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(UNGS 2040)

STANDARD CONTENTS

Department of General Studies, 2008

ISLAM: KNOWLEDGE AND

CIVILIZATION

Definition of Knowledge

2

Al-ilm () /Knowledge

Al-ilm ()

3

The arrival (Husul : ) in the soul of the meaning of a thing or an object of knowledge and the arrival (wusul: ( of the soul at the meaning of a thing or object

of knowledge

(al-Jurjani:160-161)

.cont.,

4

Realization of the meanings of

things (Al-Ghazzali)

Realization of something in its

true nature through different levels

of understanding and in agreement

with the facts or true to nature.

(textbook, 4)

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cont.,

5

To know, to understand, to perceive, to be familiar and acquainted with things.

A firm belief that accords with the reality of things (47( ( : 19(.

- Theology (), Principles of Jurisprudence( ) etc.

Opposite of

6

: ConjectureUncertainty

Not supported with decisive proofs

It might accord with the reality and it

might not

7

: doubt

: ignorance

: foolishness

: misguidance

.cont., Degrees of Certainty

8

:knowledgeCertainty, conviction ( / )Accords with the reality

Certainty by observation

certainty through knowledge

Certainty through experience

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Importance of Knowledge

9

1. Knowledge is a requirement for the

fulfillment of mans obligations as a

khalifah on earth. Allah says:

10

( 30)

( 31)

( 32)

(33)

11

2. The first revelation to the Messenger of Allah is about seeking knowledge and revealing scientific knowledge:

* * -1:) * *

5)

Cont.,

12

Read! In the name of the Lord and Cherisher, who created- created man, out of a mere clot of congealed blood. Proclaim! And your Lord is most Bountiful- He who taught the use of the pen, taught man that which he knew not (96:1-5)

[read, teach , pen]

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cont.,

13

3. Islam is a religion based upon knowledge.

4. The text of the Quran is full of verses inviting man to use his intellect, to ponder, to think and to learn.

5.The total number of verses in which ilm or its derivatives and associated words are used is 704.

14

6. The main miracle and sign of

authenticity of prophethood of Mohammed ( ) was a book of knowledge; The Quran.

cont.,

cont.,

15

7.The Prophet ( ) made seeking knowledge obligatory on

Muslims (men and women):

Seeking knowledge is obligatory

on every Muslim.

cont.,

16

8. Knowledge is the way through which people

can recognize Allah, fear him, and discover the

truth.

(162: )

But those among them who are well-grounded

in knowledge, and the believers, believe in

what has been revealed to you and what was

revealed before you

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17

)6:)

And those who are knowledgeable see

that the revelation sent down to you

from the Lord is the Truth, and that it

guides to the Path of Allah who is

Exalted and Worthy of all praise.

cont.,

18

9. Knowledge elevates the status and position of its bearer and makes difference between him and ignorant.

(11: )

Allah will raise up, to high ranks those of you who believe and who have been granted Knowledge

cont.,

19

(15):

We gave knowledge to David and

Solomon: and they both said: "Praise

be to Allah, Who has favoured us

above many of His subjects who

believe!"

cont.,

20

( 10)

() (11) We bestowed grace on David and We

made the iron soft for him. Make coats of

mail, balance well the rings of chain armour,

and work righteousness; for be sure I see all

that you do."

cont.,

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21

9:) )

Say: are those equal, those

who know and those who do

not know?

cont., Purpose of knowledge

Divinely Worldly

To recognize God To benefit man

Pleasure of God

22

Classification of Knowledge

Week Two

24

Limitations

(a) Absolute (perfect) knowledge:

this is the knowledge of God who

knows the reality, essence and details

of all things.

(b) Limited knowledge:

The knowledge given to His

creations;

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angels, prophets, human beings, jinn, and animals.

cont., ..cont.,

26

Limited knowledge:

(i) Gifted knowledge: a. Instinctive knowledge (natural): it is imparted in the very nature of the creation.

b. Revealed/Sacred knowledge: the knowledge that Almighty God

reveals to human beings.

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(ii) Acquired Knowledge

Gained through effort by way of

reflection, senses and experience.

(a) Recommended (praiseworthy)

i- Fard ayn ii. Fard kifayah

(b) Prohibited (blameworthy)

-Magic (kindly refer to slides 46-48)

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General Classification of

Knowledge in Islam

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General classification of

Knowledge in Islam

Limited Knowledge

Acquired KnowledgeGifted Knowledge

Absolute Knowledge

Instinct (ilham)SacredPraiseworthy Blame worthy

By external

influence By itself

Fard AinFard Kifayah

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Al-Ghazzalis Criteria for Classification of sciences :

1. Theoretical and practical

2. Presential and acquired

3. Religious and intellectual

4. Individual obligatory and communal obligatory

Classification of Knowledge

According to al-Ghazali

Theoretical Practical

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Intellectual

Fard kifayah(Collective

Obligatory Knowledge)

AttainedPresential

Religious

Fard ayn (Personal

Obligatory Knowledge)

Al-Ghazzalis Criteria for Classification of sciences

32

1. Theoretical and practical (philosophers)

Theoretical: to know the states of beings as they are( to realize/ comprehend the reality of beings; celestial & terrestrial)

Practical: deals with mans actions

To find out what is useful to mankind in this life as well as in the Hereafter

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.Cont.,

33

2. Presential & acquired (tasawwuf) (the mode of

knowing)

Presential : intuitive, contemplative

spiritual experience - revelation

Acquired : empirical, rational, logical

.Cont.,

34

Which one is better?

Al-Ghazzali:

the presential is superior to the acquired, It is

free from errors & doubt, certainty on

spiritual truths

This is true with the revelation and intuition

received by the prophets

35

The intuitive knowledge

claimed by people other than

prophets may not be taken for

granted unless it is judged in

light of the established

principles of Islam

.Cont.,

36

3. Religious and intellectual (the source)

Religious (transmitted sciences):

Acquired from revelation/ prophets

1. Roots (Quran, sunnah, consensus)

2. Branches (law and ethics)

3. Ancillary sciences (grammar and lexicography)

4. Complementary sciences (Qiraat, commentary, history)

Intellectual: attained by human intellect alone

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.Cont.,

37

4. Fard Ayn and Fard kifayah(the need for learning)Fard ayn: What should be learned by each

and every Muslim.Individual responsibilities Things which cant be done on

behalf of others

38

Beliefs, worship, halal and

haram, core moral values, how to

discharge ones responsibilities

towards others (mans

obligations to family and

society), necessary skills for

daily life.

.Cont.,

.Cont.,

39

Fard kifayah :- the communitys needs that can be performed

by a sufficient group on behalf of others.

- collective responsibilities

Religious sciences: knowledge that is not needed for daily practice of Islam.

Intellectual knowledge: all types of knowledge needed for the welfare of the society in this life

.Cont

40

Praiseworthy sciences:

Enhances human well being and the environment within the boundaries outlined by shariah

All sciences which are useful, beneficial and satisfy the requirements of science.

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41

Blameworthy sciences:

A science which does not meet the

requirement of science, or it is

purely or usually harmful.

Blameworthy by its nature by an

external factor

.Cont

42

Magic:

It is defined as seeking the help of

demons to perform something

harmful against somebody or

showing something to an audience,

which is contrary to reality.

Reasons why magic is prohibited

in Islam:

1) It is an act of blasphemy (kufr).

Allah says in the Holy Quran:

43

And when there came to them aMessenger from Allah confirming whatwas with them, a party of those whowere given the scripture threw away thebook of Allah behind their backs as ifthey did not know. And they followedwhat the devils gave out falsely of magicof the reign of Solomon; for Solomon didnot disbelieve but the devils disbelieved,teaching men magic and such thingsthat came down at Babylon to the twoangels Harut and Marut, but neither ofthese two (angles) taught anyone (such

44

things) until they had said: we are only for

trial, so don't disbelieve. And from them

(magicians) people learn that through which

they would cause separation between a

person and his spouse, but they could not

thus harm anyone except by Allah's leave;

and they learn that which harms them rather

than profits them. And indeed they knew

that its practitioner would have no share in

the Hereafter. And how bad indeed was that

for which they sold their own selves if they

but knew. (2:101-102).

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45

2) According to the following authentic hadith,

magic is a deadly act:

The Prophet (s.a.w) said: Avoid the seven

deadly acts which are: ascribing partners to

God, magic, killing the human self which Allah

prohibited except with right, eating usury

(riba), devouring the orphans wealth,

defecting from the battle-field (without a

justified reason) and slandering chaste,

unwary believing women.

46

Magic being harmful and evil act, Allah has

told us to seek His protection against it:

Say I seek refuge in the in the Lord of

daybreak From the evil of that which he

created; From the evil of the darkness when it

is intense, and from the evil of malignant

witchcraft, And from the evil of the envious

when he envies. (Surah al-Falaq)

Differences between magic and

miracles (mujizat)

47

Magic is from devils (see the above Quranic

verse: 2:101-102)while miracles are from

Allah.

On the other hand, miracles are real while

magic is deceptive; it is covering the truth with

falsehood).

Because miracles are from Allah, they could

only be performed by Prophets while magic,

which is from devils, can be performed by

anyone who associates himself with the devil.

48

Horoscope

Not only magic is prohibited in Islam but also

horoscope or reading ones palm to foretell

the future.

The Holy Quran affirms that no one knows

the future or the unseen except Allah: He

knoweth the Unseen as well as that which is

Open. (6:73) With Him are the keys of the

Unseen, the treasures that none knoweth but

He... (6:59)

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49

The Holy Quran also asserts that not

even Muhammad knows the unseen:

If I had the knowledge of the unseen, I

should have secured abundance for

myself, and no evil would have touched

me. (7:188).

50

The Prophet (s.a.w) said: Whoever

goes to a fortune teller (a soothe sayer)

or a diviner and believes him, has, in

fact, disbelieved in what has been

revealed to Muhammad.

.Cont..

51

Example: Horoscope

Capricorn: (Dec 23 - Jan 20)

Todays stars encourage you to be more diplomatic and inclusive in your relations with others

Aquarius: (Jan 21 Feb 19)

On the Zodiacs Day of Metamorphosis, you need to transform ideals into reality, and turn dreams into concrete plans. If you work patiently towards your goals, you can achieve the long-term success you are looking for.

Cont.,

52

Astrology:

It is the study of the positions and aspects of celestial bodies.

Muslims scholars agree that astrology is a prohibited field to deal with. For example, Imam Ibn Taymiyah said: Astrology that is concerned with studying the positions and aspects of celestial bodies in the belief that they have an influence on the course of natural earthly occurrences and human affairs is prohibited by Almighty Allahs Book, the Sunnah, and the unanimous agreement of the Muslim scholars.

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53

Ibn `Uthaymeen, said: Astrology is a

kind of sorcery and fortune-telling. It is

forbidden because it is based on

illusions, not on concrete facts. There is

no relation between the movements of

celestial bodies and what takes place on

the Earth.

54

During the Prophets lifetime, it happened that the sun eclipsed on the same day when the Prophets son Ibrahim died. The people then thought that it had eclipsed because of the Prophets sons death. On knowing this, the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) led them in the Eclipse Prayer and then delivered them a speech saying: The sun and moon are but signs of Allah; they do not eclipse because so-and-so died or was born.

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The above hadith indicates that the

Prophet (s.a.w) denied all relation

between the movements of the heavenly

bodies and events on the Earth.

56

Ibn Abbas (may Allah be pleased with him and his father) reported that Allahs Messenger (s.a.w) said: He who has acquired some knowledge of astrology has acquired some knowledge of sorcery; the more he acquires of the former the more he acquires of the latter. (Reported by Ahmad, Abu Dawud, and Ibn Majah)

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57

Commenting on the above hadith, al-

Shawkani said that the Prophet (s.a.w)

compared between astrology and

sorcery because sorcery was known to

be forbidden; and so, he who would get

some knowledge of astrology would do

something forbidden and would be

sinful.

58

To sum up, astrology is based on lies and

deceit; it has no scientific basis. The

astrologists usage of computers to convince

people that what they do is technological and

scientific is nothing but deceit. There is no

scientific proof that there is a relationship

between the appearance of a star in a specific

time and the character and behavior of

someone born at that time.

Conclusion

59

Sciences are inter-related, and none of them can exclude the others.

Humanities, natural sciences, and the religious sciences unite to produce true understanding of this world and the causes behind its existence.

Religious scholars are in need of philosophical and natural sciences as much as scientists are in need of the religious sciences.

60

Natural and philosophical sciences are to

enable the Muslim to explore, exploit and

get a better insight into what Allah has

created in this universe.

Religious sciences are to guide people to

understand the reality of this life, their

origins and their mission.

And to set the moral and legal guidelines

that should be observed by human beings for

a meaningful and better life.

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Sources and Means of

Knowledge

Week Three

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1. Revelation ( : )

2. Reason ()

3. Nature/ physical world ) )

4. Five Senses ( )5. Intuition ()

The Quran as a Source of Knowledge

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An introduction to the the Quran

Definition

Quran is the Book revealed from Allah to His Messenger Muhammad (saw) as written in masahif and transmitted to us from him through an authentic continuous narration

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Definition analysis:

- Quran is the pure speech of Allah (al-Nisa:42)

- Only the Allahs speech revealed to Muhammad

- It is an exposition of all things (tibyan li kulli shay)

- As guidance and mercy

- Nothing is neglected (al-Nahl:89)

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The Quran is the Arabic words as

well as their meanings (translation

is not a Quran)

Transmitted to us by way of

[tawatur] (continuous narration by a large number of people in each

part of the chain of narration)

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Revelation & Recording of the Quran

a) Revelation of the Quran

The Quran was transmitted directly from

Allah (swt) to the Messenger of Allah

through Gibril (not a mere inspiration)

The Quran was not revealed to the

Messenger of Allah all at once.

It was revealed to him in stages and

sometimes in accordance with incidents faced

by Muslim community.

67

The wisdom behind revealing it by stages

1. To allow people to memorize,

understand and implement it gradually.

)106 :)

It is a Quran which we have divided into

parts from time to time in order that you

might recite it to men at intervals

(17: 106)

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2.To strengthen the heart of the

Messenger of Allah (saw), give him

courage and moral support to

overcome the difficulties and

challenges he was facing. Allah

said:

(32: )

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Those who reject faith say: "Why is

not the Quran revealed to him all

at once? It is revealed in stages so

that We may strengthen your heart

thereby, and We have rehearsed it to

you in slow, well-arranged stages,

gradually. (25: 32)

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3. Live interaction between the divine text and

the socio-political reality and daily practice of

the people.

Some verses came to deal with:

some situations faced by the Messenger of

Allah;

solve problems faced by Muslim community;

respond to the challenges put by disbelievers;

correct the mistakes committed by the

Muslim community, etc.

71

Those incidents, cases, and

questions are called occasions for

revelation ( ) and they help those who came later in a better

understanding and implementation

of those verses.

The period of revelation lasted for

around 23 years.

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The Recording of the Quran

The Messenger of Allah used to memorize the verses revealed to him then recite them for his companions who used to memorize them

There were scribes who used torecord the verses after theirrevelation

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The original copies of the written

records were preserved in the

house of the Messenger of Allah.

While some other scribes would

record the verses for themselves

and preserve them for their own

use.

74

The order of the verses within each surah aswell as the order of the surahs was directed byJibril.

During each month of Ramadan Jibril used torecite what was revealed in its order with theMessenger of Allah.

During the time of Abu Bakr the Quran wascompiled in a single official copy.

The suggestion came after the battle ofYamamah.

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The Quran and the other Revealed Books

Universality:

The previous Books were local for

specific people.

Quran as the last revealed Book

and a universal message for all

mankind needs to be comprehensive

and eternally preserved.

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(48: )

To you we sent the Scripture in truth, confirming

the scripture that came before it, and a watcher

over it. So, judge between them by what Allah

has revealed

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2. The way of preservation

The people of each Book were

entrusted with guarding it against any

distortion or manipulation

(44: ) ...

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It was We who revealed the Torah; therein was

guidance and light. By its standard have been

judged the Jews, by the prophets who bowed to

Allah's will, by the rabbis and the priests; for to

them was entrusted the protection of Allah's

Book, and they were witnesses thereto (5:

44)

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If they fail to do so, Allah sends another prophet totake people back to the right way.

Since Muhammad (saw) was the last Messenger,Allah (swt) assumed the responsibility of guardingand preserving His last Book.

(9 :) We have, without doubt, sent down the Message;

and We will assuredly guard it against anymanipulation or change.

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Preservation of the Quran

The way Quran was preserved:

The Quran was made public from the very

beginning.

The Quran was fully recorded from the time it

was revealed.

The Quran was preserved in the original form

(same language, same words).

The assurance from God that the Quran will

be preserved till the Day of Judgment.

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(42-41 :)

And indeed it is a Book of exalted

power. Falsehood cannot come at it

from before it or from behind it. (It

is) a revelation from the Wise, the

Owner of Praise.

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No one can alter or change any part of theQuran; not even the Messenger of Allahhimself.

( 43) (44 ) ( 45) ( 46)

(.47: ) This is a Message sent down from the Lord of theworlds. And if the Messenger were to invent anysayings in our name, we should certainly seize himby his right hand, and we should certainly then cutoff the artery of his heart: Nor could any of youprotect him from that.

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The Characteristics of the Quran

1- Guidance for and mercy to

believers (2: )

This is the book; in it is guidance,

sure, without doubt, to those who

fear Allah.

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(52: )

For We had certainly sent unto

them a Book, based on knowledge,

which We explained in detail, a

guide and a mercy to all who

believe.

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85

2. Spiritual/ social healer

(57: )

O mankind! there has come to you a direction from

your Lord and a healing for the (diseases) in your

hearts, and for those who believe, a Guidance and a

Mercy.

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3- Light

(157: ) So it is those who believe in him

(the Messenger), honour him, help

him, and follow the Light which is

sent down with him, it is they who

will prosper.

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"(8: )

Believe, therefore, in Allah and

His Messenger, and in the Light

which We have sent down. And

Allah is well acquainted with all

that you do.

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4- Preacher for believers (138: )

Here is a plain statement to men,

a guidance and instruction to

those who fear Allah!

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5- Revealing reality and clarifying

doubts (1: )

Ta. Sin. These are verses of the

Quran, a Book that makes things

clear.

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(15: )O People of the Book! there has come to you Our

Messenger, revealing to you much that you used to

hide in the Book, and passing over much (that is

now unnecessary): There has come to you from

Allah a (new) light and a perspicuous Book.

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6- Miraculous

The Quran is the main miracle of

the Messenger of Allah and the main

proof of the authenticity of his

prophethood.

The miracles contained in it are the

proof of its authenticity as the real

Book of Allah

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Its miracle is in terms of:

i. Structure

ii. Meaning (the knowledge

contained in it: historical

events, prediction of what

will happen in the future, and

scientific facts.

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93

Challenging the Unbelievers The miracle is manifested in a challenge to all

mankind to produce:

a. Another book similar to it:

(33) .(34)

Or they say: He has invented it? Nay, but they do not believe! Then let them produce a speech like it, if they are truthful.

94

b. Ten chapters similar to those of the Quran

(.)(13)

Or they say: He has invented it! Say: Then bring

ten surahs, the like thereof, invented, and call on

everyone you can beside Allah, if you are

truthful!

95

c. One surah similar to those of the Quran

.(23)

And if you are in doubt concerning that which We reveal to our Messenger (Muhammad), then produce a surah like one thereof, and call your gods and supporters beside Allah if you are truthful.

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Types of Knowledge in the Quran

The Universal Book

Islam is the last and universal religion;

Human societies are always open for evolution

and development.

The Quran should: Meet the needs of all

human beings in different places and different

times.

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To be able to do so, it should:

Give clear and detailed discourse on what is important for human life and cant be known through human reasoning only (beliefs and ibadat)

Set the core values and principles which guide human life to the right way, and safeguard it against any corruption or deviation from such a way.

Be flexible to accommodate the evolution and development of human life and societies.

98

Regarding human lifes aspects which are subject

to change and development, the Quran ,

generally, sets norms, standards and universal

values which suit all peoples and all times.

These values and norms should not be subject to

any alteration or change to ensure the prevalence

of righteousness and justice (immutable values

and norms).

99

In light of these norms, people

are given freedom to innovate

and adopt whatever systems,

procedures, etc they may

consider as good for them as

long as they dont breach those

norms and values.

100

Physical and Natural Sciences

The Quran deals with those things which are needed to be known and may not be realized by man or may not be understood accurately (man would speculate about them only)

Such as:

- The origin of mankind, the substance and the way of his first creation, his first acquisition of the basic knowledge.

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101

- The origin of the earth and the heavens

In other fields such as:

- astronomy

- Geology,

- Physics,

- Embryology

The Quran just gives some references for the

following purposes:

102

The aims of scientific references in the Quran

It is not to give people details and teach them natural and physical sciences.

They are signs to prove:

- The existence of God

- The omnipotence and power of God

- The weakness of men compared to the power of the Creator

103

- Indebtedness of mankind to Allah

for all what we have in life.

- The authenticity of Prophets and

revealed Books i.e. this Quran

comes from Allah and it is

impossible for a human being,

especially at the time of Muhammad

.( ) to compose it.

Cont.,

104

For the Muslim who reads and

understands these references, they

serve to strengthen his or her faith.

(.191: )

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105

Those who remember and praise Allah, standing,

sitting, and lying down on their sides, and

contemplate the wonders of creation in the

heavens and the earth, (with the thought): "Our

Lord! not for naught have you created all this!

Glory to you! Give us salvation from the Penalty

of the Fire. (3: 191)

106

For the non-Muslim who

questions the authenticity or

authorship of the Quran , these

references provide some

interesting answers.

: ) 53)

107

Soon will We show them Our Signs

in the (farthest) horizons, and

within themselves, until it becomes

manifest to them that it is the

Truth. Is it not enough that your

Lord does witness all things?

[41:53]

108

How should we deal with these scientific

facts?

They should be used for the aforesaid things.

They can be used to have a better understanding

of those verses dealing with natural phenomena

compared to the way they were understood by

early Muslims.

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109

We should not over-emphasize the scientific

miracles to the extent that we hurry to relate each

new scientific theory to the verses of the Quran .

Such an act may lead to misinterpreting the texts

of the Quran and changing the interpretation

from time to time. This may be

counterproductive and cause some confusion

especially among non-Muslims.

110

b) Religious, human and social sciences

Belief: (Revelation is the only source)

The Concept of God

The existence of God; the Creator and Lord

of this universe.

The concept of tawhid (Unity of God)

Since the concept of God was not new to

mankind, the Quran focuses on correcting

the prevalent concepts of God and

demonstrating the Unity of God, His

omnipotence and knowledge, etc.

111

The Concept of Prophethood

God used to send a prophet to every people

A brief history of prophets (some names mentioned)

Revelation

Some revealed books: Suhuf / Ibrahim, Zabur/ Dawud, Torah /Musa, Injil/ Gospel/ Esa

Angels

Their nature, character, position and relation with God (not his sons or daughters)

112

Day of Judgment

Its existence, what will happen on that day,

Jannah, Jahannam

No specific date is given for its happening

Ibadat (worship)

Revelation the only source.

The Quran sets the basics of ibadat and the

Prophet gives details

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113

Morality

Revelation the main source

The Quran sets universal ethical norms and values

Obedience and submission to God, justice, benevolence, kindness, generosity, brotherhood, honesty, truthfulness, sincerity, trust (amanah), forbearance, patience, tolerance and forgiveness, inviting/encouraging people to do good, and preventing/ discouraging them from doing bad (munkar)

114

Human and social relations

Revelation is the main source

The Quran deals with the main principles of

these relations:

Relationship among family members

- between husbands and wives

- between parents and children

- marriage, divorce, inheritance

Relations with relatives

115

Relations with neighbours

Social relations and interaction

Relations between genders

Etiquettes and manners

Relations with non-Muslims

Relations with animals

Halal & haram:

(Revelation is the only source)

Food, drinks, clothes

116

Law:

- Family law

- Criminal law

- Procedural law

- Commercial law

- International law

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117

Economic system

(Revelation provides guidance to attain and maintain justice)

Islam sets some norms and principles along with some restrictions to ensure the observance of those norms and principles (prohibition of riba, uncertain contracts, etc.)

118

Zakat is imposed to secure the

minimum economic and social

justice,

Rich people are exhorted to spend

and promised to be rewarded for

that.

Social welfare (59: 7)

119

Political system

The Quran sets norms and

principles

The establishment of a

government/ central authority

and the duties of subjects to

obey its commands

120

The governance should be based on

consultation ()and the right of people to select their leaders.

The format of () and government are left to the choice of people and

are open for development.

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121

History and Civilization

The origin of this universe

The Quran states that this universe was created by Allah, and gives short description of that creation

The origin of mankind

- The Quran states that the first man (Adam) was created by God from dust/ clay (15: 26), (15: 28-29), (17: 61), (23: 12), (32: 7), (32: 9), 38: 71-72)

- Eve was created for Adam (4: 1), (7: 189), (39: 6)

122

- Adam was taught the basic

knowledge by God (2: 30-33)

- When Adam and his wife,

mistakenly, disobeyed the commands

of God, they were sent down from

Jannah (Paradise) to the earth where

they and their children settled.

123

History of Messengers of Allah

- The Quran gives a brief account of

the history of the most significant

Messengers.

- The Quran does not focus on the

details of that history, instead it

focuses on the lessons that should be

learned from those events.

124

- The Quran pays enough attention to

civilizational studies by examining the patterns

of rise and fall of civilizations.

- The Quran wants Muslims to learn from human

experience.

- The aim of this is to guide Muslims how to build

their civilization and guard it against social

diseases that may lead to its fall and collapse.

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125

How should we deal with the Quran ?

Quran is an authoritative text that should be followed and implemented by all Muslims.

Those texts which are clear and self-explanatory should be implemented without any further examination.

Those texts which are open for interpretation and may impart more than one meaning can be examined and construed based on the following principles:

126

Grouping of similar texts/ statements which

talk on one topic/category

Analysis and understanding of each text/

statement in its components and context

Identification of the rules which unify the

various categories

Identification of the general rules and

purposes which govern the interaction/

interrelation of various categories.

The Sunnah as a Source of

Knowledge

127 128

Literal Meaning:

Sunnah ( ) means a clear path, an established course of conduct, the pattern of life, a precedent

and custom.

The word sunnah and its plural sunan have been

used in the Quran sixteen times. In all these

instances, sunnah has been used to imply an

established practice or course of conduct.

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129

It may be a good example or a bad one, and it

may be set by an individual, a sect or a

community.

130

Whosoever originates in Islam any good way/ precedent (good sunnah) has its reward and the reward of whoever acts upon it till the Day of Judgment. And whosoever originates in Islam a bad way/ precedent (bad sunnah) bears its burden and the burden of whoever acts upon it till the Day of Judgment

131

The opposite of sunnah is bid`ah

(innovation), which is

characterized by lack of

precedent and continuity with the

past.

Technical meaning:

a. The acts, sayings and approvals

of the Messenger of Allah.

132

Kinds of Sunnah with respect to the channels of

the ahkam

1. Sunnah which is intended to be a binding

law:

This kind includes the sayings, acts and

approval of the Prophet (saw) through which

he intended the laying down of the law or the

explanation of the ahkam (law) laid down by

the Quran . This comprises the largest part

of the sunnah.

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133

2- Sunnah which is specific to the Prophet( ( This kind includes those acts which are

specific to the Prophet ( ). The number of these acts is very limited. One

example is the number of his marriages,

marriage without dowry, not eating out of charity ().

134

3. Ordinary physical acts performed by every human being

Like eating, drinking, walking. Such acts are not meant to lay down laws. If one imitates the Prophet (saw) in these acts out of love for him and with the intention to get reward, he will be rewarded for this.

But the etiquettes and manners prescribed by the Messenger of Allah for the performance of such acts are part of that which is meant to be a binding law.

135

4. Acts based on human experience

This may include acts that pertain to his

experience as a human being, like the

organizing of the army, tactics of war,

trading skills.

These acts dont become precedents of law,

because their basis is skill and experience

rather than revelation.

However, if they are still relevant to ones

situation they might be followed.

136

Status of the Sunnah

with respect to the Quran

The Sunnah is the second source just next to the Quran which is the first source.

There will be no Islam without the adoption of the sunnah.

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137

The Sunnah is basically an elaboration and commentary on the Quran .Some ahkam are found in the

Quran in general, in an undetermined or unelaborated form.

The Sunnah restricts, qualifies, or elaborates these ahkam.

138

The Sunnah is a concrete implementation, a

tangible form and the actual embodiment of the

Quran

The Sunnah may lay down some rules that are

not mentioned in the Quran

Quran says: And whatsoever the messenger

brought to you, follow it. And whatsoever he

forbids, abstain from it (al-Hashr:7)

The knowledge we get from The Sunnah

139

Worship ()The rulings and teachings related to

Halal and haram:

In food, drinks, clothes, and transactions:

- the Sunnah interprets what needs to be

interpreted in the Quran .

- The Sunnah may add some prohibitions

which are not included in the Quran .

140

Law

(family, criminal, commercial, procedural, international )

Manner of conduct:

The biography of the Prophet (saw) is the model of individual moral conduct.

A noble model you have in Allahs Apostle, for all whose hope is in Allah, and in the final Day, and who often remember Allah (al-Ahzab:21)

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141

The model in implementing and embodying the teachings and principles of the Quran

The model in the relationship between humans and Allah (ibadah)

The model in establishing a family and treating well the wives as well as the children.

142

A model in dealing with people.

A model in hard-working,

patience, and perseverance etc.

Leadership:

He was a model leader from

whom we learn the requirements

of a successful leader.

143

Dawah:

How he started from nothing

and ended with hundreds of

thousands of followers after

two decades only.

144

Nation building and social reformation:

How he established a nation and

changed an almost primitive

society dominated by tribalism and

rivalries among different tribes and

social classes to a civilized and

strong state characterized by unity,

cooperation, and brotherhood.

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145

Eliminating idolatry and establishing Tawhid

Eliminating bad social values in dealing with the

weak social classes: women, slaves, poor

people, black people, etc.

146

Reason ()as a Sources of

Knowledge

147

Reason as a Source of Knowledge The term reason is used in different senses

and meanings:

1. The power of being able to think in a logicaland rational manner, as distinct fromexperience or emotions.

2. Ability to think clearly and coherently

3. The ability or process of drawing logicalinferences.

148

Meanings/ Functions of Reason:

1. Reason is sometimes used to denote a numberof self-evident principles (such as theprinciple of non-contradiction) which governthe process of thinking of mentally competentpeople, regardless of their culturalbackground.

- These fundamental truths are intuitivelyapprehended

- as opposed to sensation, perception, feeling,desire (the existence of which is denied byempiricists)

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149

In this sense, reason is an instrument used for examining the coherence and rationality of a body of statements.

The examination allows us to conclude that the examined statements are:

- Either coherent, and hence in conformity with the principles of reason;

- Or contradictory, and thus in violation of reason

Reason which gives a priori knowledge (pure reason)

150

2. The capacity of rational beings to acknowledge

the truth of certain assertions and deny the truth

of others with the power to abstract, analyze,

synthesize

A body of knowledge which has been examined

and systemized by the principle of logic and

considered by certain people as reasonable.

= Reason as a mental faculty.

Reason is to be associated with methods and

mechanisms used in science and knowledge,

generally, rather than a source of knowledge.

151

Reason vs. Revelation

The faculty of reasoning is one of the most precious gifts of Allah to mankind.

Reason is the basis of taklif (legal capacity) because it is the power of discernment by which humans can distinguish between good and bad, right and wrong

Reason is the basis of Iman/ faith, thus, it is given the authority to examine the authenticity of prophets and the revelation they claim to bring from God.

152

The Quran is full of references which command

and exhort people to think, contemplate, and to

examine the claimed revelation

This shows that:

- Islam values reason; and

- Islam is confident that there will be no

contradiction between what is contained in the

revelation and what can be reasoned by human

reason

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153

What is claimed by unbelievers to be irrational or unreasonable is either:

= Mere speculation and ignorance, such as when they deny some beliefs or they misunderstand them.

(36: )

But most of them follow nothing but conjecture and speculation: truly conjecture and speculation can never challenge or replace truth. Verily Allah is well aware of all that they do. (10:36)

154

= Or mere wishes and deluded hopes (hawa)

(111: )

And they say: "None shall enter Paradise unless he

be a Jew or a Christian." Those are their vain

desires. Say: "Produce your proof if you are

truthful." (2: 111)

155

Interestingly, those who claim to reject

religion/ revelation based on logic and

rationality are characterized by the Quran as

those who fail to use their mental faculties/

reason properly.

(18: )

Then We put you on the right way of religion;

so follow that way, and do not follow the

desires of those who do not know. (45: 18)

156

(171: )

The parable of those who reject Faith is as if one

were to shout like a goat-herd, to things that listen

to nothing but calls and cries: deaf, dumb, and

blind, they are void of wisdom. (2: 171)

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157

Hawwas (senses)

as Means to Knowledge

158

Senses as sources of Knowledge: The Quran

urges us to use the faculties of senses.

It blames the Kuffar for not using their senses

properly.

The faculties of senses will bear witness for or

against one on the Day of Judgment.

159

Sound Senses (Hawwas al-Salimah)

1. Hearing2. Sight,

3. Smell,

4. taste,

5. touch

160

Hearing (al-sam)

It is a faculty (quwa) placed in the nerves

spread out in the cavity of the ear hole, by

which sounds are perceived.

It is by way of connecting with the ear hole

the air, which has assumed the quality of the

sounds, meaning that Allah then creates

perception in the soul (al-nafs) [E.Elder, 18]

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161

Seeing (al-basar)

It is a faculty placed in the two hollow

nerves which meet each other in the brain,

thence they separate and go to the two eyes;

by this faculty are perceived rays of light,

colours, shapes, measures, motions, the

beautiful and the ugly, and other things, the

perception of which Allah creates in the soul

whenever the creature uses this faculty.

162

Smelling (al-shamm)

It is a faculty placed in the two protruding lumps on the front of the brain, which are like the two nipples of the breast; by this faculty odors are perceived by way of connecting with the cartilage of the nose the air which has assumed the quality of the odors.

163

Taste (al-zawq)

It is a faculty spread out in the

nerves situated on the organ of the

tongue; by this faculty flavors are

perceived through the mixing of

the saliva which is in the mouth

with the thing tasted, and through

its reaching to the nerves.

164

Touch (al-lams)

It is a faculty spread out into

all the body by which heat and

cold, moisture and dryness,

and the like are perceived at

the time of touching and

contact.

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165

Methodology

Definition:

Method:

A particular way of doing something, esp. asystematic one; implies an orderly logicalarrangement.

Methodology:

1.The theoretical analysis of the methodsappropriate to a field of study or to the body ofmethods and principles particular to a branch ofknowledge.

Kinds of Methodologies

i. Methodology in revealed knowledge

ii. Methodology in human knowledge (pure

and social sciences)

iii. Integrative methodology of revealed

knowledge and human knowledge.

166

What is Islamic Methodology? Methodology means a technique or method. It is the field of inquiry concerned with the

examination of methods used in the study of natural sciences, human and social sciences and religious sciences in order to understand the subjects.

A comprehensive Islamic methodology means to Islamize and integrate knowledge on the basis of the combination between the revelation and reason in order to overhaul the obstacles and challenges facing a modern man and the society.

167

Methodologies used by the early Muslim scholars

Slide Number?

Ijtihad(wahy, `aql and

Hawas)

Istihsan(Juristic

Preference)

Masalih Mursalah

(public interest)

`Urf(a particular

Custom)

Consultation

&

Consensus

Chain of

Transformation

Reliable

Narrators

Verifications

Collection of

Data

Islamic

Methodologies

168

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Islamic Methodology

1. Collection of data of the Quran and Sunnah

2. Verified techniques used by the narrators in

order to ensure the authenticity of narrations.

3. Compilation of the Quran and Sunnah.

4. Considering the reliable narrators with specific

criteria.

5. Chain of transformation, no gap between two

generations and not less than 40 forty

narrators.

6. Memorizations of the Quran and Sunnah.169

Islamic Methodology7. Consultation among the scholars and

consensus based on majority opinions.

8. Ijtihad (rational arguments, explanation, interpretation and adjustment with the local culture and custom)

9. Istihsan (juristic preference), supplementary methods in order to make up for the growing number of new situations that were difficult with the textual and the analogical arguments.

170

Islamic Methodology10. Maslahah or Masalih Mursalah (public

interest), supplementary methods, if the texts of the Quran and Hadith or consensus or analogy were not available.

11. `Urf (custom of a particular society or a nation), supporting for adjustment from avoiding the contradictions and social division and disunity for the public interest.

171

Merits of the Traditional Approach

Merits of the traditional approach were

the sincerity, piety, enthusiasm,

commitment, and dedication of the early

Muslim researchers, many of whom

looked for their rewards in the Hereafter.

172

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Islamic research, experimentation and empirical investigation were considered acts of ibadah.

The God-consciousness of the traditional scholars was reflected in their writings and research, which they would commence with bismillah (in the name of Allah), seek His blessings and conclude by dedicating their results to Him.

173

The holistic nature of the traditional

Islamic educational system made no

distinction between revealed knowledge

and empirically derived knowledge.

174

Knowledge was perceived as a

comprehensive whole, with empirically

derived knowledge subject to the

verification of revealed knowledge.

175

Tawhidic Criteria for Islamic

Methodology

Three main tawhidic criteria for Islamic methodology are as follows:

1. Anything which does not correspond with the reality must be rejected.

2. Ultimate contradictions must be denied and rejected.

3. Approaches must be open in order to adjust and accommodate new situations facing the society and man.

176

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Merits of Islamic

Methodology

Summarized

177

s

Merit of Islamic

Methodologies

Allahs

pleasure

PureIntention

For humanity

Commitment toPeople and

society

Reflection Of

Allah Awareness

Self-Initiative (EstablishingInstitutions)

Identifying the Short-comings

Of EmpiricalKnowledge.

Combination of Wahy & Aql

Mastery of Arabic

Language

As Ibadah

Knowing context,

Purpose and Application of

theTexts

178

Obstacles

And

Recommendations

for Muslim

Scholars

Depended onTraditional

method

Depended on Western Method

Creativity and Initiative ness

Absence of Islamic

Curriculum

Mis-Propagation

And Misconception

Unavailability Financial and

Technical support

Regaining Sincerity and Pure intention

For humanity

Bilingual Competency

Traditional Methods as Inspiration

IntegratingBetween

Wahy and Aql

Verification of

Validities,shortcoming

179

Methodology in Human

Knowledge (pure and social

sciences)

180

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181

Science

From Latin word scientia means

systematic knowledge of the

physical or material world

182

Knowledge of Science

Is acquired through experience,

observation and research

Discursive: preceded by

arguments

Inductive and deductive

183

Two scientific methods/ logical systems : induction & deduction

1. Deductive method (istinbat)()The researcher begins with a

theory and then derives one or more hypotheses from it for testing.

184

The researcher implements those

observations to see whether they

confirm or fail to confirms the

hypotheses.

Next, the researcher defines the

variables in each hypothesis and

the operations to be used to

measure them in specific

observable terms.

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185

2. Inductive method (istiqra)()A method of discovering general

rules and principles from particular

facts and examples.

In induction one starts from

observed data and develops a

generalization which explains the

relationships between the objects

observed.

186

Characteristics of Scientific Method

1. Everything is open to question

In our quest to understand things, we should

strive to keep an open mind about everything

we thing we know or we want to understand.

What we call knowledge is transitional and

subject to refutation!!

Is this possible?

Can this characteristic be open?

To which extent can we hold this

perception?

187

2. Evidence based on observation

Scientific method seeks knowledge

through observed evidence and not

authority, tradition or ideology.

The evidence should be systematic,

comprehensive, and as objective as

possible.

188

Basic Steps in Scientific

Research:

1. Collection of data

This is a common basis of

all sciences; pure, human,

and social.

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189

This is a function of perception and

cognition.

- The mind goes on collecting data

from all kinds of observations and

experiences. Simultaneously, the mind,

by using its power of identification and

retention (the ability to remember

things), goes on establishing

relationships

190

The observation will be on someassumed correlation between someaspects according to some tentativehypothesis to prove if there is anyinterrelationships between them.

This observation can be done in alaboratory (physics, chemistry, biology,etc.) or in a field when the parts understudy spread over vast areas in time andspace (astronomy, geology).

191

Observation can be done through senses and

perceptive power or by help of scientific

equipment (devices for measurement) and

technological equipment (devices to facilitate

work and utilizing the resource of

environment).

The advance of scientific and technological

equipment have contributed to the expansion

of methods and meanings of collection of

scientific data and the horizon of observation.

192

In Muslim history of science it is a factthat Muslim scientists realized at anearly stage the importance of scientificequipment for collection of data,therefore they introduced big astrolabes(scientific instrument used for reckoningtime and for observational purposes toenable astronomers to calculate theposition of the Sun and prominent starswith respect to both the horizon and themeridian)

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193

and quadrants (an instrumentfor measuring angles,especially to check yourposition at sea or to look atstars) for exact observationsof stars and planets, and evenhad invented a sphericalastrolabe.

194

Measures to guard against distortion:

The person taking observations should

be clear in his mind; he should not be

obsessed by any preconceived ideas.

He should record only what is really

happening (objective).

He needs patience and perseverance to

ensure the reliability of his

observations.

195

Even the observations taken with all this care

cannot be taken at their face value, until

preliminary statistical tests confirm its

reliability, or a number of other scientists

confirm it independently.

The rules of observation laid down by Jabir

ibn Hayyan (chemistry):

1. The time and season must be carefully

chosen;

2. It is best for the laboratory to be in a

secluded (quiet and private) place ;

196

3. The chemist must have trusted friends;

4. He must have sufficient time to

conduct experiments;

5. Patience and reticence (not disclosing

results hastily before testing them);

6. Perseverance;

7. He must not be deceived by

appearances into bringing his operations

to too hasty a conclusion.

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197

2. Classification and analysis of data:

To arrange the data in some regularorder;

To find out the characteristics of thepopulation from where the randomsample of data was taken;

To establish the relations and correlationsbetween different members of thepopulation under study or with membersof other series.

198

3. Hypothesis:

After studying the characteristics of the

members of the population under study, there

comes the stage when the researcher begins

to ask the question How about the working

of those members and their correlations.

The answer to this question is the hypothesis

which describes in words or in symbols the

relationship that appear to exist between

them.

199

This hypothesis will be depending, to

some extent, on guessing. This guess is

based on the past observation, experience

and knowledge.

There may be many hypotheses

depending on the number of variable

parameters involved.

200

4- Hypotheses testing:

The hypotheses will be put into testing through experiments in different produced conditions to show their validity and applicability.

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201

If the predictions in the hypothesis

come out correct, then the status of

the hypothesis is raised to that of a

theory. If this theory is found to

be universally applicable, it is

called a law of nature.

202

Observation

Logical deduction

Experimentation and empirical observations

(under controlled conditions)

The hypothesis is validated = Theory

203

Origination of Scientific methodology

Muslim scientists were the first ones tointroduce this method and to emphasizethe role of experimentation.

Jabir ibn Hayyan, for example, statedclearly in his book on chemistry: thefirst essential is to perform practicalwork and experiments. One who does notdo so will never attain mastery.

204

Among the rules of experiments

laid down by him:

1. The operator should know the

reason for performing the

experiment (hypotheses and

predictions should be set clearly);

2. The instructions must be properly

understood;

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205

Impossible and profitless

processes should be avoided

(vague hypotheses which dont

lead to definite predictions, or

hasty experiments which lead

to vague results, are of no

value).

206

Example:

Until the 10th century the Greek and

Egyptian theory of geocentric

cosmology was assumed to be true, and

It was held by early Muslim scientists.

207

According to this theory the fixed

stars are farther than the stars of

the Milky Way/ the Galaxy (the

system of stars that contains our

sun and its planets) which is

supposed to be close to the earth

and to be situated in the

atmosphere of the earth.

208

In Greek astronomy, this was an axiom and all

other problems of astronomy had to satisfy this

truth.

The Muslim astronomer Ibn al-Haytham, based

on his inductive method and with help of the

equipment developed by Muslim scientists,

came to a conclusion that the stars of the Milky

Way were as far off as the other fixed stars, and

that they were not situated in the atmosphere of

the earth.

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209

Ibn al-Haytham was facing two

contradicting hypotheses: the

Greek axiom and his

hypothesis.

And the question was: how to

decide about the validity of

these two opposing hypotheses?

210

Ibn al-Haytham suggested an experiment

to decide about these hypotheses:

1. to measure the distance from the

same place in different seasons.

2. to measure the distance at the

same time from two places far

apart on the earth.

211

3. The result was that if the stars of

the Milky Way are in the

atmosphere of the earth, then, in

both the sets of observations

suggested, their relative positions

will be different.

212

If the stars of the Milky Way are asfar as the other fixed stars, therewill be no change in the relativepositions of the two sets of stars ineither cases.

Observations were taken and it wasfound that the stars of the MilkyWay did not change their relativepositions among the fixed stars.

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213

Here the validity of the hypothesis was

not tested by the help of deductive logic

alone. Only the predictions were

deduced by logic and geometry. But the

validity of the hypothesis was proved by

experiment and observation. And this is

what is called the inductive method of

modern science.

214

Draper, Conflict between Science and Religion

The characteristics of their (Muslims) methodare experiment and observation, geometricaland mathematical sciences that worked asinstruments of reasoning.

In their numerous writings on mechanics,hydrostatics, optics, etc. it is interesting toremark that the solution to a problem is alwaysby performing an experimental observation.

It was this that made them the originators ofchemistry;

215

that led them to the invention of all kinds of

apparatus for distillation (to make a liquid pure

by heating it until it becomes a gas, then

cooling it and collecting the drops of liquid

that form), sublimation (conversion of a

substance from the solid to the vapour state

without its becoming liquid), fusion (the

process or result of joining two or more things

together to form one, like the fusion of copper

and zinc to produce brass), filtration (the

process of filtering a liquid or gas), etc.;

216

that caused them in Astronomy to appeal todivided instruments such as quadrants andastrolabes, in Chemistry to employ the balance,the theory of which they were perfectlyfamiliar with, to construct tables of specificgravity and astronomical tables like those ofBaghdad and Spain, great improvements inGeometry, the invention of Algebra and theadoption of Indian numeration in Arithmetic.Such were the results of the performance of theinductive method their declining the reveries(imaginations/ dreams) of Plato.

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217

Francis Bacon, who is considered bythe West as one of the founders ofinductive/ scientific method, in his bookNovum Organum (1st quarter of the 17th

century) while pleading for theintroduction of empiricism in Europesays again and again that:

great authorities follow this andconsider this method better than the olddeductive method of the Greeks.

218

But he never once mentions the

name of the great authorities

and the wise people

No one applied this method

before except Muslim scientists.

It is suggested that he did not

mention them by name for fear

of inquisition.

219

Achievements of scientific method:

Freed sciences from the domination of

rigid deductive method that is more

suitable to theoretical and philosophical

studies.

Limited the sphere of intellectual

speculations and made a big room for

empirical knowledge.

220

Freed scientific research from the grip

of Greek axioms.

Limited the sphere of metaphysical

studies and made shift to natural and

physical studies.

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221

Successful results achieved by scientists

gave them confidence in this scientific

method and encouraged them to further

their research.

This, in turn, led to expansion of the

horizon of scientific research;

discovering new laws and opening new

areas.

222

Experimental endeavour led to the

transformation of science to

technology, and the invention of

sophisticated machines and

equipment.

223

Side effects of the

scientific method

The overconfidence in and

adoration of the scientific method

led to extreme rationality.

Extreme rationality led to the

adoption of scientific method in the

field of human and social sciences.

224

Empiricism/ logical-positivism

(from the Greek word empeiria =

experience.)

Inaugurated by Francis Bacon and

developed by John Locke (1632-1704) In

philosophy, the attitude that beliefs are to

be accepted and acted upon only if they

first have been confirmed by actual

experience.

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225

Stressing experience, Empiricism isopposed to the claims of authority,intuition, imaginative conjecture, andabstract, theoretical, or systematicreasoning (Rationalism) as sources ofreliable belief.

The essence of empiricism isobservation, measurement, andquantification of sense data available tothe observer.

226

Early empiricism vs. Revelation

Although Bacon proclaims the

universal applicability of

induction, he himself treats it

almost exclusively as a means to

natural knowledge and ignores its

social application.

227

Most divine knowledge must come

from revelation, and reason has

nothing to do with it. There is such a

thing as divine philosophy (what was

later called rational, or natural,

theology), but its sole task and

competence is to prove that there is a

God.

228

John Locke one of the fathers of

empiricism did consider revelation, in

principle, as a source of certain type of

knowledge. But he assigned to it a very

marginal and subordinate role.

He argues that knowledge acquired by

human reasoning is more reliable and

certain than knowledge received

through revelation.

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Because one may doubt the

preservation of the original

revelation through the act of

narration, or question the lack of

means for validating or

substantiating its content.

But one can always be certain

about what his faculty of

understanding considers true.

230

He gives revelation the upper hand over reason

in two instances:

1. In questions belonging to the realm of faith,

because its inaccessible to human reasoning.

2. Revelation should supersede reason in the

realm of probable knowledge which does not

rise to certainty.

(But one can always be certain about what his

faculty of understanding considers true.)

231

Positivism

In philosophy, generally, any system

that confines itself to the data of

experience and excludes a priori

(knowledge that is independent of all

particular experiences, as opposed to

a posteriori knowledge, which derives

from experience alone) or

metaphysical speculations.

232

As a philosophical ideology and movement, Positivism first assumed its distinctive features in the work of Auguste Comte (17981857).

It then developed through several stages known by various names, such as Empirio criticism, Logical Positivism, and Logical Empiricism, etc.

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The basic affirmations of Positivism are:

1.That all knowledge regarding

matters of fact is based on the

positive data of experience;

2.That beyond the realm of fact is

that of pure logic and pure

mathematics, which were, in a later

phase of Positivism, classified as

purely formal sciences.

234

3. Strict adherence to the testimony of

observation and experience is the

all-important imperative of the

Positivists.

4. In its basic ideological posture,

Positivism is worldly, secular, anti-

theological, and anti-metaphysical.

235

Naturalism/ natural method

A theory that relates scientific

method to philosophy by affirming

that all beings and events in the

universe are natural.

Consequently, all knowledge of the

universe falls within the pale of

scientific investigation.

236

Usually naturalism denies theexistence of truly supernaturalrealities.

Naturalists assert that nature isreality. There is nothingbeyond, nothing other than,no other world of being.

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237

Naturalism presumes that nature isin principle completely knowable.

There is in nature a regularity, unity,and wholeness that impliesobjective laws, without which thepursuit of scientific knowledgewould be absurd.

238

Naturalism has no ontological

preference: dualism and monism,

atheism and theism, idealism and

materialism are all per se

compatible with it.

239

Two positive results of bahaviourism

1. Development of neurosciences.

2. Development of behaviour therapy

(behaviour modification), which

focused on modifying observable

behaviour, rather than on the

thoughts and feelings of the patient

(as in psychoanalysis).

240

Conclusion

W. M. Smart, The origin of the earth.Let us not then exalt the scientific

method unduly as the closepreserve of the scientist nor, whichis much more important, as the onlymeans by which we attempt todiscover the secrets of nature.

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241

It is easy for a scientist to be a

materialist if he sees only in the

universe the apparently relentless

(continuous) unfolding of natural

law, and forgets that there are

domains where the laws of

physics are irrelevant

242

But more and more scientists arerealizing that they are exploring only onesection of the great world of nature in allits manifold complexity; beauty, moral,conduct, spiritual values, religiousexperience, are all outside their domain,yet all come within mans scrutiny whenhe attempts to interpret the universe as awhole and strives to discern purposetherein

243

Harris, Kelvin (1979), Education and Knowledge

The limitations of empiricism inhuman and social sciences can bemanifested in different areasamong them:Derived conclusions could not be

logically valid for generalization

because there could be exceptions.

244

Methodology of data collection is

theory laden, that is, the

investigator has preconceptions and

motives, which influence his

choice of methodology of

investigation and this subsequently

affects the outcome

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245

The humanistic studies of Western

man and the social analysis of Western

society by a Western scientist are

necessarily "Western" and cannot serve

as models for the study of Muslims or

of their society.

Ismail Raji al-Faruqi (1977),

"Islamizing the Social Sciences"

246

The Search for an Islamic

Methodology

Methodology comprises:

1. Technical procedures

2. Conditions for using methods/

conceptual aspects of methodology

247

1. Natural and physical sciences

The scientific method in its technicalprocedures has a universalapplication.

It was initially started by Muslimscientists and, later developed byWestern scientists, and became as aheritage of humanity.

248

There is no objection to adopting

the technical procedures

developed by non-Muslims.

It needs to be applied within the

Islamic ethical and ideological

frame.

Production of Muslim scientists

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249

2. Social & human sciences

The main objects to the Western

methods used in the domain of human

& social sciences are:

1. They are heavily inclined towards

materialism and application of

procedures of the natural sciences.

Exclusion of spiritual aspect.

250

1. They embody the Western

concepts & values (exclusion of

revelation).

2. They set the Western values &

concepts as universal norms and

models by which other societies

should by judged.

251

The employment of this Western

methodology in the Muslim world is

leading toward Westernization of

Muslim societies.

252

The issues of:

Rejecting revelation and contrasting

scientific with revealed knowledge

and;

Confining reality to the empirical one

under the justification that reason

cannot ascertain transcendental

reality;

Are not real problems in Islam.

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253

- These structures are not immediately

encountered by the senses. Instead, the

structures of empirical existence are

inferred through the use of categories

abstracted from the sensible, and

mediated by purely rational

categories and statements.

254

e.g.

Our understanding of the

relationship between the earth and

the sun is mediated by mental

constructs, and hence is completely

at variance with the immediate

impression received from the senses.

255

2. Revelation, at least in its Islamic form,

seeks its justification in empirical

reality.

Divine revelation sees empirical reality

as the manifestation of a

transcendental reality.

The interconnectedness of the

empirical and transcendental is always

stressed by the Quran

256

Both revelation and empiricalknowledge are needed for acomprehensive understanding of nature.

The science-revelation conflict isneither imperative nor universal, butspecific to Western religion andexperience. There is no need at all toreproduce it in Muslim culture.

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Setting the norm/ standard/ model

In social and human science norms,

models, standards are crucial for

understanding, judging, and changing

human behaviour as well as social

phenomena.

The norms/ standards/ models are used to

deduce conclusions.

258

Western scholarship assumes that

the practices of the Western society

(which is assumed to stand at the

peak of human evolution) become

the standard of normality.

259

Integrative Methodology of

Revealed Knowledge and

Human Knowledge

The common point among Muslim

scholars who are concerned with

Islamization of knowledge/

Islamic methodology is the

incorporation of Revelation into

different fields of research.260

But when it comes to How the

answers may be different.

Until now, only little has been done,

and more efforts are required to

establish a viable Islamic

methodology for different social

and human sciences

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Islamic Methodology should:

Incorporate revelation as a source of

knowledge and give it its due role in

guiding human inquiry of knowledge.

Work under the directions of our

worldview (the origin & nature of man

and universe, the purpose of their

creation, and their destiny).

262

Reflect the Islamic objectives and

values

Set our norms/ standards/ models

which are derived from the Quran,

the Sunnah, and the practice of the

early Muslim society

263

A framework for islamization of knowledge

Islamic legacy Western knowledge

Mastery of disciplinary substantive knowledge

Mastery of analytical and synthetic techniques

University textbooks

Islamic University

Perfect/universal man

Conclusion Muslims of the past always followed the

Islamic methodology in their research:

They based their work on the principle of tawhid;

They verified the information to ensure its authenticity;

They were sincere, pious, enthusiastic, committed and dedicated researchers;

They perceived knowledge as a comprehensive whole;

They avoided any innovation in the religion for fear of Allahs punishment;

264

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They had greater familiarity with classical Arabic than contemporary Muslim scholars, which facilitated their understanding and analysis of the original texts;

They used to commence their work with bismillahi al-Rahman al-Rahim (in the Name of Allah, the Gracious, the Merciful), seeking Allahs blessings and conclude by dedicating their results to Him; in this way they treated their research as an act of ibadah.

266

Islam and

Civilization

1. Meaning of civilization

2. Civilization and Culture

3. Arabic terms for civilization

4. Characteristics of Civilization

267

Arabic terms:

al- Hadarah/ Al-Tamaddun/ al-

Madaniyyah

Al-Tamaddun/ al-Madaniyyah:

derived from the word

madinah(city or town), and

din(religion).

Al-Umran

268

Meaning of CivilizationAn advanced level of development in society that is marked by complex social and political organization, and material, scientific, and artistic progress

A society, its culture and its way of life during a particular period of time or in a particular part of the world.

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The way and level of life of people

in the cities as contrasted with the

way and level of life in rural areas.

The relation between madinah

and din indicates the role of

religion in the establishment of

civilization and refinement of social

culture

270

Civilization designates a condition of

human society characterized by a

high level of cultural and

technological achievements;

and correspondingly complex social

and political development

It is an advanced state of intellectual,

cultural and material development in

human society

271

Each civilization has a body or matter

and a soul.

The body of the civilization is its

material achievements such as buildings,

infrastructure, agriculture, industry,

educational institutions, technological

equipment, and all that is related to

various pleasures of worldly life.

272

The soul of civilization is the set of;

ideologies,

concepts,

moral values,

manners and traditions that are

embodied in the behavior of

individuals, groups, and their

interrelations.

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Characteristics of Islamic civilization

1- Based on the Muslim civilization was the first universal

civilization that was based on a pure and strict unitarianism (unity of God)

The only one who deserves submission

The only one who deserves worship

The only one who deserves absolute obedience.

274

Eliminates idolatry (idols, and

statues)

Frees common people from the

oppression of the kings, Papacy,

and Brahmanism

Sets right the relationship between

the ruler and the ruled (all people

are equal)

275

2. Universality

Islamic civilization was the first

civilization which embraced the entire

humanity

It declared equality of all human beings of

all descents, races, and colours

Verily the most

honoured of you in the sight of Allah is he

who is the most righteous of you (49:

13).

276

This civilization is attributed to all

Muslims on an equal basis.

(Arab nationalism / Western civilization

/supremacy of white man)

[Universality vs. Globalization]

Open to the contribution of all members

of the Muslim ummah regardless of

their race, ethnicity, or colour, and even

non-Muslim citizens.

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3- Moderate Rationalism

It gives human reason a high position

Its faith is based on reasoning and conviction

It rejects superstitious and unfounded beliefs.

It does not go to the extreme of denying the

truths which are not directly related to

empirical knowledge but are based on

revealed knowledge

278

4.Tolerance

Tolerance towards people of different religions (especially Christians and Jews)

Minorities enjoyed a high level of tolerance and freedom of religion and economic pursuit.

This characteristic is peculiar for a civilization based on religious foundations.

279

It would be reasonable for a

secularist who does not believe

in any religion to treat religions

equally and give people

freedom of belief, but it may be

difficult for a religious person

to do so.

280

5. Integrated and balanced

civilization

Integrates the faith with the state/

rejection of secularism

Integrates the body with the spirit

(material vs. spiritual)

Integrates the worldly life with the

life in the hereafter

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Integrates empirical sciences with

revelation

Assigns priority to moral principles

= morality vs. pragmatism

Integration in a balanced manner

Balance means following a middle

course between two extremes of

thought and action.

282

Western Culture and Civilization

Western Civilization is The civilization

that has evolved out of the historical fusion

of cultures, philosophies, values and

aspirations of ancient Greece and Rome;

their amalgamation with Judaism and

Christianity, and their further development

and formation by the Latin, Germanic,

C e l t i c a n d N o r d i c P e o p l e s .

283

Western Civilization

Characteristics of Western civilization

In terms of material progress and scientific exploration, the modern Western civilization has surpassed all civilizations across history.

Pushing forward mans incentives and capabilities to exploit nature and benefit from it.

284

Technological achievements =

eased human life, luxury

Effective management and

organization

Respect of human rights within

its homelands

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285

The ideologies of the Western

civilization are:

1. Utilitarian materialism

This civilization may not deny the

existence of God strongly and openly,

or deny the existence of the spirit.

But it does not recognize the value of

God in its ideological system.

286

It accepts only things which

are considered by it as of

practical value

The practical value is in

luxury and worldly pleasure =

this is the real God

287

2. Secularism

Inspired by secular philosophy,

devoid of certainty, subject to

constant review and change

Its worldview formulation is not upon

revealed knowledge and religious

belief but rather upon cultural

tradition, speculations to secular life

centered upon man as physical entity

288

religion as a personal matter limited

to individual practice without any

interference in social, economic or

political activities

religious practice limited to dead

rituals

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289

Destruction of moral values = utilitarianism/ pragmatism

Destruction of family (abortion, neglect of the elderly)

Creates an atmosphere of fear, anxiety and distraction

3. Atheism: The doctrine or belief that there is no God

290

4. Humanism

Reliance upon the powers of human reason alone to guide man through life

291

5. Dualism

Adherence to the validity of dualistic

vision of reality and truth

Affirmation of the reality of the

temporary/impermanent aspect of

existence projecting a secular

worldview

292

The Rise and Decline of Islamic civilization

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A brief chronology of Muslim Civilization

Preparatory phase

571: Birth of the Prophet.

This year was marked with an invasion

of Makkah and an attempt to

destroy Kabah (the year of the

Elephant).

610: The first revelation in the cave at

Mount Hira. The beginning of

Mohammads prophethood.

294

621: First pledge at Aqaba.

The search for a place to

establish Muslim state.

622: Second pledge at Aqaba.

The acceptance of the people of

Yathrib to receive the

Prophet (saw) and his

followers

295

The Emergence of the State

622: The Hijrah (migration to Yathrib/

Madina), marks the establishment of the

Muslim state.

624: Battle of Badr.

The new power in the Arab peninsula.

628: Truce of Hudaibiya.

Peace to give people a chance to

know about the new religion, and to