

Introduction1. TVET well acknowledge as crucial to notional

development within the world of work:• UNESCO Convention on Technical and Voca-

tional Education.• UNEVOC activities,• World Bank Education Policies,• National Policies.

2. This paper is meant to sensitise policy makers toTVET beyond the formal sector.

Role of TVET• Individual growth – knowledge, skills and attitudes• Preparation for the World of Work,• National development – human resources, produc-

tivity etc.,• Advancement of Peace – UN Development Report

of 1994 recognises peace as the result of freedomfrom fear of social insecurity, and freedom fromeconomic insecurity, want.

TVET in modern systemsLegislation – Education Acts shortly after politicalindependence: concerns General Education of VOC;training.

AdministrationPolicy frameworks mainly in place. However, admin-istrative and delivery mechanisms varied; commontrends:• Formal education – schools & colleges,• Vocational training – UTLS,• Non-formal and informal training,• Problem – lack of standards,• No competitive salaries,• Need for harmonisation.

Financing• TVET institutions comparatively more expensive,• New cost sharing initiative (Senegal Café de Voire,

Madagascar, Kenya, etc.),• All stakeholders to cost share.

Curriculum• TVET goals and objectives – similar across the

board. This addressed acquisition of knowledgeand skills for productive employment,

• Offered at primary, secondary and tertiary levels,neglected occupational interests,


• However, most TVET programmes still heavilywestern oriented, outdated due to new technologies,etc.,

• Trends – broad-based curriculum addressing theneeds of scientific and technological sociality.

Major challenges• Lower status syndrome,• Dwindling enrolments in formal TVET,• Changes in workplace – technology, new produc-

tivity,• Relevance to world of work,• Equity and access – most still kept out.

Broadening the scope of TVET beyond the formalsectorThere is a need for multiple roles.

The Government’s role• Provide effective policy frameworks to guide

TVET activities,• Establish effective delivery patterns and evaluate

for intended purposes,• Harmonise TVET administration and management

activities.

The role of enterprises & NGOs• Involve enterprise and NGOs – curriculum matters,

policy formulation,• Introduce education and training levies, rebates etc.

TVET – InstitutionsExisting TVET programmes and materials are alreadypast history – need for close collaboration with minis-tries to forge common stands.

Collaboration/partnership with higher institutionsThis may be activated through:• Research and development activities,• Exhibitions, trade fares,• Consultancies.

Conclusion• TVET is critical to both individual and national

development,• Present legal frameworks and legislation have

broad definition that does not sufficiently guidepolicy framework in planning, administration andimplementation of TVET programmes,

• The majority of those who join the informal sectorhave limited opportunities to benefit from TVET,

• Governments should once and for all address thecritical issues of harmonising TVET planning,development and implementation by establishingmechanisms to open up more access to TVET forall. This will need the collaboration of all thestakeholders including enterprise, TVET institu-tions, NGOs, unions, employer federations andgovernments.

(2) IntroductionIt is no longer debatable whether or not technical andvocational education is an imperative in the prepara-tion of human resources for national development.

The adoption of the Convention on Technical andVocational Education by UNESCO’s member states atthe 25th session of UNESCO’s General Conference in1989 and the current UNESCO activities aimed atstrengthening the development and implementation ofTVET clearly underscore the important role this aspectof education and training plays in the life of anycountry.

This subregional Seminar is critical in helping memberstates derive policy definitions that embrace theexpanded vision of TVET beyond the current offeringsin the formal education sector.

For this purpose, it is important to recall Article 1 ofthe Convention which spells out the definition ofTVET as:

“referring to all forms and levels of the educationprocess involving, in addition to general knowledge,the study of technological and related science and theacquisition of practical skills, know-how, attitudeand understanding relating to occupations in thevarious sectors of economic and social life”(UNESCO, 1989, Article 1).

We shall therefore critically examine the role of TVETin national development, its place in the formal schoolcurriculum and in the informal sector, and the chal-lenges facing TVET in the informal sector and somefuture prospects.

(3) The role of TVET in nationaldevelopment

Technical and Vocational education serves the indi-vidual by imparting knowledge, skills and attitudesthat will be used to procure and sustain gainfulemployment. Society equally benefits from suchhuman resources development and it is responsible forincreased Gross National Product.

The Human Resources Development Report of 1994(UNDP, 1994, p3) underscores the United Nation’slifelong commitment to engage in a battle for peace ontwo fronts: the security front (to secure freedom fromfear) and the economic and social front (to securevictory from want). The latter is inextricably linked tojob security where TVET is a major contributor.

Evidence from World Bank Studies (World Bank,1988; 1991) and case studies of TVET in the Africanregion (Kerre, 1995) clearly point out that investment


in TVET is worthwhile no matter what the economicstatus of the country may be.

Further evidence from the newly-industrialising coun-tries show that TVET is largely responsible for pro-viding a pool of skilled human resources essential forsuch critical sectors of the economy as agriculture,manufacturing, construction, communication, trans-portation and commerce.

With increasing technological development and liber-alised world markets, a country’s technical and voca-tional training system will increasingly become deci-sive in determining the competitive strength and levelof development of its economy.

Ever since independence, most African countries havehad to grapple with the problem of “too many peoplelooking for jobs and too many jobs going unfilled”.While there is a growing number of the unemployedamong the educated, there is a persistent shortage ofhuman resources with the technical skills required invarious sectors of the economy.

There is a mismatch between available technicalhuman resources and the type of employment opportu-nities available in the world of work.

(4) TVET in the formal education systems inAfrica

In order to appreciate the level of development inTVET and the commitment given by various Africangovernments, an overview of legislation, administra-tion, financing and the challenge encountered may beuseful.

Legislation of TVETThe importance accorded to TVET in a given societyis reflected in the existing legislation establishing it. Itcan be observed that legislation dealing with technicaland vocational education in most countries came intoeffect much later after the promulgation of the Educa-tion Acts. Technical and vocational education mayhave been mentioned as was the case with the AshbyCommission of Nigeria in 1960 and in the KenyaEducation Act in 1968, but effective policy implemen-tation was to come much later on as revealed in casestudies below (UNESCO-BREDA,1995).

Vocational training, however, was well recognised asproven by the establishment of Vocational TrainingActs in Ghana (1970), Kenya (1971), Uganda (1979,Swaziland (1982), Zimbabwe (1978). There was a cleardemarcation between vocational education and voca-tional training then. The latter was the focus of theVocational Training Acts.

After it became obvious that the educational systemsadapted from the colonial regimes were mainlyacademic leading to mass production of unemployableschool-leavers, various changes were introduced as eachcountry reviewed and reformed its educational system.Most of these changes came in the 1980s and the 1990s.

In Nigeria, for example, the National Policy on Educa-tion of 1981, effected in 1982, laid emphasis on tech-nical and vocational education in the restructured(6-3-3-4) school system.

In Kenya, a series of educational review commissionsculminated into the establishment of the 8-4-4 schoolsystem in 1985. The curriculum was vocationalised andtechnical and vocational education was expandedbeyond the confines of the formal school curriculum.A new Ministry responsible for post school vocationaleducation and training was established in 1988 and anew vision for TVET articulated in a Sessional Paper onManpower Development (Kenya, 1988).

In 1984, Zimbabwe replaced the 1978 VocationalTraining Act with a Human Resources Planning andDevelopment Act. The Act moved to the Ministry ofHigher Education in 1988 from the Ministry of LabourPlanning and Social Services. In 1994, the Act wasrevised to include the Administration of TeacherEducation.

Ghana’s constitution of 1992, through articles 25 and38, reviewed its education system and revitalised tech-nical and vocational education. This was further com-plemented by the Polytechnic Law in 1992 which estab-lished polytechnics as tertiary institutions.

Swaziland set up a National Educational Review Com-mittee which established a Special Committee in 1990to study pre-vocational education. As a result of thecommittee findings, the government has proposed theprovision of a diversified, competency-based curriculumto expose students to vocational subjects in agriculture,home economics, business and technical studies.

In Uganda, an Education Review Commission submittedto the government a White Paper on technical and voca-tional education in 1992. The paper called for the re-structuring of education to include technical and voca-tional education from primary to tertiary levels. It calledfor the integration of TVET and business education aswell as equipping technical training institutions withmodern tools and equipment.

An analysis of the evolution of education in Congo fromthe 1960s underlines important steps toward the imple-mentation of an educational policy with more or less


well-defined features. All of these characteristics depictthe will to promote democratic access to education.

In 1965, all schools were nationalised and put understate control. From 1970 to 1977 the background docu-ment “l’Ecole du Peuple” was produced.

In 1991 “la Conference Nationale Souveraine” (“theSovereign National Conference”) was held which con-firmed the failure of “l’Ecole du peuple” (“the PeoplesSchool”) and initiated several steps to reorient theeducational system. These were:• The promotion of technical and professional train-

ing by reforming the programme and adapting it tothe socio-economic context,

• The active participation of socio-economic partnersin the development of education,

• The creation of a state secretariat for technicaltraining.

In Senegal, The Orientation Law of National Educationof 1971 was the first law on national education andtraining in the country.

It was further reviewed and adopted in February,1991.This law includes, among other things, two major inno-vations aiming at systematising a permanent basiceducation and a better oriented technical and profes-sional training. This was conceived so that the nationaland permanent education system was to serve the Sene-galese people. It aims completely and definitively ateradicating illiteracy as well as the professionalimprovement and social promotion of all citizens byimproving the living and employment conditions andincreasing the productivity of the worker.

This new law takes into consideration various activitiesas early as at the primary-level basic cycle with theobjective of promoting manual work and introducingchildren to technical activities.

(5) Administration of technical and vocationaleducation

Responsibility for TVET at the policy level is clearlymanifested in existing legal and constitutional frame-works. However, administrative responsibility at theinstitutional level is very much diversified and variesfrom one country to the other. This diversity is mainlydue to the uniqueness of comprehensive technical andvocational education.

Three distinct features mainly account for it:1. The educational component is formal and is taught

in the school curriculum.2. The training component is provided in both formal

and informal training institutions.

3. Non-formal and informal TVET is offered by non-governmental organisations, private proprietors,religious organisations etc.

The situation in Ghana, Zimbabwe and Kenya canillustrate this observation. In Ghana, the Ministry ofEducation is responsible for General Education, Poly-technics, Technical Teacher Education Colleges andthe Institute of Professional Studies. The Ministry ofEmployment and Social Services is responsible for theNational Vocational Training Institute (NVTI) andIntegrated Community Centre for Employable Skills(ICCES), while the Ministry of Transport and Commu-nication is responsible for Ghana Technical TrainingCentre. Other technical and vocational training pro-grammes are offered in different ministries and depart-ments including the office of the Head of the CivilService, Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry ofHealth.

In Zimbabwe, school-based technical and vocationaleducation is administered by the Ministry of Educa-tion, Culture and Sports, while the administration andsupervision of technical colleges is the responsibilityof the Ministry of Higher Education.

In Kenya, the Ministry of Education is only responsi-ble for the formal school curriculum includingPrimary, Secondary and Teacher Education Collegesfor these levels. The bulk of the technical and voca-tional education and training programmes are offeredin institutions such as Youth Polytechnics, TechnicalTraining Institutes, Institutes of Technology, NationalPolytechnics, Technical Teacher Training Collegesand National Industrial Vocational Training Centres(NIVTC) which fall under the Ministry of Research,Technical Training and Technology (MRTTT). OtherMinistries including Agriculture and Livestock,Health, Communications and Lands and Settlement dohave their own departmental schools catering for theirspecific training needs. There is a growing number ofprivate schools and colleges offering various TVETprogrammes as well.

In most Francophone countries, the Ministry of Edu-cation has the overall responsibility for formal educa-tion including technical and vocational education.However, some technical and vocational training pro-grammes are run by other Ministries.

It is quite obvious that with increased demand foroccupational training and the escalating cost of train-ing, there is a need to harmonise the provision ofTVET to avoid the duplication and wastage that iscurrently going on. Harmonisation will furtherenhance quality and relevance with appropriate certifi-cation.


(6) FinancingTechnical and vocational education and training pro-grammes are expensive to run compared to generaleducation. It has been estimated that the cost of onetechnical school is equivalent to two or three schoolsoffering general education.

Previously, governments undertook total responsibilityto finance TVET with some assistance from donoragencies.

Today the situation is becoming more difficult asgovernments are faced with difficult choices to cutback spending on education which has, on an average,been taking up to as much as 40% of the nationalbudget in some countries. Since most African coun-tries depend heavily on foreign aid and mainly fromthe World Bank and the International Monetary Fund(IMF), the Structural Adjustment Programmes im-posed by these institutions have adversely affected thefinancing of TVET as well.

Ghana, Nigeria and Uganda have indicated that theirgovernments still shoulder the entire cost for publicTVET programmes. Other countries, except Kenya,have not shown any alternative arrangements yet(BREDA, 1995).

The Kenyan government introduced a cost-sharingpolicy in 1988 when it called upon the communities,parents, and beneficiaries of TVET to assist thegovernment in raising additional funds to acceleratethe expansion of training opportunities to increaseaccess without compromising quality and relevance.Educational and Training Institutions at all levels havebeen challenged to engage in various fund-raisingactivities including the installation of production units,farming, and the provision of consultancies to businessand industry.

Similarly, Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire, Madagascar andZimbabwe have introduced cost-sharing policies intheir educational systems.

Côte d’Ivoire has introduced a training-levy fund, runby the Fonds National de Regularisation (FNR), inwhich enterprises contribute 1.2% of their salary pay-ments for employees. Enterprises can use 0.5% oftheir contribution to offer training for their ownemployees. The balance goes for training in smallenterprises and individual cases where proposals havebeen submitted and approved.

As a result of the Structural Adjustment Programme,Cameroon has created the National Employment Fund(NEF) with the following objectives:

• To put together the offers and requests for employ-ment,

• To make available information on employmentopportunities,

• To give adequate information on job market to jobseekers,

• To support those who wish to be self-employed orcreate enterprises.

The resources of NEF come from the African Devel-opment Bank (ADB), the World Bank, the trainers(15% of training cost), the enterprises involved in theco-funding of the Employment Diploma Programmeand the NGOs.

In Senegal, as in all the other countries, the financingand regulation of technical and professional traininghave been assured a primary place by the State.

Apart from the State, other resources come from inter-national aid, the NGOs and, mostly, the enterprises.The enterprises annually pay to the State a tax called alump sum contribution for the employers (CFCE). 6%of the CFCE is used in the National Office for Profes-sional Training (ONFP) for its functioning and itstraining activities. This 6% amounts approximately to300 million CFA.

A study is presently being undertaken for the creationof a Fund for Technical and Professional TrainingFinancing.

All these initiatives indicate the great concern ofvarious states to have reliable financing mechanismsfor technical training at all levels.

It is very unlikely that more funding for TVET will beavailable in the foreseeable future. It is incumbent onall African States currently heavily dependent onforeign aid to explore more vigorously alternativeways of financing their education and training pro-grammes.

(7) TVET curriculum in schoolsTVET in the African region is offered alongsidegeneral education either as a part of the general com-prehensive school curriculum where all leavers at vari-ous levels have access, or a separate system whereonly those identified as “appropriate” pursue it.Examples of these include Kenya, where the 8.4.4curriculum is vocationally oriented, and Uganda,where technical schools and technical institutesoperate parallel to lower-secondary and higher-secondary levels respectively.


Today there is a tendency, however, to move towardthe comprehensive school curriculum where TVETsubjects are offered as a part of general education.

The purpose and objectives advanced for TVET in anygiven country delineate the scope and breadth withinwhich the curriculum is offered. An overview of casestudies of TVET in Africa clearly point out to uni-formity of purpose and agreement on several objec-tives which include the following:1. To expose pupils at the basic level to a wide range

of practical activities to stimulate their intereststoward vocational careers.

2. To facilitate the interpretation, application andtranslation of basic and scientific knowledge in theproduction of goods and service.

3. To inculcate an appreciation of the dignity ofhuman labour as an invaluable resource base.

4. To equip learners with relevant productive andentrepreneurial skills that will prepare them forgainful employment.

5. To provide skilled labour to match the demand forhuman resources in the scientific/technological andcommercial sectors of the nation’s economy.

6. To refine and consolidate indigenous activities andtechnological skills in order to produce products ofaesthetic and cultural value.

7. Increase scientific and technological literacy.8. Provide a sound foundation for further education

and training in the spirit of lifelong learning.

The extent to which credibility is given to nationalpolicy on TVET in the school system depends largelyon the types of subjects offered and the weightinggiven to them compared to other subjects in the schoolcurriculum. If they are not introduced early enoughand if they are merely optional then both learners andsociety at large will not take them seriously.

TVET subjects offered in the school curriculum inmost countries still reflect traditional trade orientedcontent without much regard for technological changetaking place in the world of work.

In most cases, TVET subjects are offered fromsecondary school level except for a few cases likeKenya where subjects such as agriculture, art andcraft, business studies, home science and art arecompulsory at the primary level.

At the tertiary level, TVET is usually offered to thosewho have completed secondary-level education. Itcomprises of a wide range of courses offered in tech-nical training institutions and Polytechnics. The tech-nical institutes offer craft and technical courses whilePolytechnics often offer technical and diploma pro-grammes at a higher level. There are proposals for

some Polytechnics to start degree programmes inTVET.

In Francophone countries, “Ecoles Supérieures Poly-techniques” are some of the best and highest technicalinstitutions for training higher-level technical humanresources. Cameroon established Institutes of Tech-nology in three National Universities in 1993.

Existing universities in several African countries dooffer degree programmes in vocational fields such asagricultural education, business education, home eco-nomics education, music and art, but these have notbeen widely acknowledged as vocational educationprogrammes. At present there are a few universities inAfrica, such as Moi University in Kenya and the Uni-versity of Malawi, which offer B. Ed degrees in Tech-nology Education meant for secondary school teachersof technical subjects.

There are other forms of vocational training particu-larly at the artisan and craft levels for industry and inother cases, there are apprenticeship programmeswhich are co-ordinated by the Directorate of IndustrialTraining, e.g., in Uganda and Kenya.

(8) Major challengesWhilst TVET is recognised and embraced by all, itfaces unique challenges which must be addressedbefore its impacts are felt by the majority who need it.

a) Low priorityTVET currently experiences lower participation ratesin the formal education system for several reasons:• It is relatively more costly and thus fewer individu-

als and institutions can afford it,• Job opportunities in the formal employment sector

have greatly dwindled,• TVET personnel still earn less compared to their

peers in other occupations.

b) The changing work placeDue to modernisation in the production of goods andservices, business and industry today demand newqualifications that traditional education and trainingdoes not provide. Most African economies beingheavily dependent on foreign goods and services areconstantly being subjected to new technologiesthrough a wide range of products from developedcountries.

c) Relevance in TVETFormal TVET institutions are ill-equipped to keeppace with the state-of-the-art knowledge and skills inexisting enterprises. Current graduates of these pro-grammes no longer fit into the dynamics of modernbusiness and industry.


d) Equity and accessThere is rapid growth in the informal sector where themajority of youth currently take refuge as opportuni-ties in the formal sector diminish. This means that themajority of future workers do not have access toTVET for occupational preparation. Those who con-tinue with formal education and training at the secon-dary and post-secondary levels are usually not morethan 30% on the average and only a small percentageof this group enrols in TVET programmes.

(9) Future prospectsDespite the above challenges facing TVET in Africa, itis important to recognise that some countries havealready undertaken some innovative measures includ-ing:• Educational reform where curricula are vocational-

ised to ensure greater participation,• The introduction of several cost-sharing measures

involving all stakeholders,• The introduction of legislation to co-ordinate and

regulate TVETT for maximum efficiency, and• Undertaking the general economic restructuring

aimed at stimulating economic growth in order tocreate more employment opportunities.

There is need, however, to examine and identify keyroles that the stakeholders in TVET (Government,Enterprises and NGOs, TVET Institutions and bene-ficiaries) can play to broaden the scope of TVETbeyond the formal sector.

(10) Government contributionAs an integral aspect of general education, technicaland vocational education is, first and foremost, thegovernment’s responsibility. Whether in formal ornon-formal settings, TVET should have the necessarylegislative backing to ensure its successful implemen-tation.

It is therefore the responsibility of the state to establishand maintain a well-functioning national TVET andtraining system. Such a system entails two majorfunctions.

The first is a core function which relates to the devel-opment of a TVET system in line with the country’sdevelopment needs and priorities. This function isessential and cannot be transferred to the private sectoror any other party.

In this respect, the primary functions of the state con-sist of:• Policy formulation,• Setting the legislative and normative framework of

the training system, establishing quality standards,testing and certification to ensure consistency,

• Human resources planning to ensure relevant andadequate data is available to guide training,

• Securing financing for TVET either directly orindirectly,

• Ensuring effective delivery of TVET by developinginstitutional capacity for curriculum development,training of trainers and managers of training, testingand certification,

• Evaluating the overall performance of TVET toensure proper application of standards and policies,

• Promoting active participation of partners throughincentives.

The second function of the government relates todelivery of training. It is the experience in manycountries that TVET delivery is increasingly beingshared by the private sector.

If the core functions of the state, as indicated above,are left entirely to the private sector without adequatecontrol, the quality, consistency and equity aspects ofTVET may be compromised. The critical issue, there-fore, is the one of determining the degree of state con-trol which may vary from one country to another.

(11) Contribution from non-governmentalorganisations and enterprises

Technical and vocational training is expensive tooperate. Most non-governmental organisations andenterprises which are business oriented often avoid itif they can.

There is greater need today for governments to seekinnovations for the renewal of training systems and theredefinition of the new and complementary roles of thestate and enterprises in training and development.

Enterprises in partnership with the state have a strate-gic contribution to make in the process of improvingrelevance, effectiveness and efficiency of trainingsystems by bringing them closer to markets, and byincreasing training quality, capacity and productivity.

TVET institutions lack the characteristics inherent inthe nature of business and industry such as beingmarket driven, flexible, adaptable and able to respondrapidly to change.

Critical in this state enterprise partnership is thegovernment’s role in providing a conducive policyenvironment in which all the social partners, govern-ment, employers’ and workers’ organisations andcommunities, participate fully and freely.

Non-governmental organisations and enterprises can,thus, make a significant contribution through stateregulatory and policy guidelines and incentives. They


can be encouraged to take particular interest in thedelivery of training for:• Growth for initial entry into employment,• Retraining or upgrading of currently employed

workers including those threatened by redeploy-ment,

• Unemployed workers for re-entry into employment.

(12) Contribution from formal TVET institu-tions

Existing TVET institutions have facilities and humanresources that are often under-utilised. Evening pro-grammes and vacation-time sessions can easily bemounted to continue providing TVET to a wide rangeof participants from the non-formal/informal sector.

These institutions can also be used as educational andtraining centres for:• Continuing education to improve the literacy rates

in respective communities,• Training centres for supervisory and managerial

personnel from enterprises, and• Technical skill upgrading to improve the profi-

ciency and efficiency of production in the informalsector.

Technical and vocational education personnel shouldbe encouraged to assist enterprises in research anddiagnosis of problems pertaining to production,marketing, quality control, etc.

There is a need, therefore, for closer relationshipsbetween TVET institutions and enterprises in order forthem to benefit from each other’s experiences. Thispartnership can be fostered through:• Enterprises serving on curriculum boards or panels,• Attachment of the trainees and teachers/trainers to

industries for practical experience,• Collaborative research activities,• Part-time teaching for senior industrial personnel in

the institutions.

(13) ConclusionsIt is quite obvious that the contribution of technicaland vocational education to national development andindividual preparation for a career is much greater thanhas been acknowledged.

However, due to the high cost, amongst other con-straints, fewer people amongst the majority who jointhe informal sector each year ever get an opportunityto benefit from TVET.

Rather than call for another TVET system for theinformal sector, and for purely economic reasons, it isfar better to improve on the existing TVET system tomake it more comprehensive, broad-based, accessible

and affordable to allow for greater participation bythose in the informal sector.

There is a need, therefore, for the stakeholders andbeneficiaries to collaborate in strengthening the TVETsystem for the benefit of all.

References

Kerre, B.W. (1995) “Technical and Vocational Education inAfrica. A Synthesis of Case Studies”. Dakar: UNESCO-BREDA Office

UNESCO-BREDA (1995) “Report on The State of Educationin Africa: Education Strategies for the 1990s: Orientationsand Achievements”. Dakar: UNESCO-BREDA Office

UNESCO (1989) “Convention on Technical and VocationalEducation” adopted by the General Conference ofUNESCO at its twenty-fifth session, Paris, 10 November1989

UNDP (1994) “Human Development Report 1994”. NewYork: UNDP

World Bank (1991) “Vocational and Technical Education andTraining. A World Bank Policy Paper”. WashingtonDC.: The World Bank

World Bank (1988) “Education in Sub-Saharan Africa.Policies for Adjustment, Revitalisation and Expansion.“Washington DC.: The World Bank

“The Existing National Set-Up in Ethiopia” by Mr MesfinTerefe

5.3 TVET Beyond the Formal Sector inBOTSWANAby Mr M. M. K EWAGAMANG

and Mr K. K ABECHAMr Mogotsa M. Kewagamang is Acting Principal TechnicalEducation Officer within the Department of VocationalEducation and Training, Ministry of Education, Botswana.

Mr K. Kabecha is Senior Technical Education Officer,Department of Vocational Education and Training, Ministryof Education, Botswana.

(1) Background .................................................................................. 30(2) Vocational training centres.......................................................... 31(3) The Brigades Movement............................................................... 31(4) The informal sector in Botswana ................................................. 32(5) Size of the enterprises................................................................... 32(6) Training for the informal sector................................................... 32(7) Training levels.............................................................................. 33(8) The need for a National Training Policy..................................... 33(9) Policy formulation........................................................................ 33(10) Conclusions ................................................................................ 34

(1) BackgroundThere are mainly three types of systems providingVET in Botswana, being the government owned andfunded Vocational Training Centres (VTCs), thecommunity-based autonomous Brigades Centres andthe business-oriented Private Vocational Schools.


The first two types run a fully recognised system com-prising of three levels, namely, Trade Tests C and Band the National Craft Certificate, thus providing aframework of certification for many of the vocationaltraining programmes. It currently covers 31 differentoccupations at the Trade Test level and 18 at theNational Craft Certificate (NCC) level and there areplans to extend its scope. The occupations covered arebeing extended to include commercial areas as well asindustrial areas.

The situation in the private vocational schools isuncertain. The various vocational courses offered bythis sector change all the time depending on the avail-ability of both human and infrastructure resources aswell as on the ability of the institutions to run profita-bly or not and thus determining its sustainability.Levels of offered training often vary from one centreto another, with equally a variety of validating bodiesand/or self-validations. Standards become almostimpossible to assess and ensure in this situation.

(2) Vocational training centresThe core component of Vocational Training provisionis the employer-based training provided through theapprenticeship scheme. One of the recommendationsof the first Commission on Education, which did notappear in the 1977 National Policy on education, wasthe proposal to establish a national apprenticeshipscheme. However, prolonged discussions between theprospective stakeholders took place outside the frame-work of educational policy and in 1983 the Appren-ticeship and Industrial Training Act was passed. TheAct laid the basis for major changes to craft-leveltraining, which were initiated in 1987 when the asso-ciated regulations were promulgated. The regulationsmade provision for a four-year period of apprentice-ship with 9 months on-the-job training and 3 months ofinstitutional training each year for those holding theJunior Certificate. The scheme began in 1987 underthe auspices of the Directorate of Apprenticeship andIndustrial Training (DAIT) and the Madirelo Trainingand Testing Centre (MTTC) in the department ofLabour of the Ministry of Home Affairs. The Ministryof Education’s Department of Vocational Educationand Training (DVET) provided the institutionaltraining through its institutions which were purpose-built between 1986 and 1988.

1987 1998 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996100 133 387 389 392 424 485 513 515 506

Table 1Number of New Apprentice Contracts per Year

Source: MTTC

After a slow start, the apprenticeship scheme seems tobe developing well though it has not received adequatepriority and resources so that a number of problems

remain (such as inadequate supervision of the on-the-job training component) due to under-staffing at theMTTC.

Another element of the vocational education andtraining provision is the full-time pre-employmenttraining offered by DVET at the VTCs. This two-yearinstitution-based course was initiated in early 1988when it became apparent that the VTCs would beunder-utilised if they only served the training require-ments of the Apprenticeship Scheme.

1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996493 0 727 96 132 909 201 1143 860

Table 2Annual Intake of two-year full-time trainees in the VTCs

Source: DVET

The full-time course was introduced primarily toincrease VTC utilisation and it was envisaged that thecourse would be phased out as the number of appren-ticeships increases. The unplanned introduction of thecourse has certainly created a number of problems: forexample, there is inadequate equipment for practicaltraining. The course leads to no formal qualification,but trainees take the first two assessments of theapprenticeship scheme, and successful completers whocan get an apprenticeship contract are therefore giventwo years of exemption.

(3) The Brigades MovementA distinctive feature of vocational training provision isthe Brigades. A Brigade is a small community organi-sation which offers vocational training at the semi-skilled level and also engages in income-generatingproduction activities and rural development projects.Each Brigade is an autonomous community-controlledbody, although government is represented on theBoard of Trustees and provides financial and technicalsupport. The idea of the Brigades started in 1965 as aresponse to the primary school-leaver problem andthey developed rapidly during the 1970s. In 1977, theBrigades Development Centre (BRIDEC) was estab-lished as a part of the Ministry of Education to co-ordinate Brigade operations, provide central profes-sional support and administer government funding.

The first National Commission on Education wasimpressed by the Brigades’ efforts to provide a low-cost system combining education and work, and itrecommended continued government support to theBrigades. However, these recommendations wereamong those deferred, so that the Brigades are hardlymentioned in the 1977 National Policy on Education.In fact there was a financial and management crisis inthe Brigades in the late 1970s and this, coupled with aperiod of policy indecision in government in the early


1980s, led to a decline in intake figures as indicated inTable 3.

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996950 600 650 620 854 1111 1497 1850 2529 3515

Table 3Intake (Brigades)

Source: VET

The potential of the Brigades as an element of the VETsystem was reaffirmed in 1985 in National Develop-ment Plan 6 and, by 1996, there were 37 BrigadesCentres involved in training.

At the moment, the main programme in the Brigades isa three-year course for Standard 7 holders leading toTrade Test C, with work experience provided in theproduction units of the Brigades. However, increas-ingly the target group has become Junior Certificate(JC) holders and programme changes are being made.The Ministry of Education through the Department ofVocational Education and Training (DVET) providesassistance to the Brigades by a per capita grant forvocational training activities, provision of capitalfunds for infrastructure development and professionalsupport. Efforts are being made to improve the qualityof training by upgrading the standards of instructorsand facilities, to diversify the range of trades covered,and to raise the level of training to NCC in someBrigades Centres.

(4) The informal sector in BotswanaThe Private Vocational Schools provision has beenstudied only recently to establish areas of coverage andlevels of qualifications awarded. Until then, there hasbeen no reliable information to enable us to say moreabout this form of VET provision.

(5) Size of the enterprisesThe scale and extent of the informal sector inBotswana has been found to be difficult to ascertain.This is because of the nature of the informal sector inthe country. Another reason is that some of the activi-ties of this sector are seasonal and some enterprises donot always have a permanent place of operation.

However, according to the Peer Consultants’ study ofFebruary 1997, the scale of informal economic activityin Botswana is significant. For example, in 1992 itwas estimated that up to 48,000 small and micro-enterprises employed 88,000 people, this being 20% ofthe total national labour force. The same study hasnoted that small and medium enterprises (SME) inBotswana seem to employ fewer persons per 1,000inhabitants compared to those in other countries suchas Swaziland and Zimbabwe where SME employ twiceas many.

Available evidence points out that the tendency for thesize of enterprise is usually towards self-employment.A study by the Ministry of Finance and DevelopmentPlanning (MFDP) and USAID, conducted to determinethe characteristics of the labour force in the informalsector, found that the majority of those employed inthis sector in Botswana are women. For example, thestudy conducted in 1980 by the Ministry of Commerceand Industry estimated female participation in theinformal sector to be 58%. Furthermore, another studyconducted by Naraya-Parker in 1982 in the SouthernDistrict of Botswana found that 62% of producerswere women. A similar high figure was recorded in asurvey conducted in Gaborone in 1993 by NaladiBaseline. Evidently the survey found that 75% of theinformal enterprises in Naledi were owned and run bywomen.

(6) Training for the informal sectorThe element of non-formal or informal type of voca-tional education and training has not been categori-cally addressed in explicit terms, but rather impliedwhere the informal employment sector is addressed.Recently, there have been a number of studiesconducted on different aspects of VET. Among themis that concerned with “Structure of the InformalSector: National Training Policy Study”. A report ofthis study was presented by the same Peer Consultantsin February 1997. In consulting other similar studiesconducted before, Peer Consultants found that:

Information on the educational levels of workers and/or owners of those in this sector show that the informalsector employs people with little or no education at all.Several studies (for example, Somolekae, 1989, 1994,Alexander et al. 1983, MFDP/USAID 1992 etc.) havecome up with similar results. In the MFDP/USAIDstudy (1992) “21% of small and medium size enter-prises (SME) had no education at all, while as much as40% had only completed primary education”. Theeducational levels for women were noted to be muchlower than those of men; i.e., 17% women, comparedto 45% males, who had only completed primaryeducation. Somolekae (1994) found that 29.5% of theentrepreneurs had no education at all, while 53.2% hadonly primary education (including those who did notcomplete their primary education).

The University of Botswana (UB) study, referred toabove, on the other hand found that operators ofmicro-enterprises have completed on average 6.4 yearsof schooling, and that educational levels for both menand women are the same. A recent Ministry ofCommerce and Industry (MCI) survey of small manu-facturers also showed that half of the entrepreneurswere illiterate or had attended school at primary levelonly.


(7) Training levelsWith this low educational background, it is hardlysurprising that only a small amount of informal entre-preneurs have had some kind of technical training.The UB survey identified 3% of those sampled hadundergone technical training, while relatively moreskilled people were active in manufacturing enter-prises. Obviously this is a reflection that, so far, theformal sector has always been able and willing toabsorb the skilled corps of the Botswana workforce.This finding is also supported by a recent tracer studyof Brigade graduates (Fidzani/Mafela 1995). Althoughsome methodological constraints were conceded, thestudy showed that most of the graduates go intoemployment, while the rate of self-employment is notas high as would be expected. Exceptions were thetextile and bricklaying trades.

It is clear that informal and non-formal VET whichprimarily takes place at the working place needs to begiven a high consideration in policy formulation. Theanticipated introduction of competence-based modu-larised training should take into account and award, inthe form of certification, competencies gained throughnon-formal and informal means.

(8) The need for a National Training PolicyEvery nation is striving to reach the highest level ofdevelopment where poverty, disease and hunger couldbe drastically reduced. In the case of developingcountries such as Botswana, extreme dependency onother countries will also be reduced. It is an acceptedbelief that for true development to take place, Voca-tional Education and Training should be made moreaccessible to reach even the most disadvantagedmembers of the society. For this to be realised, alter-native methods of provision to the traditional formalsystem would need to be considered to help to trans-form the functioning of the recipients of VocationalEducation and Training in Botswana. In doing so, theVET system will have to involve trainees who bringwith them different educational attainment levels andexperiences from different types of environments.

Given the circumstances, training should be meant tohelp individual trainees develop critical thinking aswell as the ability to transfer learnt skills into real lifesituations. During training, participants should alsolearn organisational concepts in their specialist areas,develop insights, and learn how to respond tosituations and improvise where necessary.

Botswana, like other countries of the world, is strivingfor quality Vocational Education and Training; for ifthe VET system ill-prepares its participants, it can thenultimately leave painful scars that can only impededevelopment of small local industries.

The government of Botswana has recognised theproblem situation described above and it intends topush ahead with the development of VocationalEducation and Training. Up to about 1993, apart fromthe apprenticeship scheme as outlined in the Appren-ticeship and Industrial Training Act, a successful andclear perspective for the development of vocationaleducation in Botswana had not occurred. Unfortunate-ly, the weak industrial base in Botswana hinders a realbreakthrough of apprenticeship training.

(9) Policy formulationThe 1993 National Commission on Education led to amajor Revised National Policy on Education which,for the first time in the history of Botswana, put a lotof emphasis on the development of a comprehensiveVET system (Government White Paper No. 2 of 1994).The commission proposed the development of aNational Training Policy which should embrace thefollowing scope and objectives:

Training must be made a way of life, and lifelongtraining inculcated as part of the national vision ofBotswana. At the individual level, through school,public education and debate, programmes should beinstituted to create understanding and acceptance ofthe indispensability of training at all levels and thedesire and will to pursue it. Training must be ex-plained as continuing lifelong and adapting to changesin demand and technology. At the employer level,training must become a part of investment and thetrained workforce an employer’s most prized asset.

At the national level, with open access to 10 yearsbasic education near achievement, the social and eco-nomic goals of human resource development need tobe defined, and training strategies developed for themass of the workforce and school-leavers to achievethem. The overall scale of the training effort must beexpanded. The broad targets for the development ofinstitutional training, employer-based training and theprivate sector training industry should be established.

All providers must be drawn in to supply the need.The operational policies should clearly define theresponsibilities for bearing the substantial investmentswhich will have to be made. It is necessary to definethe goals, objectives and operational policies, withresources to achieve them, to meet targeted humanresource requirements. Priorities have to be estab-lished to allow for the rational application of subsidy,cost-sharing and market-pricing. The private traininginstitutions have to be encouraged to develop their fullpotential.

At the level of training implementation, the sectoralcoverage and the modes of training will have to beenlarged. Apprenticeship alone will not be enough.


Institutional and employer-based training must beencouraged to expand. The mechanisms and incen-tives for doing so will have to be spelt out.

Skills training has to become a joint responsibilitywithin the tripartite partnership of the government,employers and unions. The partners of training haveto become further involved in policy, planning anddecision-making. The National Training Policy willneed a strong centralised executive operating within awell-developed framework for consultation and co-ordination among the training partners. There willhave to be quality assurance through performancemonitoring.

Underpinning the delivery of training is the traininginfrastructure. At the heart of this is the process ofextending step-by-step the range of the National SkillsStandards which determine the quality of the trainedworkforce. The system of certification will have to befurther refined to accommodate the enlarged scope andforms of training. Effective and efficient training alsodepends on having good course design, curriculum andinstructional materials available to all training pro-viders. The investments in these professional areascannot be neglected.

Above all, quality is determined by the expertise, skillsand commitment of the institutional and companytrainers, training managers, and the professionalexpertise of the training designers. A paramountobjective will be building a highly professional trainerforce to sustain the system.

(10) ConclusionsThe National Training Policy Reference Group thatwas formed to respond to the above has progressedwell and has presented a draft policy document at aconsultative seminar for stakeholders on May 12-131997 in Gaborone. It is anticipated that this policywill attempt to relate to all concerns regarding theoverall status of the VET system in Botswana.

Ways and means for skills upgrading and developmentthrough informal sector training in Botswana are weakor non-existent and developments aimed at reversingthis situation have been long overdue.

References

Botswana Govt. (1985) National Development Plan 6,Government Printers, Gaborone

Botswana Govt. (1991) National Development Plan 7,Government Printers, Gaborone

Botswana Govt. (1993) National Commission on Education,Government Printers, Gaborone

Botswana Govt. (1994) The Revised National Policy onEducation: Government White Paper No. 2. GovernmentPrinters, Gaborone

BRIDEC (1993) Annual Report Government Printer,Gaborone

DVET (1992) Vocational Education & Training DevelopmentPlan: A report to the Ministry of Education. GovernmentPrinters, Gaborone

Fidzani N.H. & Mafela L. (1995) A Report of the Tracer andEvaluation Study of the Botswana Brigades

Inger D. (1996) Rural Employment: A Paper for the FourthPrivate Sector Conference (Unpublished)

MCI (1996) Small Scale Business Profile Survey GovernmentPrinters, Gaborone

Peer Consult. (1996) Report on the BOCCIM BusinessCouncil Conference

Peer Consult. (1997) Structure of the Informal Sector: ANational Training Policy Study, Government Printer,Gaborone

5.4 Existing Set-Up in ETHIOPIAby Mr Mesfin T EREFE

Mr Terefe is Head of the Nazareth Technical College, inNazareth, Ethopia.

(1) Informal vocational training prior to the New Education andTraining Policy of Ethiopia....................................................... 35

(2) Implications of the New Education and Training Policy ............ 35(3) Implementation of the New Education and Training Policy....... 36(4) Profiles of the technical and vocational cycles (training levels) 37(5) Technical and vocational education and training....................... 38(6) Conclusions .................................................................................. 38

Vocational education was introduced into the Ethiop-ian education system in the middle of the 1940s. Priorto that period, craftsmanship such as metal smelting,weaving, leatherwork, jewellery and pottery practiceremained in a traditional form in the hands of socialgroups categorised as social outcasts for centuries.Some of the only vocations of social acceptance wereclerical, judicial, military service, and tilling the land.In fact, the only jobs of vocational nature with socialacceptance were farming and home-making. The insti-tutionalisation of vocational education was obviouslypreceded by social attitudinal deterrents. As a result,parents were less inclined to send their children tovocational schools. They were afraid that, as practi-tioners of craftsmanship, their children would also beconfronted with the same social degradation that madepariahs of the traditional craftsmen in the past.

However, the institutionalisation of vocational educa-tion coupled with the job opportunities that the pro-gramme enhanced, has tremendously changed thetraditional deterrent attitudes that young people had


toward craftsmanship. The majority of high schoolstudents now aspire to join vocational areas.

Over the years the number of technical and vocationalschools has been rising slowly under differentsponsors and organisational patterns. The broad cate-gories of sponsors are:1. Governmental sectors,2. Parastatal organisations,3. Missionary agencies,4. Private companies and individual entrepreneurs,5. Labour and employers associations.

(1) Informal vocational training prior to theNew Education and Training Policy ofEthiopia

Until recently there were only seventeen technical andvocational schools at the 10+3 level serving the entirepopulation in the country. Obviously, the seventeentechnical-vocational schools with a total enrolmentcapacity of barely four thousand, an insignificant pro-portion of the school-age population, serve the formalsector only.

Informal technical and vocational education was usedas far back as 1976 to train the rural population withrudimentary knowledge, skills, and attitudes neededfor its effective contribution in the economic, social,political and cultural development of the country(Zewdie, T., et al, 1995).

According to Zewdie, T. et al (1995), the objectives ofthe Basic Development Education Programme Project(BDEP) – which is part of the international effortsmade to make education accessible to a wider popula-tion and make it more development oriented – were to:• Provide education that will help the people develop

their communities,• Conduct research and testing on basic technology,• Distribute researched and tested samples for further

testing and research in the field,• Prepare utilisation guides for equipment and rele-

vant materials to be distributed to Community SkillTraining Centres (CSTCs) and Basic DevelopmentEducation Centres (BDECs),

• Co-operate with the concerned and relevant institu-tions on producing reading materials based on tech-nical findings,

• Train personnel from development ministries andagencies in the production and utilisation of varioustechnological devices, and

• Sensitise rural communities with regard to main-taining ecological equilibrium and proper utilisa-tion as well as assisting and guiding the communi-ties on such concerns.

The CSTCs were used for training a select group of therural population who, in turn, would train their newlyacquired skills and new basic technologies to the widerpeasant population in the BDECs. However, due tomany constraints, out of the 408 established CSTCs in1987 only 121 of them were active.

It is expected that in addition to the actively function-ing CSTCs and about fifty private training centreslocated in urban areas, the new 25 government skill-development centres dispersed in four of the country’sregions will enhance the dissemination of technicaland vocational education beyond the formal sector. Agreater portion of the population will benefit; more so,as regions allocate the required resources for expand-ing such skill-development centres according to theneeds of human resource development in their respec-tive areas.

(2) Implications of the New Education andTraining Policy

The National Education and Training Policy of theGovernment of Ethiopia issued in April 1994 is con-sidered as a step forward in the right direction towardsthe development of education in general and therevitalisation of technical and vocational education inparticular. The policy addresses technical and voca-tional education beyond the formal sector.

The New Education Policy focuses on equitable geo-graphic and demographic distribution of education ingeneral, with a stratification of vocational educationaccording to socio-economic needs. In Ethiopia, as inany developing country, the schools are located inurban areas and towns addressing the privileges of theminority of the population, while the greatest majorityof the rural farming population have been ignored forthe past many years. It is not only unjust to underminethe majority of the tax-payers’ interests, but it is alsoinconceivable to think of a meaningful economicdevelopment while the vast majority of the populationpossessing the greatest human resources potential isneglected.

The New Education Policy intends to tap on this immense human resources potential by making bothgeneral education and vocational education accessibleto the rural population.

In the New Education Policy, technical and vocationaleducation beyond the formal sector runs parallel togeneral education with open-exit and open-entrybetween the two education systems, while it is inter-woven with formal technical and vocational educationwhich structurally forms its apex.

According to the Technical and Vocational EducationProgramme Implementation of the New Education and


Training Policy issued in June 1996, technical andvocational education is classified into four traininglevels consisting of trades of different categories. Thefour levels of technical and vocational education thatwill be offered under the new scheme are:1. Basic General Vocational Training (beginners

level).2. Medium Technical and Vocational Training (semi-

skilled level).3. Advanced Vocational Training (skilled level).4. Technical and Vocational education and Training

(high-skilled level).

The New Education and Training Policy of Ethiopiastipulates that general education will run parallel totechnical and vocational education and that there willbe an open-entry open-exit between general and tech-nical and vocational education depending on the per-formance and interest of the student.

(3) Implementation of the New Educationand Training Policy

Steps taken so far to implement the New EducationPolicy indicate that the government is committed to theeffectiveness of technical and vocational education bystating “... the relevance of education and training tothe demands of societal needs and potentials have notonly stimulated interest in non-formal training but alsohave created conditions to promote national commit-ment to address mass welfare”.

Various articles in the Education and Training PolicyHandbook (1994) stress the commitment of thegovernment to the provision of technical and voca-tional education in both formal and beyond the formalsector. They spell out the following aims:• To satisfy the country’s need for skilled human

resources by providing training in various skills andat different levels,

• To make education, training and research appropri-ately integrated with development by focusing onresearch,

• To provide education that promotes the culture ofrespect for work, positive work habits and highregard for workmanship,

• Non-formal education will be concrete in its con-tent, focusing on enabling the learners to developproblem solving attitudes and abilities,

• Parallel to general education, diversified technicalvocational training will be provided for those wholeave school from any level of education,

• Training will be provided in agriculture, crafts,construction and basic bookkeeping in the form ofapprenticeship for those of the appropriate age andleaving primary school,

• Technical and vocational training in agriculture,industrial arts, construction, commerce and home

science will be provided after primary education forthose who may not continue general education,

• Technical training will be provided for those whocomplete grade ten for the development of middlelevel human resources.

The implementation programme of the technical andvocational training focuses on:1. Producing competent instructors;

• The competent instructor is responsible for tech-nical skill, knowledge, attitudes and the environ-ment. The vocational educator is expected to beoccupationally competent,

• The instructor is also expected to be profession-ally competent. The instructor needs to identifywhat is important in the curriculum and demon-strate mastery of communication skills.

2. Providing trainees with skills and knowledge rele-vant to the labour market and national needs by:• Designing a curriculum based upon analysis of the

needs of the labour market,• Making learning objectives, equipment and facili-

ties replicate or simulate occupational needs,• Conducting follow-up studies,• Effectively employing advisory committees from

business and industry.3. Benefiting the student with attaining and retaining

job employment. This may be maximised by:• Evaluating the programme periodically,• Using alternate ways of instruction and appropri-

ate media,• Pursuing fair recruitment criteria policies and

offering training based on labour trends.4. Enhancing programme maintenance and improve-

ment through periodic evaluation.5. Running a programme with adequate financing

which does not incur unnecessary costs to thestudents is also highly essential.

6. Administrative support by the schools, schoolboard and legislation is also indispensable for themaintenance and improvement of a technical andvocational education programme.

The single vital resource of any nation that makes atremendous difference in the stimulation and growth ofits economic development is a trained humanresources. Although its significance is recognised byeducators it is more often than not neglected. In theexisting global market economy it is generally believedthat the survival of any nation depends on a competi-tive workforce. That is why it is of paramount impor-tance to revitalise technical and vocational educationat different skill levels.

The responsibility of revitalising technical educationshould not be left to the government. It must get thesupport of business and industry, the community, the


public, labour, and all sectors of society if it is to be ofsustainable service to the nation.

(4) Profiles of the technical and vocationaleducation cycles (training levels)

(a) Basic general vocational trainingThis training is given to grade four basic educationcompleters, aged eleven to fourteen, for four months.The entry requirement is personal interest and physicalfitness. Under the supervision of a skilled person, thetrainee is expected to:• Use local hand tools,• Engage in group/team activities,• Involve in problem solving activities within their

capabilities.

The major courses given under this scheme are:

Agriculture• gardening, fishery, poultry, etc.

Home Economics• food preparation and preservation techniques• clothing construction and embroidery• home management• health, childcare and development

Handicraft• pottery, carpentry, weaving, etc.

The common courses will be market studies, humanrelationship, and salesmanship.

(b) Medium technical and vocational trainingThis training is given to grade eight completers, agedseventeen and above, for six months. The requirementfor entry is personal interest and physical fitness.On completion of the course, the trainee is expected to:• Manipulate hand tools and simple machines,• Develop manual dexterity,• Work independently in small-scale production,• Develop a positive attitude towards team work.

The major courses offered under this scheme are:

Agriculture• nursery practices• horticulture• field-crop production• crop protection• forestry• soil and water conservation• bookkeeping• poultry• fishery• cattle breeding, etc.

Home Economics• food and nutrition• bakery• cookery• textile and clothing construction• reception• embroidery• home management and housekeeping

• childcare and development, etc.

Handicraft• pottery• blacksmithing• horn craft• basketry• goldsmithing• hide and skin craft

Construction• building• road construction• bridge construction• painting• plumbing• surveying• electricity• etc.

Industrial Mechanics• general mechanics• auto-mechanics• electricity• machine

Health Business• health assistance• bookkeeping• dietary• record keeping• midwifery, etc.• typing• clerical, etc.

The common courses for this programme are book-keeping, record keeping, and entrepreneurship.

(c) Skilled level vocational trainingThis training is given to grade ten completers, agedseventeen and above, for a year. The entryrequirement is interest in physical fitness.

On completion of the course the trainees will:• Develop entrepreneurship skill,• Be able to use machinery and certain equipment,• Be gainfully employed, self- or wage-employed,• Be able to solve personal and community problems.

The major courses given under this scheme are:

Agriculture and Home Economics• nursery practice• food and nutrition• horticulture• cookery• field-crop production• bakery• crop protection• pastry• natural resource conservation• reception• forestry• home management and housekeeping• soil conservation• textile and clothing construction• wild animal conservation• health• beekeeping• childcare and development• poultry


• hairdressing, etc.• fishery• livestock production• animal food and feeding• basic veterinary• introduction to agro-economics

Construction and Health• building• road construction• nutrition• bridge construction• dental care• city surveying• sanitation• bricklaying• laboratory technician, etc.• painting• electric and gas welding

Business Industrial Mechanics• market surveying• auto-mechanics• salesmanship• general mechanics• bookkeeping• machine operation• management, etc.• surveying• drafting• woodwork• electricity

(5) Technical and vocational education andtraining

This is the last cycle of technical and vocationaleducation at the secondary level. It is classified in theformal sector. The training is given to successfulcompleters of grade ten, aged seventeen and above, fortwo years. High achievers of the one-year technicaland vocational education beyond the formal sector arealso admitted to this training. The entry requirement ispersonal interest and physical fitness.

After completing the two-year training, the trainees areexpected to:• Plan and establish their own organisation,• Independently operate and maintain machines and

equipment,• Work as an assistant researcher,• Develop their skill through further education.

Major courses related to common courses

Industrial tecHnology• technical drawing• technical English• auto-mechanics• workshop management• applied physics• drafting• applied mechanics• chemistry• electricity• maths

General Mechanics• entrepreneurship• machine technology

• surveying• woodwork, etc.

Construction Technology• bricklaying, painting and plastering• joinery and carpentry• electric and gas welding• fitting and plumbing• reinforcement assembly of concrete structures

Business• accounting• banking• business English• secretarial science• economics• commercial maths• commercial law• entrepreneurship• economic geography• computer programming• cost-accounting

Home Economics• food and nutrition• applied biology• technical English• chemistry• applied maths• general statistics• business economics• home management and housekeeping• art and design• entrepreneurship• basic bookkeeping• textile and clothing• technical drawing• applied chemistry• health• childcare• applied biology and development• chemistry

Agriculture• agro-mechanics• technical drawing• technical English• plant science• applied mechanics• applied physics• animal husbandry• workshop management• chemistry• nature conservation and organisation• biology• agro-economics• surveying• maths• economics• entrepreneurship• agricultural management

(6) ConclusionsVictimised and ravaged by man-made and naturaldisaster for the past many years, almost all regions ofEthiopia suffer from low per capita income, populationexplosion, unemployment and poor infrastructuredevelopment. The annual economic growth rate is stilltoo small to absorb the labour force which has beenincreasing in the past due to an unchecked populationgrowth.


The five-year economic policy, among other things, isdesigned to check this rampant unemployment amongthe young. The new economic policy is conducive to amarket-based economy and the legal and regulatoryframework encourages the establishment and mush-rooming of private enterprise.

The New Education Policy which encourages thedevelopment of technical and vocational educationbeyond the formal sector is in tune with the envisagedinfrastructure development of the country. For withoutthe gainful self- or wage-employment of significantproportion of the economically active population, theenvisaged infrastructure development becomes adream that may never come true. Both are supple-mentary to each other, and the realisation of theeconomic development is dependent on the availabilityof a trained workforce.

Higher education institutes in Ethiopia have beengiven administration autonomy by a 1994 governmentdecree. This means technical and vocational collegeshave a great opportunity to play a leading role in theexpansion of technical and vocational educationbeyond the formal sector.

The bulk of small-business employees got their skilltraining through crude forms of apprenticeship. Thetechnical and vocational colleges can tailor customisedtraining to upgrade the skill performance of suchemployees by charging tuition fees which may partlybe covered by employers. As a result of newly-gainedskill of their employees, small businesses may improvethe quality of their services and products. Withimproved service and product quality, they will havethe necessary edge over their competitors to profitablystay in business. By catering training to suchemployees, the technical colleges will also be able tosiphon additional revenues that will make their pro-grammes sustainable.

5.5 Brief Description of the Jua KaliMovement in KENYAby Eng. G. K. N. MBUGUA

Eng. G. K. N. Mbugua is Director of Applied Technology,Ministry of Research, Technical Training & Technology,Nairobi, Kenya.

(1) Philosophy.....................................................................................39(2) Definition of Jua Kali ...................................................................39(3) Recognition of the Jua Kali movement.........................................39(4) Achievements.................................................................................39(5) Challenges.....................................................................................40(6) The future ......................................................................................40

(1) PhilosophyThe Jua Kali movement in Kenya is quite old but canrightly trace its humble beginnings with the achieve-

ment of independence. Before independence thesociety was too controlled to have been able to expressits creativity and independent spirit without being con-sidered a nuisance. The Jua Kali movement is foundedon the principle of service to the community at a profit.

(2) Definition of Jua KaliThe term “Jua Kali” means “hot sun” and has looselybeen used to incorporate the whole informal sector. Itsbeginnings are however associated with those mech-anics, welders, sheet-metal workers who toiled in thehot sun on land that was not theirs out of pleasure andalso out of necessity to make a living. Within theMinistry of Research, Technical Training and Tech-nology, the term Jua Kali has assumed an operationaldefinition to mean “small-scale manufacturing andtechnology-based services”. This definition is dictatedmore by limited resources than by choice.

(3) Recognition of the Jua Kali movementThe potential of the informal sector and the Jua Kalimovement, not only as a vehicle for employmentgeneration but also as a tool for wealth creation, wasfirst recognised in the ILO Report of 1971. TheSessional Paper No. 1 of 1986 on Economic Manage-ment for Renewal further recognised this potential andin 1988 the Government created the Ministry of Tech-nical Training and Technology with the “promotion ofthe Jua Kali Movement” being a section in the Depart-ment of Technical Training. In 1992, the Jua Kalidivision was elevated to a full department and renamedthe Directorate of Applied Technology. This depart-ment has now built considerable expertise in their area.

(4) Achievements

The Jua Kali shedsThe first Jua Kali shed was established at Kamukunjiin 1989 by His Excellency the President DanielToroitich Arap Moi. Although the site existed and wasoccupied by Jua Kalis, it was the President who,through his generosity, thought of providing them witha roof. Since that time, many more Jua Kali shedshave been built or are under construction.1. The government has funded the construction of

Nyayo sheds in 52 sites in 36 districts. Most ofthese sheds are occupied and in full use. This hascost about KSHS 100 million.

2. The government, in conjunction with the FederalRepublic of Germany, has constructed 333 com-pletely serviced and secure work places for JuaKalis artisans at seven sites in five towns, namely:Nakuru, Voi, Karatina, Meru and Kisii. This hascost about KSHS 90 million.

3. The Government of Kenya, in conjunction with theDanish Government, has constructed 31 sheds inthe Taita Taveta district. This has cost about KSHS47 million.


4. The Kenya Government, in conjunction with theBelgium Government, is currently putting up shedsin five towns, namely: Kakamega, Thika, Kitale,Machakos and Migori. This will cost about KSHS100 million.

Sector mobilisationCurrently there are about 300 registered Jua KaliAssociations with a total workforce of about 20,000registered Jua Kali artisans. Most of these associa-tions are site-based. A further 200 Jua Kali Associa-tions with a total workforce of about 15,000 Jua Kaliartisans are awaiting registration. The Jua Kalimovement is well spread out in Kenya geographically.

The Jua Kali movement is today identified by thegovernment as embracing the best strategy in employ-ment generation and poverty alleviation on account ofits low capital requirements per job created.

(5) Challenges

Marketing and publicityGoods only move if consumers are aware of them. Tomeet this challenge, the Ministry, in conjunction withBAT(K), has organised seven provincial Jua Kaliexhibitions in an attempt to promote Jua Kali products.These exhibitions have been immensely successful, buta lot remains to be done. This year, Nairobi will hostthe Grand Finale Exhibition in September, and it isalso our desire to invite other Jua Kali operators fromour region. This is a worthwhile goal as the threeeconomies integrate and become one market.

Availability of suitable Jua Kali sites andindustrial plotsThe Jua Kali sites are today considered as nurseries forentrepreneurs. The low barriers to entry on account oflow capital requirements are considered a majorattraction. As such, it is important that such sites becommunally held. Those artisans or entrepreneurswho become more successful are expected to graduatefrom these nurseries and buy private land for theirfurther development. The availability of suitable JuaKali sites as well as suitable private industrial land is,therefore, critical in growth of the Jua Kali Movementand industrialisation of Kenya.

(6) The futureWe are looking at the Jua Kali movement not only as avehicle for employment generation and wealthcreation, but also as an important vehicle in indigenouspeople being introduced to industrialisation asarticulated in the current development plan andSessional Paper No. 2 of 1996, on Industrialisation tothe Year 2020.

5.6 Non-Government Organisationsand Enterprise in LESOTHOby Mr Mota SEKONYELA

Mr Sekonyela is the Deputy Director (Administration) of theLerotholi Polytechnic, in Maseru, Lesotho.

(1) Introduction.................................................................................. 40(2) Basotho Enterprise Development Corporation ........................... 41(3) The Lesotho National Development Corporation ....................... 42(4) Comments on the Lesotho Highlands Water Project .................. 42(5) The Thaba-Khupa Ecumenical Centre ........................................ 43(6) Co-ordination of non-formal TVET activities ............................. 43(7) Future policy considerations on TVET activities in Lesotho ..... 43

(1) IntroductionThe transformation that has enveloped the whole of theAfrican Continent is a reality that requires critical ifnot hard choices to meet urgent political, social andcultural needs. In a word, the African Continent isconfronted by the dilemmas of change, not only forbetterment of the lives of its people, but also, mostimportantly, for ensuring human survival, even underthe harshest conditions.

In our desperate efforts to understand what is going onin our Continent, education is being looked at to pro-vide answers to some of the glimpses into the futuredirection for life-saving measures. It is in this connec-tion that I wish to place the relevance of technical andvocational education. Evidence from several studiesand experiences of most developed countries in theworld is being used as indicators of the options avail-able to each developing country. For example, the1995 sitting of UNESCO has this observation:

“Development must have a human face. Sustain-able social development requires a radicallyreoriented programme of human resources devel-opment, not in the narrow managerial sense, but ina broader sense of improvement in the quality oflife. Better education, better health, respect forhuman rights, democracy, rational use of resourcesthrough the application of recent advances inscience and technology, as well as a commitment tothe culture of peace and international solidarity.”(UNESCO, 1995, p. 3)

Two years earlier, another August gathering in Angers,France, made a sharp criticism of Sub-Saharan Africaperformance in the implementation of education sectorprogrammes. In their own words, they observed:

“Despite continuing high demand for education andmajor investment in this sector, the region’s educa-tion systems are not producing the intellectual andhuman resources needed for sustained economicgrowth and political stability.” (DAE, 1993)

Perhaps I must now turn to the issue which I intend toexamine in detail: the contribution of the non-govern-


mental organisations and enterprises. I further wish touse Lesotho as a case-study and discuss the role ofBasotho Enterprise Development Corporation(BEDCO) and Lesotho National Development Corpo-ration (LNDC) in non-formal technical and vocationaleducation activities. Lastly, I would also want tocomment on the contribution of the Lesotho HighlandsWater Project (LHWP) in the non-formal sector aswell as the Thaba-Khupa Ecumenical Centre.

(2) Basotho Enterprise DevelopmentCorporation

The Basotho Enterprise Development Corporation wasestablished by the Government of Lesotho in 1975 as asubsidiary of the Lesotho National Development Cor-poration. At the time, its mandate was to provideloans, business counselling, training extensionservices, and developed land and premises on rent tosmall-scale business enterprises. It also ran serviceworkshops as part of its programme of assisting small-scale manufacturers.

As recently as 1990, BEDCO has become a parastatalorganisation under the Ministry of Trade and Industrywhose mandate is mainly to promote Basotho-ownedand managed small-scale enterprises.

To the extent that BEDCO’s mandate has a directbearing on non-formal activities of the small-scaleentrepreneurs, we have to understand the characteris-tics of this sector in Lesotho. The most common andeasily observable characteristics are the following:• Lack of confidence to face the competitive practice

of the world of work,• Lack of adequate funding to purchase the required

machinery and other inputs,• Inability to attract well-trained workers to ensure

quality products that can favourably compete in themarket, and

• Lack of preparedness to train for improved produc-tivity and enhanced performance.

The majority of people who are found in the non-formal or informal sectors do not possess the requiredbusiness skills to run business on their own, let aloneadequate training in the fields of their choice. Thereasons are not hard to arrive at, for, in the main, theyare either rejects of the country’s educational system,drop-outs from the system, or those people who atmost possess only the crudest basic skills which wouldrequire further refining.

The loans provided to individual small-scale entrepre-neurs are so small that they partly address some of thetotal requirements of their businesses, but not all. Ofcourse, funds made available to BEDCO for this activ-ity are very inadequate. Still further, most of the

small-scale entrepreneurs do not have enough securityto enable them to qualify for bigger loans should theywish to apply for these loans themselves directly fromthe financial institutions.

Finally, having realised that the mandate was toobroad, and that there was little success in carrying itout, BEDCO has down-sized its operation and nowconcentrates on assisting the small-scale entrepreneursin the preparation of technical appropriation by thefinancial institutions and only acts as a guarantor. Itstill continues with its training extension services butonly on a small scale.

First, I would like to centre my argument on the under-standing that meaningful development is a function of,among other things, well-trained human resources pos-sessing relevant skills and attitudes. The two areimportant elements towards procuring and sustaininggainful employment. The Public Sector in Lesotho hasoverstretched the financial muscle of the governmentto its limit, to the extent that private sector assistanceis unarguably inadequate. To this end, it is imperativefor Lesotho Government to engage in serious negotia-tions with non-government organisations to step uptheir financial inputs in the non-formal activities. Inthe same vein, the government should reorient itsfinances to give greater assistance to the non-formalTVET activities.

Secondly, non-government enterprises must be madeto understand that success in the private sectordepends to a large extent on continuous training of theworkers. In most cases, this important aspect hasdeliberately been avoided by most enterprises for theobvious reasons of it being very costly. Formal insti-tutions can only provide initial training in skills acqui-sition. Skills development for enhanced performanceand improved productivity should be understood to bea shared responsibility of the employing organisationand government. It can only be in cases whereemployees need training in other skills, which may notbe directly related to the jobs they are doing, that theycan be sent back to the formal institutions. Otherwise,the type of assistance the formal TVET institutionshave to render to the non-government informal sectorshould be supervision. In this regard, the JASPAEmployment Advisory Mission observed as far back as1979 that:

“The supply of technicians as well as of craftsmenand artisans should be augmented through “on-the-job” and “in-service training”, a move that shouldinvolve both government departments and otherprivate sector establishments which are largeenough to sustain it.” (JASPA, 1979, p. 216).


(3) The Lesotho National DevelopmentCorporation

The LNDC is the Government of Lesotho’s main para-statal agency for implementing the country’s industrialdevelopment policy. The corporation was establishedin 1967, and charged with the responsibility“to initiate, promote and facilitate the development ofmanufacturing and processing industries, mining andcommerce in a manner calculated to raise the level ofincome and employment in Lesotho.” (Lesotho 1996,p. III).

In carrying out its mandate, LNDC focused on thepromotion of export-oriented and labour-intensiveprojects with a view to reducing the chronic tradeimbalance and also to facilitate the much needed jobopportunities in the country. In its search for potentialinvestors in the country, LNDC has, for a long time,used low wage rates as Lesotho’s main attraction.

It has, however, dawned on them that their success haslargely been in the manufacturing projects, especiallyfrom companies in textiles, garments and electronics.There is now a need to complement this effort by pro-motion of industrial linkages and upgrading ofdomestic technological capabilities in order to ensurethat industries become permanently rooted in thecountry.

A number of observations are worth noting relating tothe foreign companies which have invested in Lesotho.These are the following: their reluctance to undertaketraining of local employees, their payment of minimumwages based on the minimum wage structure suggestedby the Government of Lesotho, their cunning practiceof importing skilled labourers from their homecountries even when skilled local labourers are avail-able, and their reluctance to engage local counterpartsin top supervisory positions. These practices do notauger well for the promotion of non-formal TVETactivities in the country. Granted, a lot of unskilledpeople have managed to get temporary employmentfrom most of these companies with no development oftheir skills for future gainful employment. On theother hand, semi-skilled workers have sufferedbecause of low pay packages.

Unlike the Basotho Enterprise Development Corpora-tion which undertakes training even though on a verysmall scale, LNDC does not have a training wing. Allit does is to encourage the formal training institutionsto go out of their set curricula by offering tuition totheir unskilled and untrained labourers in variousprojects which are not directly related to the long termhuman resources needs of the century. For example,one company which needs to make an investment,through establishing a firm for assembling money

safes, might require an institution to train its studentsnot only for the firm’s employees in that particularskill. When such a firm closes down, such a coursealso has to be discontinued. Such moves have notalways met with sympathetic considerations by formaltraining institutions which by all means should focuson the long-term human resources needs of the countryas a whole.

(4) Comments on the Lesotho HighlandsWater Project

The Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP) haseffectively operated since 1990 as a joint partnershipbetween the Governments of Lesotho and South Africato transfer water (Lesotho’s White Gold) from Lesothothrough underground tunnels to South Africa. Theagreement, signed in 1986, stipulates the sale of thiswater to South Africa and, secondly, helps Lesotho togenerate its own electricity through the surplus waterin order to reduce dependency on South Africa. Thisgiant project attracted a lot of donor funding since thetwo countries could not carry it out on their own.

Within the context of this Seminar, I wish to commenton the project’s contribution to non-formal TVETactivities in so far as they are applicable.

First, LHWP was compelled to recruit labourers fromthe project site areas as much as would visibly be pos-sible. The understanding was to compensate for thelosses that would be incurred by the people who wouldfind themselves relocated elsewhere.

Secondly, the government of Lesotho has emphasisedthat associated works on the construction sites should,as much as possible, be labour-intensive in order togenerate the much needed job opportunities for theBasotho.

Thirdly, the problem of massive retrenchments of mineworkers from the Republic of South African goldmines, orchestrated by the falling prices of gold in theworld markets, was to be partly addressed by the exe-cution of this project.

Lesotho Highlands Water Project established a train-ing centre of its own where the unskilled labourerswere provided with basic required skills. Theretrenched mine workers were also retained andassisted in the construction of the undergroundtunnels. The project has provided employment tomore than 2,000 people for periods ranging from oneto six years. During this time, causal employment hasalso been provided to the majority of the rural commu-nities around this area. The project has, however,started to lay off most of these trained people after thecompletion of phase 1, which mainly involved the con-


struction of the main reservoir (Katse Dam) and thetransfer tunnel to South Africa.

(5) The Thaba-Khupa Ecumenical CentreThis Centre is a joint venture of the three mainchurches in Lesotho: i.e. the Anglican Church ofLesotho, the Lesotho Evangelical Church and theRoman Catholic Church and is operated by theChristian Council of Lesotho. Its main source offunding comes from the contributions of these threemain churches. It provides tuition in the areas of homeeconomics, poultry keeping, vegetable production,brick-paving, as well as textile fabrication. Theduration of the programmes range from nine months totwenty-four months. Entrants to these programmes aredrop-outs from primary school and junior secondaryschools.

At the centre, students are taught basic skills whichwill enable them to start projects of their own uponcompletion of their studies. The overall purpose of thecentre is to provide them with self-employment skills.A lot of our youth have benefited tremendously fromthe training offered here since a majority of them havebecome part of the non-formal sector in Lesotho.

Unfortunately, upon graduation, the students are notgiven anything that will help them to start their ownbusiness. They are expected to go and negotiate loanswith the financial institutions without any form ofsecurity except their certificates. Some of them haveeven dared to compete for employment in the publicsector which is already over-burdened.

(6) Co-ordination of non-formal TVETactivities

The Lesotho Council of Non-Governmental Organisa-tion (LCN) continues to play an important role of co-ordinating the activities of various non-formal TVETactivities. It has established, through funding fromdonor organisations, a directory of most of theseorganisations, some of which were not known in thecountry. This is a very demanding job which requiresmassive financial support and qualified humanresources. LCN was formed in 1990 and, to date, hasonly seven paid-staff members. There is only one staffmember who undertakes the training of the variouscommittee members of these several organisations.The training offered is indeed very basic and is aimedonly at skills relating to running any organisation. It isnot work-related skills development training. To thisend, the important role played by LCN will be limitedonly to co-ordination within the context of this paper.

(7) Future policy considerations on TVETactivities in Lesotho

With references to export-oriented sectors such asmanufacturing textiles and garments, a strategy must

be developed to make training of local humanresources a compulsory clause in the investment con-tract agreement. This strategy would help in buildingcapacity for sustenance of such firms when theinvestors finally pull out.

In most instances, foreign investors and entrepreneurshave deliberately avoided using the locally availableskilled or semi-skilled labour forces, and have resortedto unscrupulous practices of either importing labourfrom their home countries or elsewhere in the regionwhere it is cheaply available. It might be an appropri-ate time to put in place sound policies that will compelthese foreign entrepreneurs to use the skilled labourlocally available to the maximum possible extent.

Lesotho should consider, as a matter of urgency, for-mulation and implementation of a training levy or askills development fund as it is done in other countries.The costs of technical and vocational education andtraining are too immense to be borne by governmentalone.

Non-government organisations and enterprises requirethe assistance of technical and vocational institutionsas much as do the institutions themselves. It might beprudent to formulate an open-door policy regarding thesharing of training institutions to know more aboutwhat is going on in industry. In this regard, it is verypertinent to suggest that what must start in the mindsof men must be permeated by peace.

5.7 The National Policy Definition inMALAWIby Mrs Joyce PHEKANI

and Mr Maston M. M TAMBOMrs Phekani is Principal of the Soche Technical Collegewithin the Ministry of Education of the Government ofMalawi.Mr Mtambo is the Registrar of Apprentices within theMinistry of Labour and Manpower Development of theGovernment of Malawi.

(1) Provision of the informal TVET....................................................43(2) Problems and possible solutions relating to non-formal TVET ..44(3) Financing the informal and non-formal TVET ............................45(4) Government intervention in stimulating informal and non-formal

TVET...........................................................................................45(5) Conclusions and recommendations..............................................46

(1) Provision of the informal TVETMalawi is aware that it can only absorb a very tinyfraction of those who come to the labour marketbecause of the relatively small size of the wageeconomy and the rapid growth in the number of thelabour force entrants. This imbalance has existed for along time now, and that is why the Government ofMalawi (GOM) encourages informal training for self-


employment and rural development. Salima RuralTrade School and Phwezi Rural Polytechnic are someinstitutions that provide informal TVET for self-employment and rural development. Training is pro-vided in bricklaying, carpentry/joinery and metalwork,lasting for two years. Successful students receive aloan in the form of a toolkit.

Although agriculture is the main activity for more thanthree-quarters of Malawi’s rural population, informalTVET graduates also engage in non-farm activities tosupplement household income or community devel-opment. Activities include tinsmithing, furnituremaking, producing of utensils, ox-cars, farm equip-ment, etc.

From tracer studies conducted on the 1992/1993graduates from Salima Rural Trade School, 41% of thegraduates are self-employed, 32% are wage employed,and 27% are inactive: i.e. they are either doingnothing or their whereabouts are not known. FromPhwezi Rural Polytechnic, 36% are self-employed,28% are wage employed, and 36% are inactive.

The tracer studies identified a number of bottlenecks.These include limited market due to seasonal incomesfrom agricultural produce. The equipment that is usedin these training centres is not available in the ruralcommunities, so that the graduates have to find theirown equipment which has got a short lifespan. Thiscontributes to poor quality of goods and services.High losses are therefore incurred. Another majorproblem is the poor, or indeed, lack of a propertransport network.

Due to the absence of pre-training-needs analyses andpost-training tracer studies, detailed assessment aboutthe effectiveness of certain training offers is problem-atic. However, we feel safe to say that, to date, non-formal training in Malawi is rather fragmented in itsspread and quite narrow in the fields being offered.Without donor support, non-formal training wouldvirtually not exist. NGO-run courses represent asignificant share of skills training for disadvantagedtarget groups. Recent programmes have assistedgreatly in enhancing female participation. Not with-standing these gains, enrolment patterns continue toreflect traditional male domains (men: technical areas,women: home economic areas). In the short term, thissuggests the need to expand programmes thattraditionally attract women; in the medium term,equitable access and enrolment across more technicalfields should be promoted.

(2) Problems and possible solutions relatingto non-formal TVET

Problem 1The inadequacy and irrelevance, or indeed, theabsence of any Training Policy on Non-formal TVETand the implications for initiating and implementingsuch a policy at a national level.

Possible solutionThe objective should be pursued to ensure that a policywhich addresses appropriate non-formal and formalTVET be developed. Operational steps could includethe following:1. To identify areas and aspects that will need to be

included in the TVET policy.2. To identify all institutions and organisations who

should be involved in the TVET policy planning.3. Identify strategic measures for successful policy

implementation.

Some areas and aspects to be included in the TVETpolicy should be the:• Definition of TVET,• Relevant curricula,• Certification procedures,• Training courses,• Target groups,• Duration,• Gender,• Linkage to credit institutions, etc.

Problem 2Lack of sustainability of training programmes due topoor mobilisation and utilisation of resources. Thepoor utilisation and ad hoc implementation of trainingprogrammes could be due to the inappropriateness ofsome training programmes, the lack of training needsanalyses, and the lack of review and follow-up in pro-grammes.

The major cause for this problem is partly due to thehigh dependence on government and donor resources,and partly due to the lack of qualified humanresources. The ensuing problems after the donors havehanded over include inadequacy of financial resources,lack of clear vision of their own mandates, and poorco-ordination and co-operation.

SolutionThe seminar workshop to provide possible solutions.

Problem 3Weak relationships between government, privatesector, NGOs, entrepreneurs and workers. That is tosay, non-formal training in Malawi is ratherfragmented. There are no unified standards, nonational checks among the various training providers:nothing.


Possible solutionTo establish realistic co-operation and co-ordinationmechanisms amongst all training providers, a co-ordinating body is required. Better co-ordination is animportant contribution to achieving all non-formaltraining objectives. Of course, there are several ques-tions to answer in this regard such as:• What is to be co-ordinated?• By whom?• How?The operational steps to follow in forming such a bodywould include:1. Identifying needs for co-operation and co-ordina-

tion and outline respective areas.2. Identifying roles and responsibilities of the

individual institutions and training providers,3. Designing appropriate mechanisms for the structure

of this body.

(3) Financing the informal and non-formalTVET

Financing the Informal and Non-formal VocationalEducation and Training in Malawi is divided into twodifferent ways: financing institutions is one, andfinancing the trainees is the other. Although bothways are being practised, it is difficult at this time tospecifically state the magnitude of each. Below is asummary of how each is financed:

Financing institutions that provide non-formalTVET

1 Allocation from governmentThis is perhaps the largest financing source through itsvarious organisations which include DEMAT,SEDOM, MEDI, Salima Rural Trade Schools, NasawaTechnical Training Centre, MOWCACDSW, andMACOHA. These organisations belong to line Minis-tries where, when outlining their training costs, aselection of the most optimum option is made.

2 Fees from traineesTrainees pay fees for tuition, boarding and other formsto master crafts persons, training providers for profit,and several other NGOs.

3 Commercial activitiesMost non-formal institutions, especially those thatbelong to NGOs, offer their facilities for hire to otherorganisations as one way of generating their supple-mentary income. These facilities include seminarhalls, workshops for production, and other activities.

4 DonationsSeveral non-formal TVET institutions receivedonations from various organisations, local andforeign. These donations are in the form of equipment,training materials, personnel or even cash.

Financing trainees

1 Grants from familiesMost trainees pursuing non-formal TVET get much ofthe support from their own families. This is in fact theoldest system in Malawi.

2 SponsorshipOther trainees get their sponsorship from theirchurches, employers NGOs, from other people, etc.

3 LoansSome trainees cannot solicit any free help from any-where. They therefore borrow money from at leastsomewhere and pay it back at some latter date.

4 SubsidiesMost trainees, especially in more organised non-formalTVET institutions are also financed by way of sub-sidies through the provision of food, accommodation,transport, recreation, and through other means. This isvery common in church organisations.

Other sourcesOther means of financing the informal and non-formalTVET in Malawi come in as funded projects, such asthose from SADC, or as external sponsorship fromGTZ, DANIDA, the British Council, USAID, etc.The point to emphasise here, however, is the fact thatthe volume of informal and non-informal TVET inMalawi is so vast that only very little of it is explored.To effectively fund/finance the whole of it is beyondthe imagination of some of us. It should be pointed outhere that formal TVET in Malawi, through theNational Apprenticeship Training Scheme, is fundedthrough the levy/grant system, just as is the case withmost other countries.

(4) Government intervention in stimulatinginformal and non-formal TVET

Government intervention in stimulating the informaland non-formal TVET in Malawi is carried outthrough various programmes, but the major one isknown as the 5th Country programme. The programmemanagement by the Malawi Government as a NationalExecution Programme operates through the SmallEnterprise Development Programme (SEDP), and isrun under the auspices of the Ministry of Commerceand Industry. The SEDP is aimed at creating alter-native off-farm income opportunities, and is mainlydivided into five components:1. Policy, Promotion and Co-ordination. The purpose

of this component is to create a more enabling envi-ronment for micro and small enterprises. This isbased at the Ministry of Commerce and IndustryHeadquarters that has the responsibility of formu-lating policies for the sector, establishing a database on the sector, and creating and servicingcentres in the Local Impact Areas.


2. Entrepreneurship Development and Skills Training.The objective of this component is to strengthen thebusiness and technical skills of entrepreneurs inorder to enable them to run their businessessuccessfully. This component is based at theDevelopment of Malawian Enterprise trust(DEMAT).

3. Credit. The objective is to improve access of thetarget beneficiaries to credit by establishing anappropriate credit delivery system. Under thecomponent, a Micro and Small Enterprise CreditGuarantee Fund has been established at theCommercial Bank of Malawi using funds from theUnited Nations Capital Development Fund(UNCDF). The loans under this Guarantee Fundare given to groups. This component is also basedat DEMAT.

4. Appropriate Technology. This is one of thecross-programme strategies and its objective is toimprove access of micro and small enterprises toappropriate and low cost technologies. This com-ponent is based at the Malawi Industrial Researchand Technology Development Centre (MIRTDC).

5. Marketing. The objective of this component is toincrease market opportunities for goods andservices from the micro and small enterprise sector,and strengthen the capacity of marketing groups ofmicro and small enterprises. This component isagain based at DEMAT.

Appropriate technology, marketing, etc. are veryessential to the informal sector.

The evaluation of the programme has shown somefailures but, of course, accompanied with somesuccess.

The major elements of successful interventions in thissector may be summarised as follows:1. Interventions have been addressing specific needs

and problems of target groups.2. Intended beneficiaries at all stages have been play-

ing substantial participatory roles.3. Attention has been given to complementary inputs

to the beneficiaries.4. Implementing staff have been trained to deliver

sound management, commitment and competence.5. Frequent follow-up services have not been ignored.

One other major organisation that has played a big rolein the intervention is the Malawi Industrial Researchand Technology Development Centre (MIRTDC)which identified affordable tools and easy to useequipment in:• tinsmithing• blacksmithing• carpentry• bricklaying

• shoemaking• curios carving• knitting• beekeeping• beer brewing• fishing

Production technologies of:• sugar• soda/salad• cement tiles• tanning• soap• candles• bricks

Fuel effective:• cooking• bakery ovens• brick burners

Food processing and preservation:• fishsmoking techniques• storage facilities• milk processing• canning• cooling

Machinery:• hand carts• ox carts• bicycle trailers• maize shelters• rice threshers• potters wheels• floor mills• oil presses• water pumps• ploughs

Appropriate technology demands were formulated incombining with skill upgrading demands in:• pottery• curios production• boat-building• dyeing• blacksmithing• building• brick moulding• leather crafts

But still more, the major question has been who shouldreceive the intervention and why, knowing very wellthat the informal and non-formal sector is very vast.Micro-entrepreneurs, school drop-outs, women traders,progressive artisans, TVET graduates from formalinstitutions who cannot get employed in industry, etc.

(5) Conclusions and recommendationsFrom experiences from the labour offices and schoolenrolment figures, it seems that the dominatingfeatures of current labour market trends in Malawi arelimited employment opportunities in the formal sector,a growing need to find (self) employment in the formalsector, the important role of agriculture as regardslabour absorption, an extreme gender imbalance inemployment opportunities, and an increasinglydramatic rate of youth unemployment.


In the policy documents reviewed a consistent patternemerges. Although the government has, as a policy,accepted vocational training as one of the tools forpromoting economic growth and poverty alleviation,there is a tendency to give it a minor role as comparedto other factors influencing development. Thus, thereare no clear guidelines on how the vocational trainingsystem should be functioning in order to equip peoplewith the knowledge and skills required to meet labourmarket demands.

At implementation level, this has led to a nearly totalneglect of certain levels of human resources develop-ment. The labour market trends are not at all reflectedin the existing national vocational training scheme.The system exclusively prepares for later wageemployment in the formal sector. This fact cannot bechanged merely by the injection of entrepreneurshiptraining into technical schools. The fact remains thatstudents in these institutes have gone through a schoolcareer that has not prepared them for the practicalwork of an independent trades person, and neither hastheir social environment. Their parents have investeda lot of sweat and pride in giving their children a betterand costly education and, in return, they expect arewarding job afterwards.

Even the placement in industry does not offer theexperience needed for later efficiency in self-employ-ment. Here the trainees follow clear instructions anduse materials and equipment which are not available inthe small enterprises of the informal sector. Thus, theyare missing two important prerequisites for later self-employment: a behaviour pattern of independent andself-efficient action, and the practical skills to produceor repair articles from scratch.

Nonetheless, graduates from formal training institu-tions are already in a position where they may not findformal employment and will be forced to change theirassumed career pattern. The system must devise waysof supporting this process in order not to waste thehigh investment in human resources developmentalready made by this group. Thus, the curriculumwould need a much more profound revision thanmerely incorporating the teaching of entrepreneurialskills, which again are taught outside the real andhighly competitive market environment prevailing inMalawi.

The current training system has no policy gearedtowards the vast majority of primary school-leavers.The situation should be considered as crucial withregards to the fact that about 80,000 pupils are receiv-ing the primary School Leaving Certificate annually,and only about 10% out of these can enter secondaryeducation.

Training responsibilities towards this group are passedon to parents, small enterprises, and NGOs withouteven the slightest supportive interventions. On thecontrary, the government does not seem to be awarethat its own institutions initially designed to trainpeople from that level have more or less ceased to doso (e.g. MEDI). Neither do they pay due respect to theNGO initiatives, and are ignorant of their problems,and thus of the problems in a region where such initia-tives may have played an important role (e.g. Naza-rene).

Again, a strategy is needed to develop and sustain non-formal training activities. Just as with the privatesector, this would include intensive dialogue, definedroles and responsibilities, co-ordination of activities,and the government accepting a role as facilitator ofthis process.

Although micro and small enterprises are importantand, by far, the largest mediator of skill transference,they will, if left alone with this task, not be able toraise the standard of performance required to meetconsumer demands. Thus, consumers will continue toprefer imported products.

The productive sector in Malawi has a very smalltradition and was restricted in its development due toformer government policies. New policies try to fostermicro and small-scale development without payingenough attention to the training needs of these enter-prises. Thus, the existent apprenticeship practiceshould be built upon and advanced in conjunction within-service training and upgrading of master crafts-persons.

The large number of illiterates and semi-illiterates isanother group that needs to be integrated into anational training strategy. Functional literacy, that isbasic education combining with occupation-effectiveskills is the key intervention on this level. Again, thereare already a lot of NGOs activities in this subsector.Skills training though is not easily translated into self-employment due to weak linkages with markets,business training, credits and follow-up services. Inaddition, the lack of capacity as regards administrativeas well as technical skills and poor co-ordination withother organisations and institutions may easily stand inthe way of training success.

The major constraints of working on any of theseabove levels of skill transference is the lack of quali-fied teachers/instructors. Only the MOWCACDSWhas tried to instil in their community workers the prac-tical skills pertaining to the needs of their specifictarget groups. Therefore, special efforts will be


needed to build the capacity of trainers/instructors tofulfil the practical requirements of vocational skillstraining as well as to identify people with appropriatecompetencies in industry. More female instructorswould need to be trained and/or upgraded, andemployed to specifically motivate women to enter thetechnical training field.

A coherent national strategy can provide a frameworkfor micro-level interventions. The micro level com-prises individual target groups, communities andregions where the specific skill demands and realisticlabour-market opportunities will need to be analysed.

At this level, many activities pertaining to small-enter-prise promotion and skills training are already takingplace. The analysis of the failures of precisely some ofthese reflect the lack of coherent guidelines. The lackof co-ordination in this field leads to duplication ofsome tasks, while others fall under the table. Oneexample of this is the proliferation of entrepreneurshiptraining and small-scale loans schemes, while skilltraining has been neglected. Precise tracer studies arevital, however, in order to study this phenomenon ingreater detail. In many fields, no effective needsanalyses have been conducted; as a result of which, theloan and entrepreneur development programmes havenot had the hoped-for success. Without studies of thissort to examine impact at micro level, the policy levelcannot have the feedback it needs to correct measuresin good time.

If Malawi genuinely intends developing a trainingpolicy, the process of development itself would be thefirst step in the road to capacity building. The currentsituation is reflected in the existence of several institu-tions which presuppose co-ordination and co-operationamong providers of training which, however, do nottake place. This is because the concept of ownershiphas not yet been truly accepted. A great many goodideas and proposals already exist but have not beenacted upon.

5.8 Beyond the Formal Sector inMAURITIUSby Dr Feroze COOWAR

Dr Coowar is Assistant Director – Training within theIndustrial & Vocational Training Board (IVTB) inMauritius.

(1) Summary....................................................................................... 48(2) Introduction.................................................................................. 48(3) Overview of the organisation of technical and vocational

education and training .............................................................. 48(4) The non-formal sector of the economy ........................................ 49(5) The Training Levy/Grant Scheme................................................ 50(6) The national apprenticeship scheme............................................ 50(7) The IVTB industrial links ............................................................. 50

(8) A continuing challenge................................................................. 51(9) Conclusions .................................................................................. 51

(1) SummaryAn insight into the organisation and regulation oftechnical and vocational training in Mauritius is given.The non-formal sector of the economy is appraised andsome issues relating to technical and vocational train-ing in that sector are identified. Measures taken tomake formal training attractive to individuals andenterprises are then discussed.

(2) IntroductionThe IVTB is the lead organisation in the business oftechnical and vocational training. It employs about472 people and operates 18 technical and vocationaltraining centres. The IVTB falls under the aegis of theMinistry of Education, Human Resource Developmentand Employment. Since 1989, when it became opera-tional, the IVTB has played a key role in providingtechnical and vocational training to young people. Todate, about 95000 people have received training: somedirectly in IVTB-operated training centres and othersin private training centres regulated by the IVTB.

The role of the IVTB as provider and facilitator oftechnical and vocational training has been instrumentalin building a skilled workforce. The setting up of suit-able facilities, organisation of the training pro-grammes, and the mechanisms put in place to maketraining attractive to individuals as well as to enter-prises are important ingredients in this capacity-build-ing process. In Mauritius, as in many other developingcountries, where people engaged in the non-formalsector of the economy constitute a considerable pro-portion of the workforce, it is important that technicaland vocational training be made accessible to them.

In this paper, an overview of the organisation of tech-nical and vocational training is presented and themechanisms implemented by the IVTB to rendertraining available to people in the formal sector of theeconomy and beyond are discussed.

(3) Overview of the organisation of technicaland vocational education and training

The organisation and regulation of technical and voca-tional training is the responsibility of the IVTB whichis a parastatal body. It was established by Act ofParliament in 1988 and became operational in 1989.One of its main objectives is to provide for, promote,assist and regulate the training or apprenticeship ofpersons who are or will be employed in commercial,technical and vocational fields.

The IVTB operates 18 technical and vocational train-ing centres. Over 30 full-time and numerous part-timecourses are offered in a range of areas, includingAutomotive Mechanics, Electrical Installation Works,


Hydraulics and Pneumatics, Jewellery, Hotel andTourism, Precision Engineering, and Refrigeration andAir Conditioning. New courses in Automation, Artand Design, and Maintenance of Industrial Machineswill start next year. It is a policy of the IVTB not toconduct training in fields that are provided by theprivate sector.

Courses offered in the IVTB training centres are certi-fied under the National Trade Certificate (NTC)System, which distinguishes 3 levels of trade qualifi-cations. The lowest level is the NTC3 which is a basicskill level aimed at providing individuals with usefulbut limited occupational skills and experience.Holders of this level of certification would mostprobably need to work under supervision. Coursesleading to this qualification last one year on a full-timebasis. The entry qualifications are:a) at least 9 years (6+3) of schooling, andb) at least 15 years old.

The level 2 certification (NTC2) is a standard skilllevel which provides individuals with a wide range ofskills and experience and with occupational compe-tence over a range of routine and non-routine tasks,making these individuals almost independent of super-vision. Courses at that level may last 1 year or 2 years,depending on the structure and type of course. Theentry qualification is either holder of NTC3 qualifica-tion in a relevant subject area, or holder of a SchoolCertificate/GCE ‘O’ Level.

The highest certified level is NTC1 which providesindividuals with an advanced level of individual skilland experience, involving design, planning andproblem-solving ability, and with significant personalaccountability. Courses at that level last 2 years andthe entry qualifications are either holder of NTC2qualification in a relevant subject area or holder ofHigher School Certificate/GCE ‘A’ Level.

The IVTB is the regulatory body for technical andvocational training in the country. Private trainingcentres are allowed to operate only if they areregistered with the IVTB. Registration is based oncriteria pertaining to facilities, trainers and coursesbeing satisfied. Quality assurance is reinforcedthrough continual monitoring of the training pro-grammes conducted in these institutions. There areabout 90 private training centres currently providingtraining in fields such as Information Technology,Office Skills, Management, Engineering, and others.

Since 1989, the IVTB has provided training to about18,000 trainees in full-time training programmes andanother 4,000 in part-time ones in its training centres.It has also promoted training through the Levy/Grant

System (see section 5 below) and assisted towards thetraining of an additional 75,000 persons in the country.

(4) The non-formal sector of the economyIn the developing world, activities in the non-formalsector of the economy are commonly characterised bysmall units of production owned and operated by oneor a few individuals with little capital. They often relyon ill-equipped facilities and a low level of technology.Use of labour-intensive techniques of production is atrade mark of these activities, resulting in low qualitybut relatively cheap goods and services. Because of itsinherent inefficient means of production, the contri-bution of the non-formal sector to the Gross DomesticProduct of a developing country is estimated to bequite low. Figures of around 10% are not uncommon.

In Mauritius, enterprises are classified as large enter-prises and “other than large” enterprises. The latterare defined as those enterprises employing 9 or lessemployees. Although not all the “other than large”enterprises are necessarily in the non-formal sector ofthe economy, they are assumed so for the sake of thefollowing analysis. In 1996, 37% of the total work-force were engaged in the non-formal sector. Thisrepresents about 173,000 people, scattered mainly inthe following areas:a) agriculture and fishing,b) manufacturing,c) construction,d) wholesale and retail trade, ande) community, social and personal services.

Despite the low contribution of the non-formal sectorto the national wealth, a significant number ofemployees are nevertheless involved in a plethora ofactivities that require a range of skills. These aregenerally acquired through a loose system of appren-ticeship, whereby the trainee, with virtually no initialskills and little formal education, learns the trade froma more experienced person through exposure to practi-cal situations. This experienced person has, morelikely than not, learnt the trade in the same way. Thetrainee is not systematically able to acquire knowl-edge, as he/she generally has a low education level,and theory lessons cannot be, or are just not, con-ducted to enhance his/her knowledge. The servicesprovided or the products made in the non-formal sectorbeing limited in quality, scope and complexity, theskills required and developed are also limited. Conse-quently, the prospects for career enhancement becomefrustrating.

A major issue is how can employees in the non-formalsector be provided with structured technical and voca-tional training. The IVTB, as the lead training organi-sation in the country, has implemented severalmeasures to make formal training attractive to indi-


viduals as well as to enterprises. Such measuresinclude extremely low fees for basic level courses, aTraining Levy/Grant system, a Training VoucherSystem and the National Apprenticeship Scheme. Inaddition, close collaboration with industry allows anumber of specialised short training courses to bemounted in the workplace and in IVTB trainingcentres. Some of these measures are discussed below.

(5) The Training Levy/Grant SystemIn 1989, regulations for a Training Levy System wereintroduced. Under that system, an employer in theprivate sector pays a levy of 1% of its annual basicwage bill to the IVTB through the National PensionsFund. These contributions are used to part-fund thecost of training provided by the IVTB. During thefinancial year 1995/96, over 11,000 employers madesuch contributions. These represented about a quarterof the total annual budget of the IVTB for that year.

A Training Grant System has also been operationalsince 1989. Under this system, private employers whohave contributed to the Training Levy System areencouraged to invest in the training and retraining oftheir employees. Subject to certain criteria beingsatisfied, these employers will be reimbursed up to75% of the cost of training. In addition, the IVTBwould also part-fund the cost of air fares for IVTB-approved training obtained overseas by employees ofsuch employers.

Recently, a Training Voucher System was introducedto encourage the training and retraining of employeesinvolved in small and medium-sized enterprises. Toqualify for Training Vouchers, these enterprises musthave contributed less than the equivalent of US$ 500towards the levy system in any one year. These enter-prises are issued each year with Training Vouchers,each worth the equivalent of US$ 50 and valid for oneyear, for use as direct payment for training obtainedfrom any IVTB-registered private training institutionproviding IVTB-approved courses.

(6) The national apprenticeship schemeNon-formal technical and vocational training isgenerally not rigidly structured and has the advantageof being a flexible form of training. In the non-formalapprenticeship arrangement, trainees may learn thetrade and acquire the necessary skills at the their ownpace as there is rarely a time limit placed on the dura-tion of the training. A major consequence of thissituation is that such trainees are often subject toexploitation in their conditions of service. It may notbe uncommon for an employer in this sector to un-necessarily extend the period of formation at derisoryrates of pay, if any, so as to extract the maximumbenefit from the trainees. Furthermore, a non-qualified

or not fully-qualified trainee will be less demandingthan one who is qualified.

Prolonging the duration of training unnecessarilyhinders the trainee from making a more significantcontribution to the national economy. It is thereforeessential to formalise the training process.

In October 1994, a National Apprenticeship Scheme(NAS) was implemented by the IVTB. A nationalcommittee known as the National ApprenticeshipCommittee is responsible for formulating and over-seeing policies and administration of the Scheme.Representatives of the Public and Private sectors andthe Trade Unions form the membership of theCommittee, which is chaired by the Director of theIVTB. The day-to-day running of the Scheme ismanaged by the Industry-Based Training Division ofthe IVTB.

The NAS is a partnership among the employer,apprentice and the IVTB. The employer and theapprentice enter into a “contract” which is registeredwith the IVTB. The NAS is a dual training systemwhich combines on-the-job training with centre-basedlearning. The apprentice spends a minimum of oneday a week attending theory classes at an IVTB train-ing centre and a minimum of four days a week on-the-job training under the supervision of a “master” trades-person at the place of work. Any person who has com-pleted the equivalent of Grade 9 (6 + 3) and is 15 yearsold or over is eligible to join the Scheme. The appren-ticeship lasts three years. The apprentice is required totake examinations in theory and practical work atregular intervals. If successful, he/she is awarded aNational Trade Certificate-Level 3. The NAScurrently involves apprentices in 15 trades, includingsuch popular ones as Electrician, Cabinet Maker andMotor Vehicle Mechanic.

A major advantage of such a form of training is that itis structured and the apprentice is able to earn a living,albeit a slim one, as he/she learns. The Scheme hasnow been in operation for two years. Whilst it ispopular among the young school-leavers, employers, ingeneral, have not been forthcoming in providing theplaces. The IVTB maintains a directory of potentialapprentices and assists vigorously in placing theseapprentices in industry. However, for every fiveapplicants for apprenticeship, only one finds a place inindustry. The IVTB is presently reviewing the Schemeto make it more attractive to employers as well as toapprentices.

(7) The IVTB-Industry linksThe economic success of many newly-industrialisedcountries has been based on many factors, one of themain ones being the quality, both in breadth and in


depth, of the trained workforce. The role of industryin establishing the training strategies to be adopted iscrucial. At the IVTB, the Industry-Based TrainingDivision has been active in seeking and obtaining thecollaboration of industry in many training projects.This collaboration revolves around the provision ofpart-time courses, organised in partnership withindustry. These courses take three forms:a) training at the workplace, using the company’s

facilities, when professional consultants/courseleaders are provided by the IVTB; the wholeactivities being co-ordinated by the IVTB;

b) training of industry tradespersons in IVTB trainingcentres, when the resource persons are provided byindustry which also foot the bill; and

c) training of industry tradespersons at the IVTBtraining centres by resource persons provided bythe IVTB.

(8) A continuing challengeThe education system consists of 6 years of primaryschooling followed by 5 years of secondary schoolingleading to the School Certificate/GCE ‘O’ Level andanother 2 years leading to the Higher School Certifi-cate/GCE ‘A’ Level. After the first 6 years of school-ing, pupils obtain the Certificate of Primary Education(CPE) if successful. The number of pupils failing theCPE examinations has decreased over the past 5 years.However, there are still an estimated 9,000 pupils whodo not or cannot enrol into the secondary schoolsystem each year. Of these, about 1,000 engage in a 3-year pre-vocational training stream where the emphasisis on numeracy, literacy, and initiation to vocationaltraining. Upon successful completion of pre-vocational training, pupils have the opportunity tointegrate into the National Apprenticeship Schemeand, for some, mainstream technical and vocationaltraining. As from next year, pre-vocational trainingwill be taken over by the Basic Secondary SchoolsProject. The government is in the process ofincreasing the intake capacity of the Basic SecondarySchools.

(9) ConclusionsAn insight into the role of the Industrial and Voca-tional Training Board as a provider and regulator oftechnical and vocational training in Mauritius has beengiven. Some issues related to the training of peopleemployed in the non-formal sector of the economyhave been identified, and measures taken to makeformal technical and vocational training moreattractive have been discussed.

5.9 An Effective System for Non-Formal TVET in SOUTH AFRICAby Mr Siphamandla I. XULU

Mr Xulu is the Assistant Director: Special EmploymentCategories, in the Department of Labour, Directorate ofHuman Resource Development, within the Government ofSouth Africa.

(1) Background...................................................................................51(2) Essential competencies .................................................................52(3) Features of teaching and learning systems ..................................53(4) Essential support facilities............................................................54(5) Prior learning ...............................................................................54(6) Teaching/training personnel and their preparation ....................54(7) Conclusions...................................................................................55

The Seminar format has suggested the manner inwhich topics should be discussed. I have tried to stickas far as possible to those guidelines. The format,however, does not always lend itself user-friendly tothe emerging TVET discourse in South Africa. Forinstance, many of us do not think that the emergingpolicies permit the talk of non-formal VET as existingoutside the formal system. The point is: these policiesdisplace the emphasis on the institution and put it onlearning. Where one learns becomes immaterial in asense. Instead, what standards one attains receivesnew salience. Therefore, in talking about non-formalTVET, one has to constantly bear in mind the pro-posed seamless bands of education and training asevident in the National Qualifications Framework(NQF).

The ensuing paper will briefly outline the backgroundof the shifting vocational education and training (VET)system in South Africa through exploring issues thathas necessitated this shift and by presenting the currentpolicies. The topic under which I will talk requiresdiscussion of an effective teaching and learning systemfor non-formal TVET. “Non-formal” TVET isgenerally understood to refer to out-of-school, or out-of-formal-institutional learning. For selfish reasons (tomyself), I will try to give the broad discussion of non-formal TVET some focus by looking specifically atwhat is variably referred to as small-scale, informalenterprise sector, small business, Small, Medium andMicro (SMME)1 or SME sector.

(1) Background‘The World Competitiveness Yearbook (1996)ranked South Africa last out of 46 developingcounties in terms of its human resources develop-

1 We variably call these enterprises Small, Medium and Micro

Enterprises (SMMEs) or SMEs


ment performance and other labour market indica-tors’.2

Mine is a country that has just emerged from divisionsthat spawned across our education system, amongother systems, and that is continually engaged inprocesses of forging common vision in most of itssystems. In light of that background, one is wary notto speak of a TVET system as an existing formalisedsystem. It is, therefore, a system in the making.

In practice, the past black education system hasshowed very limited evidence that a TVET system wasoperational. We have only seen fragmented ‘edu-cation’ and ‘training’ systems. The matter has beencompounded by the country’s racial undertones. Forgreater part of the forty-year apartheid3 ‘millennium’,there was the Job-Reservation Act which declaredcertain jobs as a preserve for specific racial groups.Such a law had impact on training trends that variousracial groupings followed.

The notion of integrated education and training hasonly been formally popularised in the latest policydevelopments, notably the education White Paper ofFebruary 1995 and the Department of Labour’s(DoL’s) Skills Development Strategy for Economicand Employment Growth in South Africa Green Paper.Consequently, all education and training (ET) sectorsreflect this thinking, at least in conceptual terms, as itwere. We now speak of higher education and training(HET), further education and training (FET) and adultbasic education and training (ABET) sectors, a pro-gressive departure from a few years ago when we onlyhad HE and ABE. While characteristics of FET mayhave always been there in isolated pockets, it is arecent band of our education and training system.

Drawing on Greinert’s4 typology of vocational trainingsystems, South Africa’s current education and trainingpolicies – SAQA5 Act and Skills Development Bill,1997 – classify her as model 3: the governmentprovides a more or less tight framework for technicaland vocational education in private enterprises orother private training institutions. This is, at least, asfar as public resources will be utilised. This frame-work is currently being negotiated at high policy-

2 Department of Labour (1997) Skills Development Strategy for

Economic Growth and Employment Growth in South Africa,Green Paper

3 As the racial discrimination policy became popularly knownin South Africa

4 From UNEVOC (1995) Establishing Partnership in Technicaland Vocational Education, A Seminar for Key Personnel fromAfrica and Asia, Berlin, 02 –12 May 1995

5 South African Qualifications Authority is a statutory bodycreated by SAQA Act (Act 58 of 1995). It is entrusted with atask to regulate the National Qualifications Framework (NQF)

making levels by all key stakeholders – governmentitself, with business, labour movement and civilsociety. The key features of the framework are thefollowing:• Social partnership, wherein government, business

sector and training providers all assume a share ofresponsibility in the establishment of a qualifiedand skilled workforce,

• Learnership6 concept, and• Realisable career and learning progression paths for

learners.

The brief background outlined above serves to high-light the difficulty there is in spelling out ‘an effectiveteaching/ learning system for non-formal TVET’ in acountry which has no history of a TVET system7. Asa country, we can contribute to this discussion bymaking tentative suggestions to the issue at hand. Atbest, we can only predict some of the most likely out-comes of effecting this integration, or alternativelyreflect on our ‘unofficial’ micro-projects that existedoutside formal recognition of the past governments.We can also show how well we have listened andlooked to other nations beyond our frontiers.

(2) Essential competenciesPart of the effective teaching and learning systemrelates to the core of what is taught or learnt: theessential competencies. The question is: how does thelearning design process decide on these competencies?There are a number of routes of deciding on these. InSouth Africa, we would be at peace with ourselves inthe education and training fraternity if we could justagree on one route. Better still, we are comfortedwhen the international experts encourage us to endurethe process of finding the path through engaging inrigorous processes of intellectual scrutiny, instead ofhastily wanting to settle for one route before we canexplore the other. I will present to you the route thathas been proposed by SAQA.

SAQA sees a qualification as a holding mechanism.A qualification should do the following:1. Represent a planned combination of learning out-

comes which has a defined purpose or purposes,and which is intended to provide qualifyinglearners with applied competence and a basis forfurther learning.

2. Add significant value to the qualifying learner interms of enrichment of the person, provision ofstatus, recognition, credentials and licensing;

6 A learnership is a mechanism to facilitate the linkage between

structured learning and work experience in order to obtain aregisterd qualification which signifies work readiness

7 This claim refers to the absence of integrated ET at a formal(government policy) level. Indeed, there were independent ETproviders who can be credited for integrated provisioning inpractices long before it became formal policy


enhancement of marketability and employability,opening up of access routes to additional educationand training.

3. Provide benefits to society and the economythrough enhancing citizenship, increasing socialand economic productivity, providing specificallyskilled/ professional people, transforming andredressing legacies of inequality.

Clearly, the conception of a qualification is under-pinned by an ambitious will to link education andtraining to the world of work and broader social goalsof relevance. SAQA has proposed the categories ofcompetencies that should be developed:

Critical OutcomesThese include communication, finding out informa-tion, critical thinking, problem solving competenciesand numeric abilities, working effectively, and so on.These competencies will prepare both current andfuture workforce or citizens for the rapidly changingenvironment of the modern world of work. It is alsothese competencies that will enable learners to becomelifelong learners. All learning programmes must teachthese competencies at various levels of complexity.Fundamental OutcomesThese outcomes will be taught in the field of Commu-nication Studies and Language, and the sub-field ofMathematics, including Numeracy.Elective OutcomesElective outcomes come from the specialised field oflearning. For instance, an elective outcome for amotor mechanic may include an elective outcome onfuel injection.

Such a mix of competencies promises to assist in the‘production’ of a skilled workforce of the future. Ashinted earlier, there is no reason to believe that such astructured pattern of organised learning will be anydifferent when it comes to the non-formal TVET.

A typical delivery agency of non-formal TVET wouldbe a non-governmental organisation (NGO). ThisNGO may be offering a qualification for a Welder inthe SME sector. Irrespective of the sector in whichtrainees will ultimately perform (whether formal orinformal sector), the trainee will be expected to delivergoods to the nationally accepted standards as set in theNQF. It seems, though, that there may still very wellbe variations in the processes that learners may engagein under different learning contexts. One factordetermining these variations is the nature of equipmentthat will be available for training purposes. Whereasthe formal training institutions are more likely to havestate-of-the-art technology, non-formal training pro-

viders may have low-technology equipment to use fortraining purposes.

(3) Features of teaching and learning systemsIn discussing the key features of teaching and learningfor the TVET system, this paper will explore bothexternal and internal features8 of this system.

A concept ‘applied competence’ has gained support inthe Green Paper as a useful tool in breaking newgrounds in the field of education and training in SouthAfrica. The concept is seen to be:1. Allowing for a breakaway in the typical rote-learn-

ing form of learning that has characterised educa-tion for black South Africans through the formerDepartment of Education and Training (DET).

2. Marking a move away from a narrow conception ofcompetence as referring only to task performance.

It is hoped that this concept, and its subsequentimplementation, will be increasingly endorsed andpractised by all those involved in the business ofeducation and training. Designing our learning pro-grammes for the SMME sector with this newer under-standing of competence will add quality. I am con-vinced that this concept can be.

Flexibility is the key feature of the teaching andlearning system for the informal enterprise sector.Flexibility here refers to a number of aspects of theinformal sector ET. It encompasses flexibility withtime, with training venues, with levy systems and withteaching personnel. The need for flexibility isunderscored by divergent needs of learners in theinformal sector.

With regard to time allocation for teaching and learn-ing purposes, the circumstances of participants in theseprogrammes must be taken into account. Equally,accessible and convenient venues must be agreed uponbetween participants and learning facilitators. Whileaccessibility of the venue should be a priority, therespectability of the venue for ‘status’ purposes alsorequires attention. The status issue is particularly truefor youth programmes.

Contrary to the common practice, where only peoplewith teaching expertise (trainers and teachers) facili-tate the learning process, there should be more flexi-bility in allowing other practitioners to input into thelearning. For instance, programmes must be designedsuch that practising enterprise owners can be broughtin from time to time to share first-hand enterprise 8 Internal features - in this discussion - relate to those elements

that relate to cognitive processes: processes of the mind. Theexternal features relate to the broad organisational issues, suchas arrangement of the classroom, composition of learninggroups


knowledge with the novices. The trainers’ expertisecan be put to good use in assisting these non-teachingprofessionals in planning their input.

Lifelong learning or continuous education is anotherfeature that is increasingly receiving the attention ofdeveloping economies.

There is a constant need for guidance of learners in thenon-formal TVET system as in any system. This needis enhanced by the circumstances of the typical learn-ers in this system. Often learners in this system areoutside the mainstream of the societal economicframework. They consequently need to be constantlynurtured.

Evidence from the (economic) winning nations indi-cate that their training focuses on the whole person bydeveloping cultural values and work ethics.

(4) Essential support facilitiesThe assumption that “training and more training willyield successful entrepreneurs” is ill-founded.Training alone is inadequate to assist small-businessentrepreneurs. The White Paper on Small BusinessDevelopment and Promotion (1995) identifies thefollowing support areas:• Access to finance,• Access to markets,• Access to information,• Access to technology,• Access to advice and training,• Other support areas.

For purposes of this Seminar, it suffices to flag onlythe holistic support areas that any SME training pro-vider should be aware of. In my country, we believethat we have realised a need to be project-driveninstead of boundary-limited. We are learning toimplement new alignments and partnerships amongvarious role players. At government level, there aremechanisms to effect inter-departmental co-operationamong different departments in support of the SMMEsector, viz.: Department of Education, Department ofLabour, Department of Arts, Science and Technology.We are encouraging the principle of co-operation tofilter down at all levels of intervention.

(5) Prior learningRecognition of Prior Learning (RPL) is another routefor awarding qualifications. A ‘qualification’ may beachieved in whole or in part through the recognition ofprior learning. This concept includes learning out-comes achieved through formal, informal and non-formal learning and work experience.9 The site oflearning will be less important for formal recognition

9 SAQA, Notice 1240 of 1997

of skills attained. What will count is whether the par-ticipant does meet the set national standards whenassessed through the RPL system.

Many training programmes in the small-businesssector teach people who have previous working experi-ences. This experience needs to be recognised iffurther learning is to be realised. Also, providers ofeducation and training need to be reminded that mostparticipants come to these programmes in order toimprove the current performance of their enterprises.Therefore, thorough diagnostic facilitation can helpteachers to discover the previous learning experiencesof participants.

Prior learning can be related to, at least, three key skillareas: business skills, technical skills and entrepreneu-rial skills. A qualifier about the usability of the RPL isin order. As mentioned earlier, all the developmentprocesses are still underway in South Africa; there hasnot yet been formal implementation of RPL. The logicis that national standards need to be in place first andbe registered within the NQF. Then the assessmentprocess for purposes of recognising worthwhile priorlearning will begin.

(6) Teaching/training personnel and theirpreparation

This country has recently seen an unprecedentedimportance being attached to small-business sectordevelopment. Our economic strategy – Growth,Employment and Redistribution (GEaR) – adds to thisformal prioritisation by seeing the development ofSMME sector as a key tool for effecting job-creationand economic redistribution. With all this, preparationof qualified teaching personnel to support this sectorhas never been great.

The notion of integration permeates the entire thinkingon education and training. In its 1994 NationalTraining Strategy Initiative (NTSI) discussion docu-ment, the National Training Board coined a new termfor the ‘person who facilitates learning’, who couldvariably be called a trainer, teacher or educator, ordevelopment practitioner: an Education, Training,Development Practitioner (ETDP). This was justifiedby the reality that: ‘The inclusion of Adult BasicEducation (ABE) and community development into thetraining function makes it necessary to develop a newkind of trainer to meet the specific demands in SouthAfrica. In addition, the inclusion of teachers in techni-cal schools, technical colleges and technikons joinsthree traditionally separated sites of training togetherand begins to dissolve distinctions between the provi-sioning of formal and non-formal training’. The termETD practitioner is seen to depict the notion of inte-gration while, at the same time, recognising the differ-ences which still exist.


This new way of thinking about practitioners demandsthat practitioners be trained differently.

Recent policy proposals suggest that we develop adynamic pool of teaching practitioners. Where it willbe difficult to have all qualities embodied in one prac-titioner, a co-ordinated mechanism that brings togetherpractitioners with specialised expertise must be put inplace as the sector demands multi-disciplinary inputs.These expertise areas are teaching expertise, occupa-tional expertise and contextual expertise. In practicalterms, the pool of SME development practitionersinclude trade specialists, loan officers, marketingpeople, research experts (for feasibility studies),educators, etc.

(7) ConclusionsIn concluding this talk, the point must be reiteratedthat SME development is best facilitated throughholistic interventions. A holistic intervention does notonly see an SME as a learning field, but as a form ofworkplace. A plea is made here to view the SMEsector as another form of workplace by those whooffer some form of support to it, particularly trainingand education support. In viewing the sector this way,commonalities and differences to the (big) formalsector should be borne in mind. One of the key simi-larities of the SME sector to formal sector is that theyboth require a technically skilled workforce. Practi-cally, people from the formal sector have been able totransfer some of their skills to the SME sector quitesuccessfully. Indeed, in other ways the SME sector isunique. It is here where we need to focus. Under-standing of this uniqueness will help us design pro-grammes that meet the need of the SME sector in itsown terms. The key distinguishing characteristic ofthe SME sector lies in the demand it makes on entre-preneurs to be creators or sustaining agents of busi-nesses they own. This calls for a particular set ofskills that are generally not on offer in the trainingfield. Therefore, if we are to make any meaningfulcontribution to SME development, we must recognisethis workplace for what it is first, and design aroundthat. Unlike other education and training systems (sayGET, FET and HET) whose primary purpose is learn-ing, the primary purpose of the SME sector is thedevelopment of thriving enterprises. Quality refer-encing of any interventions should be to developmentmore than to education and training.

Lessons elsewhere stress the importance of clear targetgroup identification. One of the causes of the lowsuccess rate of SME support lies in the conflation ofthe profile of those who participate in it. Some of theidentifiable targets are:• Youth,• Retrenched people,

• Persons with disabilities,• Rural-based people,• Women,• Those already in the labour market without skills,• Those employed in the SMEs,• Those already in SMEs with skills, wanting to

remain in self-employment,• Prisoners.

Clearly, there are seamless boundaries among theseprofiles. Experience shows that target groups willrespond differently to similar interventions. Forinstance, youth with no work experience, low levelgeneral education and a high immaturity level are notlikely to respond favourably to self-employmentinitiatives. The discussion on which employmentcreation model best fits which target group profile isnot within the ambit of this discussion. The point tobe noted, however, is that growth and development ofthe small-scale sector requires more than an instrumen-talist education and training support. There is a needfor a stronger external environment of co-operativenetworks.

5.10 Essential Features of the Non-Formal Sector in SWAZILANDby Mr William S. A. SHONGWE

Mr Shongwe is Principal of the Swaziland College ofTechnology, within the Ministry of Education of theGovernment of Swaziland.

(1) Planning........................................................................................55(2) Policy.............................................................................................56(3) Economic benefits .........................................................................56(4) National policy on technical and vocational education ..............56(5) Non-formal TVET .........................................................................56(6) Financing ......................................................................................56(7) Future plans ..................................................................................57(8) Conclusions...................................................................................57

The paper sets out to highlight some essential featuresof a teaching/learning system that will meet the needsof the non-formal education sector. This paper willendeavour also to highlight some deficiencies in theSwaziland education system which makes the Swazi-land Technical and Vocational Education componentdefective and quite unable to deliver the anticipated“goods”.

(1) PlanningSuch essential features as planning education andtraining which play an important role in the develop-ment and sustenance of the informal sector aremissing. The informal/non-formal sector plays acrucial role in the economy of the country as it pro-vides employment in a number of income generatingactivities. Those that have succeeded as businesspeople in the non-formal sector have done so through


trial and error and they have not been prepared throughformal education. It is important to note that theeducation policy that currently exist only coversgeneral education and university education. However,it is silent on technical and vocational education whichis so essential in developing skills for the humanresources to equip them for the formal sectors.

(2) PolicyCentral to, and as a guiding principle to a comprehen-sive, credible and sustainable Technical and Voca-tional Education System, should be a clear anddynamic education and training policy. Unfortunately,in Swaziland to date, such a policy is not yet in place.To meet the essential features of a teaching/learningsystem for the informal sector, we need a well-researched and properly designed system capable ofmeeting complex development goals, and theoreticalassumptions in conjunction with a well-thought-outTechnical and Vocational Education System. Effortsare currently being made to hold meetings, workshopsand seminars to mount a policy. That policy, we hope,will also clearly define the position of Technical andVocational Education in Swaziland.

As a short term solution, for example, the presentvocational institutions can assist in a manner to kick-start training for the informal sector. Also, Govern-ment could help provide a financial stimulus as start-up capital to informal sector entrants as they lacknecessary collateral at this formative stage.

(3) Economic benefitsThe country should aim at emancipating the citizensfrom economic bondage to economic independence.That cannot be achieved through lip service, but byputting in place a supportive entrepreneurial infra-structure. For example, small-scale business peoplewho landed there on their own initiatives should bemotivated by easing down unnecessary barriers inobtaining trading licences, the quality of workpremises, etc. There is no clear existing articulationbetween various training institutions and the non-formal sector in Swaziland except for one institution,MITC’s Business Management Extension Programme,which helps groom small-business people by offeringshort courses and workshops. Otherwise, all the tech-nical and vocational education institutions, includingthe university, train for the formal sector. It ishightime there is a shift of emphasis from training forthe formal sector to training for the informal sector inorder to help the graduates develop skills of jobcreation.

There needs also to be proper recognition of graduateswith technical and vocational qualifications by govern-ment, as a respectable class of professionals in order tomarket the profession. It should be acknowledged that

technical and vocational education graduates are theones who make the country run by maintaining theessential services on a day to day basis.

(4) National policy on technical and voca-tional education

The absence of National Policy on Technical andVocational Education and Training compounds theproblem of non-formal training in Swaziland. It isnoted that developing Technical and VocationalEducation beyond and within non-formal systems ofeducation has been hampered by misinterpretation ofthe non-formal concepts as a way of learning. Thesocial perception led to non-acceptance and lessrecognition of graduates who acquired education andtraining through the non-formal route. The perceptionis formed as a result of viewing the non-formal systemas the extreme end of the formal continuum inlearning, instead of treating the two concepts ascomplimentary segments making up a circle.Furthermore, it is noted that a majority of those ineducation management are products of the formalsystem, so naturally they would give credit to itbecause they understand it better.

Technical and Vocational Qualifications are con-sidered to be second or third-class quality by theSwaziland Government and, in most cases, not popularfor modern sector high posts. With regard to attitudesand values of influential elite interest groups, theyargue that the inherited academic education system isthe best for modern sector employment, basing theirargument on present localisation and promotion inboth public and private sector organisations, aspromotions are currently based on academicqualifications.

(5) Non-formal TVETNon-formal technical and vocational education andtraining institutions are viewed by the general publicand its beneficiaries as second or third choice institu-tions for those who have failed to secure places inprestigious academic institutions like the University.

(6) FinancingThere is a big anomaly in the financing of technicaland vocational education in Swaziland. Some techni-cal and vocational education programmes are financedby the government but others are not and the criterionis not clear. For instance, all students registered fortechnician/diploma programmes have automatic spon-sorship and all students registered for craft/certificateprogrammes have to fend for themselves; yet, when itcomes to employment in the market, the ratio is 6 : 1 infavour of the craft category. So, it would be reason-able for the government to evenly distribute the spon-sorship to all students irrespective of category ofstudy. Furthermore, the reluctance of private enter-


prise to pay for technical and vocational educationweakens the financing of this aspect of education.

The distribution of the education budget also does notfavour technical and vocational education. Over theyears, the university has been taking 42% of thebudget, with the remainder shared amongst schoolsand other institutions including technical andvocational institutions, because politicians still regarduniversity education as the education despiteproducing unemployable products.

(7) Future plansHowever, efforts are vigorously being made to intro-duce a technical and vocational education programmecalled Vocational Education And Training (VET).This will be a tripartite kind of project involving suchstakeholders as government, private enterprise andtraining institutions. It will target school-leavers andtrain them in both technical and vocational educationwith strong emphasis on entrepreneurial skills. Thatwill make a departure from the existing training for theformal sector, and most of the training will be hands-on at the place of work. In this partnership, bothgovernment and private enterprises are assumingessential responsibilities towards educating youngpeople for the informal sector in order to alleviate thehigh unemployment rate. Currently, it is only privateinstitutions and NGOs that have taken the initiative ofskills training for the informal sector. Government islagging far behind.

Such are the concerns which tend to undermine theteaching/learning system to meet the needs of the non-formal education sector in Swaziland. However, wetrust that with time, when a clear education policy is inplace, the attitudes of the society will be persuaded toaccept technical and vocational education and trainingas an essential facet for the educational system and,hopefully, the non-formal education sector will gain itsrightful place in the education system of the country.

(8) ConclusionsEfforts of all the stakeholders may not bear fruitionunless there is put in place within the Ministry of Edu-cation, which is charged with training, a department oftechnical and vocational education headed by its owndirector and qualified personnel. In collaboration withother stakeholders in technical and vocational educa-tion, they would continually review the curriculum,carry out research, and advise stakeholders of anychanges and improvements necessary.

5.11 TVET at Mwanza Rural HousingProgramme in TANZANIAby Mr Lunogelo L. SAKAFU

Mr Sakafu is the Project Engineer within the Mwanza RuralHousing Programme of the United Republic of Tanzania.

(1) The Mwanza Rural Housing Programme ....................................57(2) Methodology .................................................................................57(3) The problems of housing...............................................................57(4) Building materials.........................................................................58(5) Skills in construction of houses.....................................................58(6) Housing finance ............................................................................58(7) Housing services for energy and water ........................................59(8) Closing remarks ............................................................................59

(1) The Mwanza Rural Housing ProgrammeThe Mwanza Rural Housing Programme operates inthe region of Mwanza on the southern shores of LakeVictoria. In this region, the programme works in threeof the six districts and, in each district, the projectworks in one of the five to six divisions. HenceMRHP works in 3 divisions, in 3 districts of MwanzaRegion, covering a population of about 200,000people.

(2) MethodologyThe strength of MRHP is its methodology whereby themost intensive working level is at the level of thevillage where the project works directly with thosepeople involved in improving the habitat situation.The target population starts with the builder who isattempting to improve the quality of his/her livingenvironment and also involves the producers ofbuilding materials, the craftspersons (mason, carpen-ter), the transporting of building materials, theprovider of services to the building environment(efficient stoves, water harvesting, sanitation) etc.

With the target population, the project pursues a par-ticipative learning process to:• Discuss and analyse the housing problems of the

target population,• Prioritise the problems to determine those that need

immediate attention,• Develop participative techniques to solve these

problems based on locally available resources,• Testing and trying out the developed solution to

select those that are most appropriate for the exist-ing environment,

• The design and implementation of disseminationstrategies to be used so that the target populationcan adapt and adopt the developed solutions to thehousing problems,

• Participative monitoring and evaluation of thewhole process.

(3) The problems of housingMRHP sees its main function as that of facilitating thehousing improvement process. According to the


Tanzania National Housing Policy, house owners havethe ultimate responsibility to provide their own shelter.As such, MRHP assists the builder to acquire themeans to build an improved house according to theiraffordability, taste and choice.

To achieve these goals of facilitation, MRHP and thetarget population found that the major housingproblems fall under four headings:1. Building materials.2. Skills.3. Finance.4. Organisation of the builders.

The target population requires empowerment in thesefields to be able to solve the problems of housing.Within these issues there are external and internal con-straints that need to be addressed by the householderas well as by MRHP. The major choice made is tostart as much as possible with what is existing and thenlater to explore the need for optimisation.

(4) Building materialsThe target population clearly stressed that the highcost of industrially produced building materials was aexternal constraint. At the same time, the cheaplocally-gathered building materials are biodegradable,or they are weakened by natural elements so thathouses built of these materials last for only a fewyears.

The ideal solution selected was for local production ofimproved building materials using locally availableresources and some industrial materials. The meanschosen was the establishment of small scale enter-prises producing tiles, burnt bricks, soil cement blocksand other low-cost building materials. The supportpackage for such local production units included:1. Training of masons and youths, with special favour

provided for women to develop skills in productionof low-cost materials. The training in new skillswas made as practical as possible: usually thetrainees would spend 90% of their time in work-shops.

2. Assisting the trained youths in a locality to estab-lish a co-operative or group to produce thematerials. The group approach was chosen overindividual producers, as in this way, we could teachmore people in later years. Many groups haveestablished their own individual enterprises. Theseenterprises are employing many people who areobtaining incomes from sale of building materials.

3. Arranging exchange of experiences betweengroups. MRHP felt that experiential learningbetween groups was quite a powerful tool fortraining adults. Sometimes the exchanges havebeen with groups outside the country (links toKenya and in Uganda), though most exchanges are

organised within a division as this is very costeffective.

(5) Skills in construction of housesWith these new skills, it was necessary to retrain themasons and the roofing specialists. MRHP organisesabout two annual courses to teach craftsmen andbuilders to build houses using burnt bricks, soil cementblocks and micro-concrete tiles. Such a course lastsfor 2½ to 3 months. This may be a short period, butwe are only retraining craftspersons who are alreadyfamiliar with their trades. These courses usuallyinvolve 10 to 15 people. We think such practicaltraining should involve only a few participants at atime as we want all of them to pick up the new skills.MRHP usually provides financing to run such courses.

(6) Housing financeEven with low-cost materials, the house builder has tospend money on the new house. With traditionalmaterials, there was little or no expenses needed to buymaterials since they were collected from the neigh-bourhood. With improvements to the local materials, acost element is introduced to be borne by the housebuilder, first to buy the materials, and secondly to paythe craftsman to assemble the materials into a house.

For most builders, MRHP assists them to increase farmincomes by applying animal manure. Each villageprepares a village plan for hiring the MRHP truck.The truck stays in each village for about four days,transporting manure for 10 to 20 builders. With thisapproach, farmers harvest more crops, and the extraincome is in many cases used to improve housing.

At the same time, MRHP builders, in order to initiatesavings and credit, have developed further. To date,MRHP works with over 200 savings and credit groups.As the groups take bigger credits, their businesses areincreasing in size. A few of the larger groups areassisting their members to buy building materials.

The emphasis with this programme is to increase effi-ciency and turn over more business activity. Onlyenough surplus has been generated for the people toinvest in housing.

MRHP does not go for housing loans directly. MRHPprefers to strengthen the financial resources of thetarget population first, so that when their affordabilitylevels are higher, they may choose to invest inhousing.

To facilitate savings and credit, MRHP runs severalcourses, depending on the stages that group membershave reached. These stages consist of:1. As groups emerge in their villages they need to

clarify the group functions. The group may want to


work on a communal project (e.g. food-vending) orthey may decide that each individual runs his ownbusiness. This group attends a training course onhow to choose your business. This training is givento new groups in the village.

2. As the groups approach the stage of applying for aloan, they have to be trained on procedures ofprocessing a loan and the various decision-makinglevels.

3. When the group receives the loan, they get a train-ing on how to use the loan money to be able tomeet the loan conditions.

4. At any time, some groups may want to be trained inspecific skills such as business-marketing, how tosell goods, conducting marketing campaigns, etc.These are skills needed to strengthen the function-ing of the group, and are important according to thestages reached by the beneficiaries.

MRHP makes close follow-up on the performance ofthe groups who have taken up loans. This has helpedto ensure that, in three years, all groups have repaidtheir loans: 97% of the groups have repaid on time,whereas 3% have been late in repayments. Thenumber of groups taking loans has increased from 2 in1994 to 11 in 1995, 30 in 1996, and 53 by August1997.

(7) Housing services for energy and waterAs a part of improving the quality of life in the builtenvironment, MRHP has introduced energy-savingcooking stoves which use firewood and charcoal moreefficiently. In order to ensure that these stoves areavailable in sufficient quantities, MRHP organisestraining courses for women groups that want toproduce stoves as a business activity. Up to now thereare groups producing improved stoves in all thedivisions that MRHP works in.

In any year, MRHP trains three to four groups, of fiveto eight members in each group. At least 50% of thesegroups provide training to other groups in theirneighbouring villages. This process is spreadingthroughout the working area; that is, groups and indi-viduals providing informal training to other groups.

(8) Closing remarks1. NGOs working in collaboration with MRHP feel

that training and skills transfer is an effectiveempowerment means. To ensure that housingimprovement is adopted by the target population,MRHP spends a lot of funds and energy in training.

2. The target population is increasingly asking to betrained in new skills to meet new challenges.

3. There are no nearby formal training institutions thatmeet the training needs expressed by the benefici-aries of MRHP. The Community DevelopmentTraining Institute has, however, been able to

provide us with trainers who could adapt to ourtechnical training needs.

4. There is a need for MRHP and other NGOs torealise that training may be the most efficient wayof facilitating the development of adults.A partnership in training needs to be developedbetween institutions and their beneficiaries.

5.12 A Case for UGANDAby Dr Ben M. MANYINDO

Dr Ben Manyindo is Ugandian born in 1955 and is anEngineer by training. He is currently a Senior Lecturer atthe Uganda Polytechnic, Kyambogo and a Consultant withTarget Engineers & Associates in Kampala. He holds aPh.D. from the University of New South Wales, Australia,and is Co-ordinator of the UNEVOC Centre in Uganda.

(1) Introduction...................................................................................59(2) Labour and employment issues.....................................................60(3) Informal, micro and small-enterprise sectors ..............................60(4) Key constraints for IMSEs ............................................................60(5) Efforts by the Government of Uganda..........................................61(6) Skills development in the non-formal sector ................................61(7) Concluding remarks......................................................................62

(1) IntroductionVocational training in Uganda is the responsibility ofthe Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare (MLSW).However, other ministries have their own training pro-grammes geared at meeting their specific objectives.Government focus has of recent times shifted toembrace training beyond the formal sector, given thelimited access and opportunities available by theformal training institutions and the growing numbersof unemployed people in the country. The challengefor both Government and the NGOs and private sectoris to work together to design and implement vocationaltraining programmes that create employment on a sus-tainable basis through demand-driven training as wellas training for self-employment.

The challenges are not easy tasks as the target group isvaried in terms of educational background, customsand cultures, levels of expectations and age groups.The existing laws and regulations also do not favourvarious initiatives targeting the informal sector.

The current official system of skills training is veryinflexible, centralised, and built on concepts originallysuited for the formal large-scale industrial settings.Further, the entry requirements and certification areunrealistically high, marginalising the majority ofpotentially new entrants to the institutions and thelabour markets. The range of skills offered in thecountry is largely limited to a very small number ofurban and semi-urban crafts, and is very gender-biasedwith only a few crafts open to women.


(2) Labour and employment issuesUganda’s labour market is marked by a young popula-tion, with over 56% (approx. 9 million) being between15 to 34 years old. The labour force is characterisedby a high proportion that has little or no education andlargely located in rural areas. The low level of educa-tional background precludes this large population fromparticipating in formal skills and technical educationprogrammes, yet a non-formal focus on skills trainingis not yet fully developed. The major challenge facingthe country, therefore, is to provide employment forthe large number of youth and women as well as pro-viding the general population with skills which willenable them to participate more productively in theeconomy.

Job opportunities in the formal sector have reduceddrastically due to privatisation following a directpolicy of economic liberalisation. Government hasassumed the role of providing conducive policymeasures to support the private sector and to ensurethat the population is fully involved in the economicdevelopment of the country.

Given the restrictive absorptive capacity of the formalsector which currently engages about 12% of the totallabour force, the extent to which employment opportu-nities can be generated for new entrants to the labourforce (about 300,000 entrants per year) is limited. Asa result, limited opportunities from growth in theeconomy (about 5% GDP per annum) aggravate theproblems of unemployment, under-employment andrural-urban migration.

Uganda does not have an employment policy yetalthough the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare isin the process of finalising one. However it is the viewof the author that the National Employment Policyshould promote employment opportunities, reducepoverty; and increase labour productivity to ensurefuller utilisation of the human resources available,taking into consideration the social economic condi-tions of the country.

(3) Informal, micro and small-enterprisesectors

The informal, micro and small-enterprise (IMSE) sub-sector in Uganda is described as one which employs allcategories of human resources utilising labour inten-sive methods, low technology, low employmentcapacity per unit, limited market and information flow,operating from diverse locations, and using diverseinputs including recycled materials.

A majority of informal sector workers are either illiter-ate or semi-illiterate and do not participate in anyformal training either prior to joining or on the job.

They are either self-taught or learn their trade whileworking in some other small business.

A study by USAID (July 1995) estimates micro andthe small-enterprise sector employs about 20% of thepopulation of working age. Furthermore, this sub-sector (IMSEs) provide alternative sources of incomefor people from other activities, such as agriculture,private and public sector employment, and otherbusinesses.

Micro and small enterprises play an important role inthe national and household incomes. However, due tolack of reliable data and information, this role has notbeen properly documented. Promotion of IMSE sectorin Uganda is a key means of bringing about sustainabledevelopment, particularly targeting the majority wholive below the poverty line.

This sector has continuously absorbed the increasingnumber of urban employment-seekers that includeschool-leavers, rural-urban migrants, retrenchees,demobilised soldiers (veterans) and town dwellers. Itis estimated that this sector provides employment for14% of the labour force against 5% employed in theformal sector. It is further estimated that the sectorabsorbs 20% of the annual increase in the urban forcefrom all services.

The need for national policy definition and strategy forthis subsector stems from the fact that micro enter-prises are the most dynamic element of the economy ofUganda. The very small family-based enterprise orsole proprietorship comprise a large and growing partof the private sector with a high potential of generatingoutput, employment and incomes, and strengtheninginter-sectoral linkages leading to a more broad-basedparticipation particularly by the poor and by women.In light of the above, micro-enterprise developmenthas become a more central part of the Private SectorDevelopment Agenda and, therefore, a concerted effortto address the constraints in view of establishingsustainable local systems and institutions facilitatingtheir creation and development.

(4) Key constraints for IMSEsThe Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare spearheadsthe main streaming of the informal sector in order topromote micro and small-scale enterprise developmentwith a view to creating employment and improvingmanagement efficiency and productivity. However,the sector faces numerous constraints, starting at thepolicy level, down to the level of individual enterpriseoperations and self-organisation of the sector ingeneral. The sector requires an integrated assistance inorder to achieve sustained growth. Skills upgrading,marketing assistance and training, legal environmentimprovement, access to credit, improved technologies


and product development are areas where interventionsare most required.

Despite the macro-economic reforms undertaken bythe Government of Uganda. the IMSE sector has notyet benefited. The following constraints still exist:1. Lack of Policy Framework, especially the absence

of a comprehensive national employment policywithin which the informal sector would be defined.

2. Absence of one solid institutional framework tofacilitate Informal Sector and Micro-EnterprisesDevelopment.

3. Lack of access to financial services seems to be thesingle most critical constraint.

4. In the field of training and capacity-building themajor constraints include:• An agreed definition of IMSEs in Ugandan con-

text is still lacking,• Inadequate information about IMSE training pro-

viders and facilitators,• Inaccessibility of IMSEs trainers and facilities in

formal training,• Inadequate specialised human resources in

specific skills,• Low education levels of target group, making

communication difficult.

On finance, formal financial institutions (such asbanks) have traditionally shunned away from givingcredit to the poor because they categorised them as“high-risk customers without security”. Micro-financeis now widely acclaimed as critical to economic devel-opment in Africa. Its ability to reach the grassrootscommunities in countries where it has been imple-mented has opened doors to economic participation bythe poorest of the population with tremendous poten-tial for poverty alleviation. In Uganda, Governmenthas established a small micro-enterprise policy unit inthe Ministry of Planning to cater for this aspect.

(5) Efforts by the Government of UgandaGovernment under the Ministry of Labour and SocialWelfare is taking measures to develop and improveinformal sector operators’ skills and to provide anenabling environment so that the potential for thissector can be harnessed. Special consideration isaccorded to women, youth, and the disabled toestablish micro-enterprises and to generate employ-ment for them.

The same Ministry has now embarked on the finalstage of drafting an employment policy for thecountry. A lot of work has been done over the yearson this subject but, due to budgetary constraints, thework had not yet been completed.

Also over the past five years or so, the Ministry, underthe Directorate of Vocational Training with assistance

of donors, has held a number of workshops, seminarsand meetings with stakeholders over formulation of aNational Vocational and Industrial Training Policy.During this year (1997), the German Government,through GTZ, will facilitate the formulation of a Voca-tional and Industrial Training Policy.

(6) Skills development in the non-formalsector

ApprenticeshipThis is the oldest form of training, and the main modeof skills acquisition and provision in the non-formalsector in Uganda. Studies have shown the majority ofentrepreneurs have no formal technical/vocationaltraining background on entry, and gain skills withinthe sector. The trainee has to locate a willing partner(often family member or friend) and will undergo anextended period of training. This type of training cangreatly be enhanced if opportunities are available fromvocational training institutions for upgrading andpolishing of the skills leading to trade testing.

Proficiency skillsThis is where a group of trainers work alongside thetrainees to improve their skills. In Uganda, this iscarried out by a number of NGOs, churches, com-munity groups, associations and individuals who haveset up skills training. These institutions cater for thesocial demand of training, focusing mainly on theyouth and/or special and needy target groups. Thetraining is a mix of formal and non-formal approachesand does not necessarily follow any recognised cur-ricula or format. The type of training provided variesconsiderably in terms of quality, duration, costs, etc.The quality of training is often low, with graduatesbeing semi-skilled.

The courses are of short duration (6-12 months) andare aimed at providing the trainees with proficiencyskills to do the job. The curricula are tailored to suitthe demands and resources of the specific locality andthe surrounding environment. The training is basicallypractical work enabling the learner to perform thetasks without necessarily understanding the theoriesbehind the technology/skill.

The skills enable the learner to enter income-earningactivities through self-employment or employment inthe locality. The courses are community based inorder to enhance the local talents and resources.Among the courses offered are handicraft making,cookery, tailoring and sewing, pottery, poultry keep-ing, masonry, brickmaking, improved agriculturalpractices, shopkeeping, photography, horticulture,painting, hairdressing, bicycle repair, blacksmithing,embroidery and needle work, food processing, etc.


(7) Concluding remarksIn Uganda, there are a number of technical and voca-tional centres. The courses take varied periods andinclude artisan training, craft training, techniciantraining and engineering courses. The output fromthese courses per year is about 10,000 graduates,which is a very small number compared to the numberof people that require such type of training. Access tothese institutions is limited by various academicrequirements for entry, available places, and demandfor the skills in the economy. Their skills training isalso narrow, limited to less than ten industrial trades,leaving the rest of the activity areas with no oppor-tunity at all. This formal training locks away themajority of under-employed and unemployedUgandans. Non-formal training is thus the way for-ward towards modernisation and skills training for allin a country such as Uganda.

IMSEs form a large and growing part of the privatesector with a high potential of generating output,employment and incomes, and strengthening inter-sectoral linkages. The need for Technical and Voca-tional Education and Training to respond to their needscannot be over-emphasised as the only way forward toeconomic growth and prosperity.

In light of the foregoing, deliberate and urgent assis-tance should be directed to facilitating policy formula-tion, planning and execution of a strategy for an inte-grated vocational training approach in the country.This strategy should, in the short run, be focused onproviding the large number of youth, adult, and espe-cially women, with skills which are applicable in andrelevant to their social-economic environment. Itshould be linked to sector orientation in the localregions and utilise the existing regional economic andinstitutional resources.

The policy should be developed in accordance with thepromotion of the IMSE sector. It should be linked andinteract with the IMSEs promotion requirements andactivities, with regard to their skills training needs andskill training provision potential.

Innovative methods such as “Learning WithoutFrontiers”, recognition of prior learning, and supportof NGOs initiatives in the field of vocational trainingis the way forward to train more people cost-effec-tively in a wide spectrum of skills, improve the qualityof training, and offer incentives for self-employmentafter training. As a first step, however, proper policiesmust be put in place and supported. Implementation ofthe policy must then look into all aspects of curricu-lum, facilities, trainers, etc.

Training should primarily allow for, and integrate,non-formal and modular training approaches besidesformal training as two possibilities for acquiring appli-cable and economically relevant technical skills. Thescope of vocational education and training requires tobe expanded beyond a few industrial-related craftsareas and should include enterprise development.

Harmonisation and standardisation of education andtraining need to be articulated, and embrace more thantrade-testing and examinations. Quality standardsshould be developed such as training concepts, flexiblecurricula development, delivery systems, capacity instaffing, management systems and financing strategies.

Effective training can only be undertaken after policyformulation in order to guide the implementation proc-ess. Thereafter, a number of critical activities can beundertaken in the case of Uganda. These include:1. Establishment of an inventory of IMSEs in the

country and categorising these into various trades.2. A skills needs assessment for different groups,

development of curricula and training materials.3. Identification of local trainers already involved in

the trades (“the master”) within the locality to betrained as trainers, and facilitated to carry outcommunity-based training within their own locali-ties.

4. Putting in place an institutional framework formanagement of the national training programme,using, to minimise on costs, existing Governmentand NGO structures, from the grassroots to nationallevel, to oversee, co-ordinate and evaluate thesystem.

A change from the present pre-service formal trainingsystem towards the on-job and in-service training inthe work place, complemented by theoretical training,requires private sector support and local efforts whileretaining overall public management of the training.The need to sensitise and enter into dialogue with allstakeholders and obtain their support becomes anecessary and critical activity in the implementationprocess for the success of the training.

References

Uganda Private Sector Development Programme: Towards aNational Strategy for the Informal, Micro and Small ScaleSector; and Assessment Report, August 1996.

Monika Redecker and Harun N. Baiya: Informal TechnicalEducation and Vocational Training – Sector Analysis ofTVET for Employment Promotion, September 1996.


5.13 Training for the Informal Sector inZAMBIAby Mr Joseph S. MUKUNI

and Mr Joseph P. KALUNGAMr Mukuni is Principal in the Vocational Education &Entrepreneurship Training Secretariat of the Ministry ofScience, Technology and Vocational Training within theGovernment of Zambia.Mr Kalunga is Assistant Director, Department of TechnicalEducation and Vocational Training, Ministry of Education,within the Government of Zambia.

(1) Introduction...................................................................................63(2) Purpose and scope of this paper...................................................63(3) Situation analysis..........................................................................63(4) Training opportunities..................................................................63(5) Policy on informal sector training................................................64(6) Proposed intervention strategies ..................................................64(7) The design of training programmes .............................................64(8) Indirect intervention......................................................................64(9) Entrepreneurship development.....................................................65(10) Implementation constraints ........................................................65(11) Conclusions.................................................................................65

(1) Introduction

ProblemIn the last five years, the Zambian economy has experi-enced a market rise in the number of people enteringthe informal sector as a result of diminishing opportu-nities for employment in the formal sector.

This increased activity in the informal sector of theeconomy has not been matched by the type of trainingoffered by technical and vocational training institu-tions. Training institutions have gone on preparingtheir students for formal sector employment withoutnotice of the changed needs of the economy.

Up until now there has not been a provision for in-formal sector training in Zambia’s Technical Educa-tion and Vocational Training policy.

(2) Purpose and scope of this paperThis paper focuses on the provision for informal sectortraining in the Technical Education, Vocational andEntrepreneurship (TEVET) Policy of the Republic ofZambia.

The paper also discusses the proposed strategies forimplementing informal sector training in terms of theshort and long term interventions, and the implemen-tational constraints to the strategies.

(3) Situation analysis

Empowerment opportunitiesWhen the Commission for Technical Education andVocational Training was established in 1968, itsmission was to offer pre-employment training to

satisfy the needs of Zambia’s labour market at thefollowing competence levels:• Technologists to support professional engineers,• Technicians to direct activities of craftsmen;• Craftsmen to carry out hands-on craft work with

minimum supervision.

In addition to these competence levels, other optionswere:• Trade test progression,• Training in non-technical occupations and applied

arts.

All these plans enshrined in the 1968 policy on techni-cal education and vocational training were targeted atthe formal sector labour market. Industry and com-merce had no trouble accommodating all the graduatesof training institutions.

In recent years, industry and commerce have not beenable to continue recruiting technical graduates asbefore for two main reasons. First, employees havebeen dissatisfied with the competence of the graduates.The main criticism is that graduates are not givenmuch practical training during their stay at college astraining institutions do not have sufficient trainingmaterials. Companies (for other reasons as well) findit better to poach workers already developed by othercompanies than to employ an inadequately trainedgraduate.

Secondly, there has been a significant drop in theemployment opportunities on the formal number of theunemployed.

(4) Training opportunitiesCurrently, the Department of Technical Education andVocational Training (DTEVT) has over sixty differenttraining programmes delivered at eighteen institutionsspread across the country. The total enrolment of allDTEVT institutions put together is 5,177. This figurerepresents 50% of the possible enrolment total sinceDTEVT is utilising only half of its capacity.

Out of over 20,000 eligible grade 12 school-leaversevery year, DTEVT is only accepting a little under3,000 candidates. There are, however, 318 non-DTEVT training institutions supplementing DTEVTprogrammes and offering an additional 14,000 enrol-ment places.

The department is planning to double its enrolmentfigures through various ways, including additionaloutlets, by establishing satellite campuses for existinginstitutions, and setting up new institutions, open-airtraining centres, and multi-purpose community centres.This expansion programmes will be targeted mainly at


the informal sector in view of the diminishing jobopportunities in the formal sector.

(5) Policy on informal sector trainingThe inadequacies in the training system prompted theMinistry of Science, Technology and VocationalTraining to review its policy on Technical Educationwith the assistance of the Governments of Denmarkand the Netherlands.

The new policy is different from the 1968 policy inthree ways:1. It incorporates entrepreneurship development.2. It encompasses all types of technical education and

vocational training; e.g. nursing, agriculture, etc.3. It covers training in both the formal and informal

sectors.

The TEVET policy recognises three aims of training:1. To balance the supply of skilled labour at all levels

with the demands of the economy. (It is noted thatalthough training institutions are currently targetedat the formal sector, only 30% of the employedlabour force is engaged in the formal sector. Themajority of the informal sector labour force areyouths and women without the necessary educa-tional qualifications to compete for places in train-ing programmes).

2. To act as a vehicle for improved productivity andincome generation.

3. To be an instrument for the minimisation ofinequalities among people. (The vulnerable groupsin Zambia are found in the rural, semi-urban andlow-cost urban areas forming part of a dominantinformal sector).

In pursuit of these aims, with specific reference toentrepreneurship development, self-employment andthe informal sector, the Government will aim toenhance the ability of the labour force to start and runviable growth-oriented business enterprises as a delib-erate career alternative. It is the Government’s inten-tion to strengthen the capacities of the educationsystem, and the technical education and vocationaltraining institutes in this regard. This will enable themto deliver quality training aimed at facilitating the per-formance of the informal sector, and of the graduatesfrom these institutions wishing to engage in self-employment.

(6) Proposed intervention strategies

Direct interventionDirect intervention involves the provision of facilitiesfor effective delivery of training in line with theprinciple of decentralisation. This, practically, meansdelivering training as near as possible to where infor-mal sector operators are.

There are three strategies in which this delivery basedon the principle of decentralisation can be achieved:1. Setting up of resource centres to cater for the

sector. There are two approaches to the setting upof resource centres:• First, where there are no existing building

facilities, resource centres will require establish-ment of new multi-purpose building facilitiesincluding the provision of machinery equipment,tools, teaching staff and teaching aids, etc.,

• The second approach is using existing buildingfacilities for the government departments such ascommunity and welfare centres which are in closeproximity to the working places of informal sectoroperators. This will require the co-operation ofother government departments.

2. Provision of trainers and training materials, aids,equipment and other facilities for the resourcecentres. These will be needed in all resourcecentres established. This will involve the use ofexisting lecturers within government departments,and outstanding entrepreneurs as master craftsmen,who could be engaged as consultants/lecturers/instructors.

(7) The design of training programmesTraining programmes will be designed taking intoaccount the diversity of skills used and the workingconditions in the informal sector as well as its magni-tude. The fundamental issues that must be recognisedin designing the training programmes include flexibil-ity in timing. Training programmes will include entre-preneurship development and safety and health aspectsat working places. This will strengthen the managerialskills of micro-enterprise operators which have beenobserved to be weak by a number of surveys, and willalso result in the general improvement of their workingconditions at places of work.

(8) Indirect interventionPeople have already taken up the challenge to upgradetheir skills through processes such as on the jobtraining and apprenticeship. In addition, they havetaken initiatives to acquire the skills by enrolling atprivate training institutions. However, the impact ofthese individual initiatives on the skills acquisitionprocess in the informal sector is limited.

Against the background given above, the major thrustof the TEVET strategies in the long run will focus on:

1. Institutional capacity buildingThis will involve facilitation of micro-enterprise entre-preneurs (master craftsmen) and private/NGO institu-tions to build their institutional capacities to widentheir training capabilities so that they can effectivelyinclude the informal sector. The facilitation should notcome about through legislation which tends to imposerestrictions, but through putting in place policy reform


measures which will foster delivery of training by theprivate sector, NGOs and micro-enterprise entrepre-neurs for the informal sector.

2. Training of trainersAs part of institutional capacity building for both themaster craftsmen and training institutions, the govern-ment will facilitate the training of trainers to traininformal sector workers to acquire skills needed tooperate micro-enterprises in the informal sector.

3. The promotion of associationsThe urban informal sector is operating without anyrepresentation by associations. This absence ofrepresentation makes it difficult to adequately linkinformal sector operators to any training programmes.Therefore, efforts will be made to stimulate the sectorto organise associations which will be used as institu-tions of linkage.

4. Training needs assessmentTraining needs assessment (TNA) will be decentral-ised to the individual activities level to assess theirneeds. For example, the specific training needs ofoperators in the woodwork activity will have to beclearly identified as the basis for determining anddesigning tailor-made training programmes to suit theirspecific needs.

5. Promotion of apprenticeshipThe idea behind the promotion of apprenticeship is tomake it well established and increase its scale as oneof the major means of skills acquisition in the informalsector.

(9) Entrepreneurship developmentAlongside these strategies, there will be an entre-preneurship development programme aimed at creatinga culture of entrepreneurship within society. Thetarget groups will include:• Pupils/students in the education system,• Trainees in TEVET institutions,• Out-of-school youth,• Retrenches/retirees,• Other potential entrepreneurs such as apprentices in

the informal sector,• Existing entrepreneurs within the informal sector.

An Entrepreneurship Development Unit has alreadybeen put in place within the Department of TechnicalEducation and Vocational Training to spearhead theimplementation of the Entrepreneurship Developmentprogramme. The main elements of this programmeare:• Entrepreneurship curriculum and materials

development,• Development of entrepreneurship training

expertise,• Popularising entrepreneurship positively,

• Developing sustainable institutional framework.

The strategies outlined above are seen as the mostfeasible and practical way of reaching out to theinformal sector and ensuring its sustainability.

(10) Implementation constraintsReaching out to the training needs of the informalsector will in the initial stages meet a few implemen-tation constraints, including the following:1. Rigidity of training institutions. As mentioned

above, the existing public training institutions wereestablished to meet the training needs of the formalsector. It will take some time before institutionsadapt to a flexible approach to syllabus design,timetabling, and delivery of skills and attitudes inaccordance with the ever changing demands of theinformal sector.

2. Trainees’ readiness to training. Informal sectoroperators may find it difficult to adjust to instruc-tional routines, preferring to spend time on produc-tive activities rather than on learning.

3. Trainees’ capacity to pay. Some target groups maynot afford the user fees to enable them to train,given that some of them dropped out of school forthe same reason of lack of funds.

4. Post-training support services. At the moment, thesupportive institutional framework for small-scaleenterprises is not strong enough to encourage thegrowth of a well-trained small-enterprise sector.Problems of funding and credit, advisory services,physical infrastructure and market information(although outside the training environment) willhave an adverse effect on training as they will bedemotivators.

(11) ConclusionsThis brief discussion paper has outlined the TechnicalEducation, Vocational and Entrepreneurship TrainingPolicy of the Republic of Zambia as it relates to train-ing for the informal sector.

The policy is in place, but the strategies for imple-menting the policy have yet to be finalised beforebeing piloted. It is hoped, however, that given thegoodwill of both the government and its partners in theprovision of technical education, vocational and entre-preneurship training, the new policy will have a posi-tive impact on the productivity of the informal sector.

References

Commission for Technical Education and Vocational Training(1996) “Statement of Policy and Intent” GRZ, Lusaka.

DTEVT (1996) “Towards Capacity Utilisation andEstablishment of Satellite Campuses”


MSTVT (1996) “Programme and Strategy for the Imple-mentation of Informal Sector Training in TechnicalEducation and Vocational Training” VEET. Secretarial,Lusaka

MSTVT (1996) “Technical Education, Vocational andEntrepreneurship Training (TEVET) Policy”

MSTVT (1996) “Audit of Training Institutions” VEET.Secretarial, Lusaka

MSTVT (1996) “Programme and Strategy for theImplementation of Entrepreneurship Development inTechnical Education and Vocational Training” VEET.Secretarial, Lusaka

MSTVT (1995) “Technical Education and VocationalTraining in Zambia: Current Status” DTEVET, Lusaka

UNDP (1995) “Private Sector Development: Component 6”.

“Support to Micro and Small Enterprise Sector in Zambia.”Ministry of Trade, Commerce and Industry, Lusaka

Appendices: The Daily Schedule Page 67

Appendices

(A) The Daily ScheduleMonday 15 September, 1997

08.30 - 09:30 Registration of Participants

09:30 - 10:30

Official Opening of the Seminar:Secretary General, Kenya National Commission for UNESCO: Mr C. J. Chacha-Ogwe, Opening remarksUNESCO Consultant to UNEVOC: Prof. Dr R. Barry Hobart, Opening remarksGuest of Honour giving the Official Opening Speech: Prof. Shyem O. Wandiga

10.30 - 11:00Informal get-to-know-you coffee/tea11.00 - 12:30 Presentation of UNESCO/UNEVOC and of the Seminar Programme by Prof. Dr R. Barry Hobart

12.30 - 14:00 Lunch

14:00 - 15.00Presentation of a Position Paper by Mr Peter Okaka, Director of Technical Training, KenyaDiscussion focusing on important points, conclusions and making recommendations

15:00 - 15:30 Coffee/Tea

15:30 - 17.00Presentation of Papers by ParticipantsDiscussion focusing on important points, conclusions and making recommendations

Tuesday 16 September, 1997

09.00 - 10.30Presentation of a Position Paper by Prof. Dr B. Wanjala Kerre, DiscussionPresentation of Papers by ParticipantsDiscussion focusing on important points, conclusions and making recommendations

10.30 - 11:00 Coffee/Tea

11:00 - 12.30Presentation of Papers by ParticipantsDiscussion focusing on important points, conclusions and making recommendations

12.30 - 14:00 Lunch

14:00 - 15:30Presentation of Papers by ParticipantsDiscussion focusing on important points, conclusions and making recommendations

15.30 - 16.00 Coffee/Tea


Wednesday 17 September, 1997

09.00 - 17.00Visits to Various JuaKali Institutions (Non-formal sector)Site Seeing

19.00 - 21:30Celebration Dinner

Thursday 18 September, 1997

09.00 - 10.30Presentation of Papers by ParticipantsDiscussion focusing on important points, conclusions and making recommendations

10.30 - 11.00 Coffee/Tea


12.30 - 14.00Lunch


15.30 - 16.00 Coffee/Tea


Friday 19 September, 199709:00 - 10:30Discussion by participants of a summary and of conclusions

10:30 - 11:00 Coffee/Tea

11:00 - 12:00Summary presentation of conclusions and recommendations by Prof. Dr R. Barry Hobart

12.00 - 12:30Evaluation of Seminar by Participants

12:30 - 14:00 Farewell lunch

Appendices: Information Document

(B) Information Document

(1) The Seminar.................................................................................. 68(2) Definition...................................................................................... 69(3) Objectives ..................................................................................... 69(4) National follow-up ....................................................................... 69(5) Participants .................................................................................. 70

(1) The SeminarThis activity was first recommended by the partici-pants of a seminar for key personnel on “Co-operation between educational institutions andenterprises in technical and vocational education”.That seminar was held in Berlin in May 1995.A comprehensive report of it is available fromUNEVOC Berlin. It is titled “Establishing Partner-ship in Technical and Vocational Education”. Inresponse to that recommendation, the planning team ofthe UNEVOC Project incorporated this activity intothe 1996-1997 UNEVOC Work Plan.

In order to focus the concept of this forthcomingsubregional seminar, as much as possible, on to theneeds of countries in the African region, it wasdiscussed with high-level officials from Eastern andSouthern Africa at the Subregional Workshop on“Financing and Management of Vocational Educationand Training in Eastern and Southern Africa”. Thiswas held in Mauritius in March 1996.

Feedback received from those consulted indicatedclearly that UNESCO/UNEVOC should focus theforthcoming policy definition seminar on a well-defined issue in this area of concern, rather than seekto cover a broad range of policy issues in technical andvocational education. It was suggested that this issueshould be: Technical and vocational education inthe non-formal sector and its relationship withformal technical and vocational education.

Such an approach accords fully with the Resolution 28C/1.16, adopted in November, 1995, by the GeneralConference of UNESCO titled, “Establishmentthrough UNEVOC of links between the formal andinformal educational and training sectors and theeconomy”. In this resolution, Member States invitethe Director-General• to promote ... the establishment of links between

the formal and the informal educational andtraining sectors of the economy;

• to increase the number of workshops for those incharge of technical and vocational training indeveloping countries and countries in transition.

Technical and Vocational Education beyond theformal education systemThe significance of this area of concern is given in thefollowing quotation of Mr Federico Mayor, Director-General of UNESCO, given in a speech at the openingof the Etats Généraux de l’Education, in Kinshasa,Zaire, 20 January, 1996:

“The appropriateness and forward planning ofvocational training with regard to employmentpossibilities is a basic principle that mustguide technical and vocational trainingactivities. This principle and the high cost ofsuch training have important implicationswhich require that the expansion of academictypes of education be controlled. The restric-tions this entails should be compensated for bygiving more support to less formal traininginitiatives for craftsmen in the traditionalsector – apprenticeship, functional literacyprogrammes, technical information, raisingthe level of general education, and manage-ment training. These approaches are often ashelpful as genuine vocational training forthese groups.”

In many countries, especially in Eastern and SouthernAfrica, the formal system of technical and vocationaleducation cannot provide adequate training for thoseleaving general education institutions. Further, accessto technical and vocational education is often limitedto adults. Even graduates from formal technical andvocational education institutions are often unable tofind adequate employment. In addition, they arefrequently not equipped with the know-how and thematerial prerequisites to establish their own busi-nesses. Thus, they are not able to contribute signifi-cantly to the alleviation of poverty and to sustainabledevelopment by creating and engaging in small-busi-ness enterprise.

Yet the generation of wealth from, and the significanceof employment in, small-business enterprise is vitaleven in the more advanced economically developedcountries. Therefore, the development of the humanresources engaged in small-business enterprise is amajor responsibility of technical and vocationaleducation, especially of informal, or non-formal, tech-nical and vocational education. National governmentpolicies, then, in technical and vocational educationmust be developed that support this area of humanresource development, especially as it addresses theinformal sector.

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(2) DefinitionVarious patterns of technical and vocational educationand training beyond the formal education system exist.They often refer to that type of economic and trainingactivity as “informal” or “non-formal”. They may bedefined as contrasting to the formal system by the lackof legal regulation of activities, by the size of theenterprise, by capital intensiveness, or by the numberof employees.

Irrespective of the variety of target groups and defini-tions in this field, for the purpose of this forthcomingseminar, it is useful to adopt the working definitionthat relates to the number of employees in the enter-prise and that covers training activities of micro andsmall enterprises that encompass a staff of less thanfifty employees.

(3) ObjectivesThe objectives of the seminar will therefore addressthis area of technical and vocational education. Theoverriding objective of the seminar will address theissues relating to how technical and vocational edu-cation can reach those in the non-formal sector whowere unable to develop relevant occupational skillsthrough the formal education system. Specifically,the following questions will be addressed:• How can technical and vocational education and

training reach those who were unable to developrelevant occupational skills through the formal edu-cation system?

• What are the competencies needed to be developedin those engaged in the informal enterprise sector ofthe economy?

• In what ways can the non-government sector of theemploying economy be stimulated and encouragedto support this area of technical and vocationaleducation and training?

• What infrastructures and administrative andmanagement systems are needed to supportinformal, or non-formal, technical and vocationaleducation?

• What are the potentially effective means of financ-ing this area of technical and vocational education?

• How can technical and vocational education andtraining be linked to employment-generating andincome-generating activities, particularly in theinformal sector of the economy?

• How can governments intervene to stimulate suchtechnical and vocational education and trainingactivities and, at the same time, ensure the essentialquality standards?

More specifically, with respect to the Government’srole, the following questions will be addressed.• What strategies can governments develop and

implement:• to improve the base in general education?

• to disseminate information about the variousoptions for technical and vocational education?

• to develop counselling and career guidance serv-ices?

• to facilitate the inclusion of entrepreneurial skillsinto the curriculum?

• to supplement the education and training processwith supporting activities such as human resourceconsultancy services, technology transfer, or loanschemes for small businesses?

• to redefine, where necessary, the roles of institu-tions that exist in the formal sector?

• to define bridges to formal technical and voca-tional education for those who have been trainedbeyond the formal sector?

• to develop the interfaces of technical and voca-tional education between the informal and theformal sectors with related programmes foreconomic and labour market development, e.g. inthe fields of access to markets, or of bankingschemes for loans for capital investment?

Within the context of the above questions, the seminarwill:• analyse various existing national set-ups with

respect to technical and vocational educationbeyond the formal sector;

• examine the various national objectives that mustbe attained to achieve the above objectives;

• relate the objectives, principles and standardsdesigned for this target group to those adopted forthe formal sector;

• develop sets of principles and standards forgovernment intervention to be applied.

Particular attention will be paid to consistency ofpolicies with respect to the informal sector on the oneside, and with the formal technical and vocationaleducation on the other, so as to ensure a maximum ofco-ordination, consistency and articulation betweenboth subsystems. The general principles, goals andguidelines set forth in UNESCO’s “Revised Recom-mendation Concerning Technical and VocationalEducation” (1974) and in the “Convention onTechnical and Vocational Education” (1989) willserve as a framework. Crucial issues, such as gender, access, information andguidance, contents, delivery, personnel, certification,articulation, supervision, and financing, will befocused upon.

(4) National follow-upIt will be expected that participants will initiatenational follow-up activities. While UNESCO willsupport such follow-up activities within its existingstructures and mechanisms (such as the ParticipationProgramme), responsibility for initiating the follow-upactivities will basically remain with participants.

Appendices: Information Document

Participants will be requested to design their plans fornational follow-up and to present them at the sub-regional seminar.

UNESCO will encourage regional co-operation in thecontext of national follow-up activities, e.g. by facili-tating input from neighbouring countries.

(5) ParticipantsPotential participants have been selected from amongkey personnel of governmental as well as relevantparastatal and non-governmental institutions (e.g. withresponsibility for development of small business in theinformal sector, or for loans). Twenty-two such par-ticipants have been invited from thirteen neighbouringcountries in the region.

Appendices: List of Main Participants Page 71

(C) List of Main Participants

Country ParticipantBotswana Mr Mogotsa M. Kewagamang

Acting Principal Technical Education OfficerDept. of Vocational Education and TrainingMinistry of EducationPrivate Bag 0062GaboroneBOTSWANA6 [+267] 3 60 04 586 [+267] 31 31 91 (preferred)+ [+267] 3 65 50 00

Botswana Mr K. KabechaSenior Technical Education OfficerDepartment of Vocational Education and TrainingMinistry of EducationPrivate Bag 0062GaboroneBOTSWANA6 [+267] 3 60 04 586 [+267] 31 31 91 (preferred)+ [+267] 3 65 50 00/3 65 50 61

Ethiopia Mr Mesfin TerefeHeadNazareth Technical CollegeP. O. Box 1888NazarethETHIOPIA6 [+251] (2) 11 04 80+ [+251] (2) 11 04 94/2 11 05 19

Kenya Mr Peter O. OkakaDirector of Technical TrainingMinistry of Research, Technical Training & TechnologyP. O. Box 60209NairobiKENYA6 [+254] 2 21 30 256 [+254] 2 21 25 01 83+ [+254] 2 21 52 91

Kenya Eng. G. K. N. MbuguaDirector of Applied TechnologyMinistry of Research, Technical Training and TechnologyP.O. Box 60209NairobiKENYA+ [+254] 2 21 85 26

Kenya Prof. B. W. KerreDepartment of Technology EducationMoi UniversityP. O. Box 3900EldoretKENYA+ [+254] 32 14 30 476 [+254] 32 14 30 47

Appendices: List of Main Participants

Lesotho Mr Mota SekonyelaDeputy Director (Administration)Lerotholi PolytechnicP. O. Box 16Maseru 100LESOTHO6 [+266] 31 02 65+ [+266] 32 28 51/32 38 89

Malawi Mrs J. PhekaniPrincipalSoche Technical CollegePrivate Bag 515LimbeMALAWI6 [+265] 67 08 21+ [+265] 65 22 95

Malawi Dr A. G. PhiriFormer PrincipalThe PolytechnicPrivate Bag 303Chichiri, Blantyre 3MALAWI6 [+265] 64 40 52

Malawi Mr Maston M. MtamboRegistrar of ApprenticesMinistry of Labour & Manpower DevelopmentPrivate Bag 344Capital CityLilongwe 3MALAWI6 [+265] 78 38 05+ [+265] 78 27 35; 78 14 21; 78 16 74(Financed by The Malawi Ministry)

Malawi Mr H. ChibwanaPrincipalThe PolytechnicPrivate Bag 303Chichiri, Blantyre 3MALAWI6 [+265] 67 56 49+ [+265] 67 04 11 or 67 16 37

Mauritius Dr Feroze CoowarAssistant Director – TrainingIndustrial & Vocational Training Board (IVTB)IVTB HousePont Fer, PhoenixMAURITIUS6 [+230] 6 97 54 22+ [+230] 6 98 42 00

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South Africa Mr Siphamandla. I. XuluAssistant Director: Special Employment CategoriesDepartment of LabourDirectorate Human Resource DevelopmentPrivate Bag X117Pretoria 0001SOUTH AFRICA+ [+27] (12) 3 09 43 456 [+27] (12) 3 09 43 45email: [email protected]

[email protected] Mr William S. A. Shongwe

PrincipalSwaziland College of TechnologyP. O. Box 68MbabaneSWAZILAND6 [+268] 4 45 21+ [+268] 4 36 84; 5 23 18

Uganda Dr Ben ManyindoUPK/UNESCO CentreUganda Polytechnic KyambogoP.O. Box 7181KampalaUGANDA+ [+256] (41) 25 98 076 [+256] (41) 25 98 07email: [email protected]

United Republic of Tanzania Mr L. L. SakafuProject EngineerMwanza Rural Housing ProgrammeP.O. Box 2745MwanzaUNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA6 [+255] 6 84 17 26

Zambia Mr Joseph P. KalungaAssistant DirectorDepartment of Technical Education and Vocational TrainingPrivate Bag RW 16XBirdcage Walk, 15102 RidgewayLusakaZAMBIA6 [+260] 1 25 10 60+ [+260] 1 25 10 40email: [email protected]

[email protected] Mr Joseph S. Mukuni

Vocational Education & Entrepreneurship Training SectorDepartment of Technical Education and Vocational TrainingPrivate Bag RW 16XBirdcage Walk, 15102 RidgewayLusakaZAMBIA6 [+260] 1 25 09 71+ [+260] 1 25 07 00email [email protected]

[email protected]

Appendices: List of Main Participants

Zimbabwe Dr L. E. MunjanganjaDirector for Manpower Planning and DevelopmentMinistry of EducationP. O. Box UA 275Union AvenueHarareZIMBABWE6 [+263] 4 70 71 37+ [+263] 4 70 39 57

Co-Rapporteur

Kenya Mr Booker T. Onyango OgutuKenya National Commission for UNESCOP.O. Box 72107NairobiKENYA+ [+254] 2 22 90 53

Seminar Co-ordinator and Rapporteur

UNESCO Prof. Dr R. Barry HobartUNESCO ConsultantUNEVOC BerlinFehrbelliner Platz 3D-10707 BerlinGERMANY6 [+49] (30) 86 49 15 41+ [+49] (30) 86 49 15 13email [email protected]

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(D) Convention on Technical and Vocational Educationadopted by the General Conference of UNESCO

Preamble

The General Conference of the United NationsEducational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation,meeting at Paris from 17 October 1989 to16 November 1989 at its twenty-fifth session,Recalling that it is the Organisation’s constitutionalduty to promote and develop education,Recalling also the principles set forth in Articles 23and 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rightswhich relate to the right to work and to education, theprinciples contained in the Convention against Dis-crimination in Education, adopted in Paris on14 December 1960, the International Covenant onEconomic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Inter-national Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,adopted in New York on 16 December 1966, as well asthe Convention on the Elimination of All Forms ofDiscrimination against Women, adopted by the UnitedNations General Assembly on 18 December 1979,Recognising that the development of technical andvocational education should contribute to the safe-guarding of peace and friendly understanding amongnations,Having noted the provisions of the Revised Recom-mendation concerning Technical and Vocational Edu-cation, and the Recommendation concerning Educationfor International Understanding, Co-operation andPeace and Education relating to Human Rights andFundamental Freedoms, both adopted by the GeneralConference at its eighteenth session in 1974,Having noted further the provisions of the Recom-mendation on the Development of Adult Education,adopted by the General Conference in 1976, and theRecommendation concerning the Status of Teachers,adopted by the Special Intergovernmental Conferencein 1966,Taking into account the relevant recommendations ofthe International Conference on Education,Bearing in mind the provisions of the Convention(No. 142) and Recommendation (No. 150) concerningVocational Guidance and Vocational Training in theDevelopment of Human Resources, adopted by theInternational Labour Conference at its sixtieth sessionin 1975,Noting further the close collaboration betweenUNESCO and the International Labour Organisation indrawing up their respective instruments so that theypursue harmonious objectives and with a view to con-tinuing fruitful collaboration,Considering the need to make a special effort topromote the technical and vocational education ofwomen and girls,

Paying special attention to the diversity of educationsystems and socio-economic and cultural conditions, inparticular those in developing countries which needspecial considerations and provisions,Considering that, in spite of this diversity, generallysimilar objectives are pursued and that similarproblems arise in many countries, making it desirableto develop common guidelines in technical andvocational education,Recognising that the pace of technological, social andeconomic development has considerably increased theneed to expand and improve the technical andvocational education provided for both young peopleand adults,Recognising that technical and vocational educationmeets the global aim of developing both individualsand societies,Convinced of the need for the exchange of infor-mation and experiences in the development of techni-cal and vocational education and of the desirability ofstrengthening international co-operation in this field,Convinced of the utility of an international legalinstrument to reinforce international collaboration inthe development of technical and vocational education,Adopts the present Convention this tenth day ofNovember 1989:

Article 1The Contracting States agree that:a) for the purpose of this Convention ‘technical and

vocational education’ refers to all forms and levelsof the educational process involving, in addition togeneral knowledge, the study of technologies andrelated sciences and the acquisition of practicalskills, know-how, attitudes and understandingrelating to occupations in the various sectors ofeconomic and social life;

b) this Convention applies to all forms and levels oftechnical and vocational education provided ineducational institutions or through co-operativeprogrammes organised jointly by educationalinstitutions, on the one hand, and industrial, agri-cultural, commercial or any other undertakingrelated to the world of work, on the other;

c) this Convention shall be applied in accordancewith the constitutional provisions and legislationof each Contracting State.

Article 21. The Contracting States agree to frame policies, todefine strategies and to implement, in accordance withtheir needs and resources, programmes and curriculafor technical and vocational education designed foryoung people and adults, within the framework of their

Appendices: Convention of Technical and Vocational Education

respective education systems, in order to enable themto acquire the knowledge and know-how that areessential to economic and social development as wellas to the personal and cultural fulfilment of the indi-vidual in society.2. The general framework for the development oftechnical and vocational education shall be determinedin each Contracting State by appropriate legislation orother measures indicating:a) the objectives to be attained in technical and voca-

tional fields, taking into consideration economic,social and cultural development needs and the per-sonal fulfilment of the individual;

b) the relationship between technical and vocationaleducation, on the one hand, and other types ofeducation, on the other, with particular referenceto horizontal and vertical articulation of pro-grammes;

c) the structures for administrative organisation oftechnical and vocational education defined by theresponsible authorities;

d) the roles of the public authorities responsible foreconomic, social and development planning in thevarious sectors of the economy and, where appli-cable, of professional associations, workers,employers and other interested parties.

3. The Contracting States shall guarantee that noindividual who has attained the educational level foradmission into technical and vocational education shallbe discriminated against on the grounds of race,colour, sex, language, religion, national or socialorigin, political or other opinions, economic status,birth, or on any other grounds.The Contracting States shall work towards the right toequal access to technical and vocational education andtowards equality of opportunity to study throughoutthe educational process.4. The Contracting States shall pay attention to thespecial needs of the handicapped and other disadvan-taged groups and take appropriate measures to enablethese groups to benefit from technical and vocationaleducation.

Article 31. The Contracting States agree to provide anddevelop technical and vocational education pro-grammes that take account of:a) the educational, cultural and social background of

the population concerned and its vocational aspi-rations;

b) the technical and professional skills, knowledgeand levels of qualification needed in the varioussectors of the economy, and the technological andstructural changes to be expected;

c) employment opportunities and development pros-pects at the national, regional and local levels;

d) protection of the environment and the commonheritage of mankind;

e) occupational health, safety and welfare.2. Technical and vocational education should bedesigned to operate within a framework of open-endedand flexible structures in the context of lifelong edu-cation and provide:a) an introduction to technology and to the world of

work for all young people within the context ofgeneral education;

b) educational and vocational guidance and informa-tion, and aptitude counselling;

c) development of an education designed for theacquisition and development of the knowledge andknow-how needed for a skilled occupation;

d) a basis for education and training that may beessential for occupational mobility, improvementof professional qualifications and updating ofknowledge, skills and understanding;

e) complementary general education for thosereceiving initial technical and vocational trainingin the form of on-the-job or other training bothinside and outside technical and vocational educa-tion institutions;

f) continuing education and training courses foradults with a view, in particular, to retraining aswell as to supplementing and upgrading the quali-fications of those whose current knowledge hasbecome obsolete because of scientific and tech-nological progress or changes in the employmentstructure or in the social and economic situation,and also for those in special circumstances.

3. Technical and vocational education programmesshould meet the technical requirements of the occupa-tional sectors concerned and also provide the generaleducation necessary for the personal and culturaldevelopment of the individual and include, inter alia,social, economic and environmental concepts relevantto the occupation concerned.4. The Contracting States agree to tender support andadvice to undertakings outside educational institutionswhich take part in co-operative programmes of techni-cal and vocational education.5. At each occupational level, the competencerequired must be defined as clearly as possible andcurricula must be continuously updated to incorporatenew knowledge and technical processes.6. In assessing the ability to carry out occupationalactivities and determining appropriate awards in tech-nical and vocational education, account should betaken of both the theoretical and practical aspects ofthe technical field in question, and this should applyboth to persons who have received training and topersons who have acquired occupational experience inemployment.

Article 4The Contracting States agree to review periodically thestructure of technical and vocational education, studyprogrammes, plans, training methods and materials, as

Appendices: Convention of Technical and Vocational Education Page 77

well as forms of co-operation between the schoolsystem and the world of work, so as to ensure that theyare constantly adapted to scientific and technologicalprogress, to cultural progress and to changingemployment needs in the various sectors of theeconomy, and that advances in educational researchand innovation are taken into account with a view toapplication of the most effective teaching methods.

Article 51. The Contracting States agree that all personsteaching in the field of technical and vocationaleducation, whether working full time or part time,should have adequate knowledge, theoretical andpractical, of their professional field of competence aswell as appropriate teaching skills consistent with thetype and level of the courses they are required to teach.2. Persons teaching in technical and vocationaleducation should be given the opportunity to updatetheir technical information, knowledge and skillsthrough special courses, practical training periods inenterprises and any other organised form of activityinvolving contact with the world of work; in addition,they should be provided with information on andtraining in educational innovations that may haveapplications in their particular discipline and be giventhe opportunity to participate in relevant research anddevelopment.3. Equal employment opportunities should beoffered, without discrimination, to teachers and otherspecialised staff in technical and vocational educationand their employment conditions should be such that itis possible to attract, recruit and retain staff qualifiedin their areas of competence.

Article 6To facilitate international co-operation, the Con-tracting States agree:a) to encourage the collection and dissemination of

information concerning innovations, ideas andexperience in technical and vocational educationand to participate actively in internationalexchanges dealing with study and teacher-trainingprogrammes, methods, equipment standards andtextbooks in the field of technical and vocationaleducation;

b) to encourage the use in technical and vocationaleducation of international technical standardsapplied in industry, commerce and other sectors ofthe economy;

c) to promote approaches to achieving the recogni-tion of equivalencies of qualifications acquiredthrough technical and vocational education;

d) to encourage international exchanges of teachers,administrators and other specialists in technicaland vocational education;

e) to give students from other countries, particularlyfrom developing countries, the opportunity to

receive technical and vocational education in theirinstitutions, with a view, in particular, to facili-tating the study, acquisition, adaptation, transferand application of technology;

f) to promote co-operation in technical and voca-tional education between all countries, but in par-ticular between industrialised and developingcountries, in order to encourage the developmentof the technologies of the countries;

g) to mobilise resources for strengthening inter-national co-operation in the field of technical andvocational education.

Article 7The Contracting States shall specify, in periodicreports submitted to the General Conference of theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganisation at the dates and in the form determinedby it, the legislative provisions, regulations and othermeasures adopted by them to give effect to this Con-vention.

Article 8The following provisions shall apply to those StatesParties to this Convention which have a non-unitaryconstitutional system:a) with regard to the provisions of this Convention,

the implementation of which comes under the legaljurisdiction of the federal or central legislativepower, the obligations of the federal or centralgovernment shall be the same as for those StatesParties with a centralised system;

b) with regard to the provisions of this Convention,the implementation of which comes under the legaljurisdiction of federated States and constituentcountries, provinces, autonomous communities orcantons that are not obliged by the general or basicconstitutional system of the federation to takelegislative measures, the central government shallinform the competent authorities of such States,countries, provinces, autonomous communities orcantons of the said provisions, with its recommen-dation for their adoption.

Article 9Member States of UNESCO may becomes Parties tothis Convention, as well as non-Member States ofUNESCO which have been invited by UNESCO’sExecutive Board to become Parties, by depositing withthe Director-General of UNESCO an instrument ofratification, acceptance, accession, or approval.

Article 10This Convention shall enter into force three monthsafter the third instrument referred to in Article 9 hasbeen deposited, but solely with respect to the Statesthat have deposited their respective instruments by thatdate. It shall enter into force for each other State threemonths after that State has deposited its instrument.

Appendices: Convention of Technical and Vocational Education

Article 111. Each Contracting State shall have the right todenounce this Convention by formal notification inwriting to the Director-General of the United NationsEducational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation.2. The denunciation shall take effect 12 months afterthe notification has been received.

Article 12The Director-General of the United Nations Educa-tional, Scientific and Cultural Organisation shallinform the Member States of the Organisation, thenon-Member States covered by Article 9 and also theUnited Nations of the deposit of all the instrumentsreferred to in Article 9 and the denunciations providedfor in Article 11.

Article 131. This Convention may be revised by the GeneralConference of the United Nations Educational, Scien-tific and Cultural Organisation. Such revision shall,however, be binding only on States Parties to therevised Convention.2. Should the General Conference adopt a new

Convention entailing a total or partial revision ofthis Convention, and unless the new Convention

otherwise provides, this present Convention shallcease to be open to new States Parties from the dateof entry into force of the new revised Convention.

Article 14This Convention has been drawn up in Arabic, Chi-nese, English, French, Russian and Spanish, the sixtexts being equally authoritative.

Article 15In conformity with Article 102 of the Charter of theUnited Nations, this Convention shall be registeredwith the Secretariat of the United Nations at therequest of the Director-General of the United NationsEducational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation.Done in Paris, this sixteenth day of November 1989, intwo authentic copies bearing the signature of thePresident of the twenty-fifth session of the GeneralConference and of the Director-General of the UnitedNations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi-sation, which shall be deposited in the archives of theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganisation, and certified true copies of which shallbe delivered to all the States referred to in Article 9 aswell as to the United Nations.

under the sun or in the shade? jua kali in african countries...jua kali in swahili means ‘hot...

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