understanding suspended sediment, solids and … method for the determination of non-filterable ......
TRANSCRIPT
Understanding Suspended
Sediment, Solids and Turbidity.
Providing expertise for your water
monitoring needs
www.freemanhydro.com
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Larry Freeman-Freeman Hydrologic Data
Services
Private consultant since 2015
USGS – 36 years
Level 3 Hydrologic Technician Water
Quality Certification
Member: Soquel Creek Water District
Supplemental Water Supply
Committee
Data program management and
technical expertise with
instrumentation, field data and
collection protocols
Publications
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Webinar Agenda:
• Definitions and differences
• Measurement methods
• Turbidity as a Surrogate for Suspended Sediment
Concentration
• When to use them
• The state of turbidity sensor technology
• Q&A
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Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
and Total Suspended Solids
(TSS)
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TDS vs. TSS
ASTM D5907: The results measured by these tests are operationally defined, therefor careful attention must be paid to following the procedures as specified.
“These test methods cover the determination of filterable matter, total dissolved solids (TDS), and non-filterable matter, total suspended solids (TSS), in drinking, surface, and saline waters, domestic and industrial wastes. The practical range of the determination of non-filterable particulate matter (TSS) is 4 to 20,000 mg/L. The practical range of the determination of filterable matter (TDS) is 10 mg/L to 150,000 μg/g.
The method for the determination of non-filterable matter.
TSS must not be used where water samples were collected from open channel flow. For the determination of matter collected in open channel flow use Test Methods D3977 for Suspended Sediment Concentration.”
For more information about why TSS analysis is not representative of Suspended Sediment Concentration, refer to USGS publication: Water-Resources Investigations Report 00-4191, Gray, et al.
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Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Photo credit RWL Water - https://www.rwlwater.com
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Measuring TDS
TDS is the total weight of all solids dissolved in a given volume of water,
• Passed through a 2 micron filter
• Expressed in units of mg per unit volume of water (mg/L),
• Parts per million (PPM).
TDS meters do not measure dissolved solids.
TDS is calculated by multiplying conductivity readings by a conversion factor;
Using a probe to measure TDS requires two assumptions that are not always accurate:1. All dissolved solids produce conductivity2. Solutions having the same TDS have equal conductivity.
Conductivity comes from ions. Only solids that produce ions when dissolved in water cause conductivity. Solids that do not yield ions do not. Equal weights of different ionic solids rarely make equal contributions to the conductivity. TDS has little to do with ions/
Defined operationally as:
• The total weight of all solids in a unit amount of solution.
• Includes ionic solids, which contribute to conductivity, and non-ionic solids, which do not.
• A TDS probe cannot measure solids that have no ionic charge.
From Joe Covey, Rosemount Analytical: http://www.analyticexpert.com/2012/08/measuring-total-dissolved-solids-tds-with-a-tds-meter/
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TDS Lab Analysis
Definition: “All inorganic and organic substances contained in water that can pass through a 2 micron filter.”
Lab Process:
• Filter water sample and evaporate at 180°C in a pre-weighed dish until the weight of the dish no longer changes.
• Increase in dish weight represents the TDS.
• Reported in mg/L.
• Calculated by measuring individual ions and simply adding together their individual concentrations.
“ A non-specific, quantitative measure of the amount of dissolved inorganic chemicals.”
• Does not tell us about its nature. • Is not considered a primary pollutant with any associated health effects in human drinking
water standards, • Used as an indication of aesthetic characteristics of drinking water and a broad indicator of
an array of chemical contaminants.
From Raisbeck, et al, University of Wyoming Agriculture Experiment Station http://www.uwyo.edu/uwe/pubs/b1183/
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Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
Image credit Washington State Department of Ecology Photo credit University of Maryland, Center for Environmental Science
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Measuring TSS
TSS measurement is a lab process; not a sampling or measurement technique.
Several lab methods used; produce non-comparable results.
• USEPA 1999
• Stirs and collects the sub-sample by pouring from the whole sample container.
Standard TSS Method:
• APHA 1995 - Also referred to as APHA’s TSS Method
• Stirs and collects the sub-sample using a pipette to draw from the whole sample container.
• Sub-sample is dried and weighed to determine weight of suspended solids per unit volume of the subsample.
USGS found that the TSS method of analysis:
• Results in unacceptable large errors when determining concentrations of suspended material found in open-channel flow
• Provides data that can result in erroneous pollutant load computations of several orders of magnitude.
National Highway Runoff Data and Methodology Synthesis:
• Raises questions about the utility of TSS and trace-element data collected by storm water programs.
• Questions the use of TSS data in the assessment, design and maintenance of BMPs.
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Turbidity
Photo Credit USGSImage credit Washington State Department of Ecology
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Definition(s) of Turbidity – (it’s not so clear)
Indicator used to assess environmental health of water bodies.
Caused by presence of suspended and dissolved matter.
USGS definition:
• Measurement of relative clarity of a liquid
• Optical characteristic of water
• Expression of the amount of light scattered (attenuated) by material when light is shined through a water sample
• The higher the intensity of scattered light, the higher the turbidity
Materials contributing to turbidity:• Clay, silt • Finely divided inorganic and organic matter• Algae• Soluble colored organic compounds• Plankton and other microscopic organisms
ISO 7027:1999 definition:
• “Reduction of transparency of a liquid caused by the presence of undissolved matter”.
• “Measurement of the incident light scattered at right angles from the water sample.”
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Turbidity Reporting Units
• Formazin Nephelometric Unit (FNU)
• Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU)
• Nephelometric Turbidity Ratio Units (NTRU)
• Formazin Attenuation Units (FAU)
• Jackson Turbidity Unit (JTU - Obsolete)
APHA, AWWA and EPA have accepted the designation of
Formazin as the Primary Standard against which all turbidity
values can be referenced.
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Measuring Turbidity – Common Methods
Secchi Disk
Secchi Disk readings do not
provide a consistent measure of
transparency.
Method limitations:
• Glare from sunlight on water
• Differences in users eyesight
• Cannot be used in shallow water
or swift currents
• Not suitable for small sample sizes
Marine version / Freshwater version
Image Credit: Wikipedia/Mysid
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Measuring Turbidity – Common Methods
Turbidity Tube
• Visual method combining Jackson
Candle and Secchi disk methods
Method limitations:
• Differences in user eyesight
• Human eye can't detect < 5 NTU
• Subsample poured from raw sample
may not accurately represent
original water sample
• Variations in methodology and tube
design
Image credit: Grand Valley State University/AWRI
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Measuring Turbidity – Common Methods
Handheld models • Portable
• Ideal for taking numerous instantaneous readings
• For quick assessment at one or more sites
• Measuring stream cross-section variations
Continuous Submergence models (stand-alone and multi-parameter sonde)• Recording long-term data
• Continuous monitoring of water bodies
• Lab applications during waste and drinking water process compliance monitoring
Selection considerations:• Probes have a multitude of designs, measurement methods and parameters
• Output of probes made by different manufacturers do not produce the same results in
side-by-side testing
• Output of different models from the same manufacturer often do not produce the same results in side-by-side testing
Reference USGS Circular 1250 (2003) summarizing informal test results of instruments at 2002 Reno workshop
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Measuring Turbidity – Common Methods Cont.
Bench-top meters
• Most appropriate for use in a
laboratory setting where
samples can be accurately
analyzed
• Allows for standardized readings
in a controlled environment
• Allows for better measurement
repeatability
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Turbidity: ISO 7027:1999
This International Standard specifies four methods for the
determination of turbidity of water.
• Semi quantitative methods employed for field work are
specified:
a) measurement of turbidity using the transparency testing
Tube (applicable to pure and lightly polluted water)
b) measurement of turbidity using the transparency testing
Disk (especially applicable to surface water)
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ISO 7027:1999 Continued
Quantitative methods using optical turbidimeters are specified:
c) measurement of diffuse radiation, applicable to water of
low turbidity (for example drinking water); Turbidity
measured by this method is expressed in formazin
nephelometric units (FNU); results typically range
between 0 FNU and 40 FNU
d) measurement of the attenuation of a radiant flux, more
applicable to highly turbid waters (for example waste or
polluted waters). Turbidity measured by this method is
expressed in formazin attenuation units (FAU); results
typically range between 40 FAU and 4,000 FAU
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EPA Method 180.1 (Rev. 2, 1993)
EPA Method 180.1:
Turbidity by Turbidimeter. Official Name: Determination of Turbidity by Nephelometry
Scope:
Method applicable to drinking, surface, and saline waters in the range of turbidity from 0 to 40 nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) using a nephelometer calibrated to formazin, AMCO-AEPA-1, or Hach Stablcal. Higher values may be obtained with dilution of the sample.
• Light source: Tungsten lamp operated at a color temperature between
2200-3000°K.
• Distance traversed by incident light and scattered light within the
sample tube: Total not to exceed 10 cm.
• Detector: Centered at 90 90°to the incident light path and not to exceed
±30°from 90°. The detector, and filter system if used, shall have a
spectral peak response between 400 nm and 600 nm.
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USGS/ASTM Turbidity Parameter Codes
Established 2004; last revised May 2013.
Important misconception:
• Turbidity is assumed to be an absolute scientific parameter
• Reported turbidity values are interchangeable between different monitoring sites and different
instruments
Need to establish system for assigning parameter codes to:
• Consistently document reporting of turbidity measurements made by USGS, other agencies and
organizations
• Changing technology continues to necessitate periodic revisions to the list of parameter codes
USGS/ASTM/EPA parameter codes:
• Over 200 individual parameters used by USGS to store turbidity values in their NWIS database
• Codes are grouped by light source and angle of deflection, attenuation or backscatter techniques,
and then by individual instrument technologies
• Several instruments use multiple light sources and angles
Lessons learned:
• Turbidity cannot be used as a single, universal parameter
• Data collected or measured by one method or instrument model is usually not interchangeable with
that of another method or instrument
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Turbidity Challenges
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Challenges with Turbidity Measurement
Calibration Checks:• Probe calibration must be checked against turbidity standards to evaluate and
correct for sensor drift
• Probe output should be checked against turbidity obtained from raw water samples collected in the field at the probe location
Technology differences:• Turbidity is caused by the presence of suspended and dissolved matter
• Variables combine in different and changing magnitudes to affect turbidity
• Numerous sensors with differing technologies have been developed in an attempt to compensate for these variables
• Differing light sources and light color, refraction angles, and light attenuation vs. backscatter, are used individually or in combination
• Sensors are not interchangeable
• Users must be aware that probes are not all measuring the same thing
• Stay with the same sensor technology at a given site
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Turbidity Challenges Continued
Air bubbles
• Diffract light and cause a sensor to read erroneously high
Direct sunlight
• Overwhelms sensor optics and can mute or obliterate measured light attenuation or backscatter
Diurnal changes in sunlight and angle
• Show up as temporal fluctuations and can mask true temporal changes in turbidity. This is particularly true with low turbidity water
Particle size
• Impact varies based on wavelength of light source. Small particles scatter short wavelengths; large particles scatter longer wavelengths
In-stream, temporal variations in the ratio of small to large particle concentrations
• Cause hysteresis effect in relationship between sediment concentration and turbidity
Water or sediment color
• Causes high or low bias depending on the wavelength of the light source used and the ability of the color to reflect or absorb light
LED variability
• Causes both short term and long term drift especially when exposed to changes in temperature
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Suspended Sediment Concentration
Samples collected by standard methods using standard samplers
Photo Credit - FISP
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EPA Identifies Sediment As Major Pollutant
• Fluvial sediment is the single most widespread pollutant in the Nation's rivers and streams
• Affects aquatic habitat
• Drinking water treatment processes
• Recreational uses of rivers, lakes, and estuaries.
• Carries pathogens, toxic chemicals and trace metals.
• Smaller sediment particle equals more surface area available for pollutants to adhere to or bond with.
• Increased concentration of fine suspended sediment increases pollutants in a given volume of water.
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Suspended Sediment Concentration (SSC)
• USGS - Sediment is solid material that originates mostly from disintegrated rocks; when transported by, suspended in, or deposited from water, it is referred to as "fluvial sediment." Sediment includes chemical and biochemical precipitates and decomposed organic material.
• Suspended sediment is sediment carried in suspension by the turbulent components of the fluid or by random Brownian movement (a law of physics).
• Suspended-sediment concentration is the velocity-weighted concentration of suspended sediment in the sampled zone (from the water surface to a point approximately 0.3 foot above the bed) expressed as milligrams of dry sediment per liter of water-sediment mixture (mg/L). The analytical technique uses the mass of all of the sediment and the net weight of the water-sediment mixture in a sample to compute the suspended-sediment concentration.
• Suspended-sediment discharge (tons/d) is the rate of sediment transport, as measured by dry mass or volume, that passes a cross section in a given time. It is calculated in units of tons per day as follows: concentration (mg/L) x discharge (ft3/s) x 0.0027.
• ASTM D3977 – defines testing methods
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How is SSC measured?
Using representative samples collected from the surface water source.
Methods should ensure that sample:• Is representative of water conditions present at time of sample collection• Reflects variability in the cross-section of a river• Accounts for differences within individual water columns
Strongly suggest using standard samplers and sampling methods defined by USGS and ASTM.
Methods defined by:
• USGS - Edwards, Thomas K., and Glysson, G. Douglas, 1998, Field methods for measurement of fluvial sediment; Book 3, Applications of Hydraulics: Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the U.S. Geological Survey, Book 3, Chapter C2, 80 pgs.
• ASTM D4411 - 03(2014) Standard Guide for Sampling Fluvial Sediment in Motion
Other considerations:
• Incorporates safety protocols that are appropriate for sampling conditions
• Isokinetic samplers and sampling methods used with mean cross-section velocity greater than 1.5 fps
• Non-isokinetic methods and samplers used at lower velocities
• Point samples can be taken at several locations in the water column in lakes and low velocity estuaries
• Strongly suggest training in measuring suspended sediment
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How is SSC analyzed?
Lab process that includes:
• Filtering all bottles of an entire sample
• Drying and weighing the filters
Sediment concentration value expressed in mg/L of original sample.
• Analyzing for particle sizes adds more complexity
USGS/ASTM laboratory procedures include:
• Rigorous QA/QC protocols
• Performed by trained lab technician in a certified lab
USGS - Guy, Harold P., 1969, Laboratory theory and methods for sediment analysis: Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the U.S. Geological Survey, Book 5, Chapter C1.
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ASTM D3977 - 97(2013)e1 Standard Test Methods for
Determining Sediment Concentration in Water Samples
SSC analysis requires that the entire water sample be analyzed.
TSS and TDS analyses use only aliquots of the original sample.
Whole sample analysis results in less analytical bias.
US EPA Method:• (USEPA 1999)
• Stir and collect the sub-sample by pouring from the original sample container.
Standard Method• America Public Health Agency‘s TSS Method (APHA 1995)
• Stir and collect the sub-sample using a pipette to draw from the whole sample container.
Neither method captures large particles that settle quickly.
Both methods under-report SSC’s causing large negative bias in sediment discharge records.
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Clarifying TDS, Turbidity
And SSC
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Why are they confused?
• Misunderstanding of what measurements actually represent.
• Long-standing regulatory agencies have incorporated incorrect standards in their monitoring plans.
• Budget constraints result in use of cheaper, simpler sampling and analytical techniques to indirectly monitor constituent(s) of interest
• Leads to assumption that the indicator standard (ex. TSS) and the constituent of concern (ex. Suspended Sediment) are one and the same
• Development of electronic instrumentation enables continuous monitoring of specific conductance or optical properties of water as indicators (ex. TSS/TDS/SSC)
• Are not measuring the property itself
• Peer reviewed literature discusses TSS analysis where SSC analysis was used, or vice versa.
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Knowing when to use them.
• Method selection considerations:
• Often chosen based on political or management decisions that consider labor
and analytical costs
• Based on misunderstanding of what proposed measured parameter represents
• Traditional regulatory approach:
• Regulation requires collection of TSS data to determine Suspended Sediment
Concentration
• Collect and analyze data by legally prescribed protocols - even when
inappropriate to do so
• Flexible, alternative approach:
• Monitoring program is designed using appropriate protocols and methods for
data collection and analysis
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What should I monitor?
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Appropriate Use of TSS Data
Evaluating effluent quality from Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs)
Types of suspended solids:• Residential waste
• Silt
• Decaying plant and animal matter
• Industrial wastes
• Sewage
Most WWTPs remove total suspended solids (TSS) using filters prior to
discharge.
Laboratory methods for analyzing material suspended in water: • APHA 1995 and EPA 1999
• Use different techniques to draw an aliquot for analysis
• Many monitoring programs state that TSS is being monitored when SSC is
actually being sampled
• SSC inappropriately analyzed using TSS lab protocols
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Appropriate Use of TDS Data
Indicator of cations and anions.
Detailed analytical techniques determine the concentration of
individual contaminants represented by TDS analysis.
Primary applications:• Agriculture and residential runoff
• Leaching of soil contaminants
• Amount of point or non-point source discharge from industry or
waste-water treatment facilities
• Aquaculture
Describes the results of a lab method rather than a sampling
method or specific contaminant.
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Monitoring Turbidity:
• Widely used, inexpensive indicator of water clarity
• Suspended sediments, algal and phytoplankton
• Measure of aesthetic quality of water
• Statistical relationship between turbidity and constituent of interest by comparing paired analyses
• Provides more frequent intervals than is practical for sampling and lab analysis of water
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Reasons to Monitor Suspended Sediment
Compute records of suspended sediment discharge (instantaneous, daily, annual estimates):
• Monitor sediment mobilization, transport and deposition
• River and harbor dredging projects
• Reservoir sedimentation filling rates/estimating changes in storage
• Fate of constituents adhering to sediments
• Sediment transport rates for flood control channel design
• Basin Management plans/TMDL
• Impacts of agriculture and forestry
• Effectiveness of hill slope stabilization and erosion control projects
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Turbidity as a Suspended
Sediment Surrogate
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Turbidity as a Suspended Sediment Surrogate
Traditionally records calculated by correlating water discharge with suspended sediment samples.
Development of in situ turbidity sensors leads to use as surrogate to develop discharge estimates. • Provides ability to monitor sediment
transport events not directly related to water discharge in rivers
Continuous data shows that SS:• Can peak before, simultaneously
with, or after water discharge peaks, even at the same monitoring site
• Can ‘spike’ during periods of stable water discharge
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Value-Added Uses for a Suspended Sediment
Surrogate Record
• Suspended sediments carry pathogens, trace metals and other harmful constituents.
• Discharge of contaminants can be estimated by collecting and comparing water quality samples with SSC samples, and applying a regression analysis to estimate contaminant loading.
• Near real-time estimates of suspended sediment from turbidity in rivers used for drinking water and recreation provides an early warning system.
Rasmussen, Patrick P.; Gray, John R.; Glysson, G. Douglas; Ziegler, Andrew C., 2009, Guidelines and Procedures for Computing Time-Series Suspended-Sediment Concentrations and Loads from In-Stream Turbidity-Sensor and Streamflow Data: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques and Methods 3-C4, viii, 54 p.
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Advancements in Turbidity Sensing Technology
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Problem #1 Impact from External Light
Legacy technology – stray sunlight can give errors >5%
Advancements – ambient light rejection technology increases accuracy in any environment, reducing calibration and application limitations
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Problem #2 – Impact from Thermal Changes
Legacy technology –
Inaccuracies with
changes in temperature
and longer response
time
Advancements –
Internal compensation
for shifts in temperature
during calibration and
deployment
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Problem #3 – Linearity and Long Term Stability
Legacy technologies – Multipoint user calibrations due to non-linearity
and long-term drift
Advancements – factory calibration across full sensor range and internal
LED compensation for long term stability
R² = 0.999966
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Aq
ua
TR
OL
L 6
00
Tu
rbid
ity
(NT
U)
Reference Turbidity (NTU)
Aqua TROLL 600 Turbidity Sensor Linearity
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Problem #4 – Cost of Maintenance
Legacy technologies – High cost of maintenance due to calibration requirements and cleaning for high fouling sites
Advancements – Minimal calibration solution and antifouling capabilities reduces solution use and site visits
$-
$1,000.00
$2,000.00
$3,000.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Months
Annual Calibration Maintenance
AquaTROLL 600 Legacy Sensor (100mL) Legacy Sensor (200mL)
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Aqua TROLL 600 Multiparameter Sonde
Customizable, Powerful Water Quality Platform
Industry-leading water quality sensors with revolutionary
smartphone mobility
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Special Offers for Webinar Attendees
Free trial of the Aqua TROLL 600 Multiparameter Sonde:
• 2-week trial period offered through In-Situ Rentals
• Call 1-800-446-7488, or email [email protected] to place your order
30% Rental Discount:
• 30% of your next rental equipment order from In-Situ Rentals
• Visit http://go.in-situ.com/turbidity30, call 1-800-446-7488, or email [email protected] and mention offer code Turbidity30
• 30% discount can be applied to one order. Discounted order must be booked prior to June 30, 2016 and rental dates may be scheduled anytime in 2016.
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Contact information:
Larry Freeman
Freeman Hydrologic Data Services831.595.8757
P.O. Box 952, Soquel, CA [email protected]
Ashley SteinbachEnvironmental Product Manager
In-Situ Inc.
221 E. Lincoln Ave, Ft. Collins, CO [email protected]
Janice HillerVertical Market Manager
In-Situ Inc.
221 E. Lincoln Ave, Ft. Collins, CO [email protected]
http://go.in-situ.com/turbidity30
30% Rental Discount:
Copyright © 2015 In-Situ™ Inc. This document is confidential and is the property of In-Situ Inc. Do not distribute without approval.W W W . I N - S I T U . C O M
References
ASTM D3977 - 97(2013)e1
Standard Test Methods for Determining Sediment Concentration in Water Samples. http://astm.nufu.eu/std/ASTM%20D3977%20-%2097(2013)e1
ASTM D4411 - 03(2014)
Standard Guide for Sampling Fluvial Sediment in Motion.http://astm.nufu.eu/std/ASTM%20D4411%20-%2003(2014)
ASTM D5907 2013 Edition, June 1, 2013 --Standard Test Methods for FilterableMatter (Total Dissolved Solids) and Nonfilterable Matter (Total SuspendedSolids) in Water.
Guo, G.Q., 2006 -- Correlation of Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Suspended Sediment Concentration (SSC) Test Methods. 52 p.http://www.state.nj.us/dep/dsr/soils/tss%20vs%20ssc%20test%20methods.pdf
Granato, G.E., Zenone, C., and Cazenas, P.A. (eds.), 2003, National Highway Runoff Water-Quality Data and Methodology Synthesis, Volume I --Technical issues for monitoring highway runoff and urban stormwater: Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, FHWA-EP-03-054, 479 p.
http://webdmamrl.er.usgs.gov/g1/FHWA/products/EP03-054.pdf
Copyright © 2015 In-Situ™ Inc. This document is confidential and is the property of In-Situ Inc. Do not distribute without approval.W W W . I N - S I T U . C O M
References cont’d
ISO 7027:1999 Water quality -- Determination of turbidity
EPA Method 180.1 – Determination of Turbidity by Nephelometry
Joe Covey, Rosemount Analytical
http://www.analyticexpert.com/2012/08/measuring-total-dissolved-solids-tds-with-a-tds-meter/
M. F. Raisbeck, et/al; University of Wyoming Department of Veterinary Sciences, UW Department of Renewable Resources, Wyoming Game and Fish Department, Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality: A review of the literature pertaining to the health effects of inorganic contaminants, http://www.wyomingextension.org/agpubs/pubs/B1183.pdf
Mike Sadar, Hach Company, 2009; The Basics of Turbidity Measurement Technologies, Methods and Data Comparability, QA/QC Sensors Group, July 16, 2009. http://www.watersensors.org/files/Turbidimeter_Summary.pdf
Federal Interagency Sedimentation Project (FISP)
Technical Committee Memorandum 2007.01, October 25, 2006Subject: Collection and Use of Total Suspended Solids (TSS) Data
http://water.usgs.gov/fisp/docs/FISP_Tech_Memo_2007-01.pdf
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Water-Resources Investigations Report 00-4191 Reston, Virginia 2000,
COMPARABILITY OF SUSPENDED-SEDIMENT CONCENTRATION AND TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS DATA By John R. Gray, G. Douglas Glysson, Lisa M. Turcios, and Gregory E. Schwarz
http://water.usgs.gov/osw/pubs/WRIR00-4191.pdf
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1250 - Proceedings Of The Federal Interagency Workshop On Turbidity AndOther Sediment Surrogates, April 30-May 2, 2002, Reno, Nevada
Edited By John R. Gray And G. Douglas Glysson
Sponsored By The Federal Interagency Subcommittee On Sedimentation
http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2003/circ1250/#pdf
Copyright © 2015 In-Situ™ Inc. This document is confidential and is the property of In-Situ Inc. Do not distribute without approval.W W W . I N - S I T U . C O M
References cont’d
Guy, Harold P., 1969, Laboratory theory and methods for sediment analysis: Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the U.S. Geological Survey, Book 5, Chapter C1. http://pubs.usgs.gov/twri/twri3-c1/
Edwards, Thomas K., and Glysson, G. Douglas, 1998, Field methods formeasurement of fluvial sediment; Book 3, Applications of Hydraulics: Techniques ofWater-Resources Investigations of the U.S. Geological Survey, Book 3, Chapter C2, 80 pgs. http://pubs.usgs.gov/twri/twri3-c2/
U.S. Geological Survey National field manual for the collection of water-quality data: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, book 9, chaps. A6.7, available online at http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/twri9A
U.S. Geological Survey
Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5077
Introduction to Suspended-Sediment Sampling
By K. Michael Nolan, John R. Gray, and G. Douglas Glysson
2005 http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5077/Rasmussen, Patrick P.; Gray, John R.; Glysson, G. Douglas; Ziegler, Andrew C., 2009, Guidelines and Procedures for Computing Time-Series Suspended-Sediment Concentrations and Loads from In-Stream Turbidity-Sensor and Streamflow Data: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques and Methods 3-C4, viii, 54 p.,
https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/tm3C4