unit 1 the solid state

8/14/2019 Unit 1 the Solid State

1/17

UNIT 1: THE SOLID STATE

1

UNIT 1: THE SOLID STATESYNOPSIS

General characteriscs of solid state;

Disnguish between amorphous and crystalline solids;

Classify crystalline solids on the basis of the nature of binding forces;

Dene crystal lace and unit cell; Explain close packing of parcles;

Dierent types of voids and close packed structures;

Calculate the packing eciency of dierent types of cubic unit cells;

Correlate the density of a substance with its unit cell properes;

Imperfecons in solids and their eect on properes;

Electrical and magnec properes of solids and their structure.

General Characteristics of Solid State

The following are the characterisc properes of the solid state:

(i) They have denite mass, volume and shape.

(ii) Intermolecular distances are short.(iii) Intermolecular forces are strong.

(iv) Their constuent parcles (atoms, molecules or ions) have xed posions and can only

oscillate about their mean posions.

(v) They are incompressible and rigid.Amorphous and Crystalline Solids

Solids can be classied as crystalline or amorphous. A crystalline solid has orderly

arrangement of constuent parcles with denite geometrical shape. The regular paern of

arrangement of parcles repeats itself periodically over the enre crystal. Sodium chloride

and quartz are the examples of crystalline solids.

An amorphous solid (Greek amorphos = no form) consists of parcles of irregular shape. The

arrangement of constuent parcles (atoms, molecules or ions) in such a solid has only short

range order. In such an arrangement, a regular and periodically repeang paern is observed

over short distances only. Such porons are scaered and in between the arrangement is

disordered. The structures of quartz (crystalline) and quartz glass (amorphous) are shown in

Fig. 1.1 (a) and (b) respecvely. The structure of amorphous solids is similar to that of liquids.

Glass, rubber and plascs are examples of amorphous solids.

Like liquids, amorphous solids can ow, though very slowly, hence called pseudo solids or

super cooled liquids. Glass panes xed to windows or doors of old buildings are invariablyfound to be slightly thicker at the boom than at the top as the glass ows down very slowly

and makes the boom poron slightly thicker.

Crystalline solids are anisotropic, that is, their physical properes like electrical resistance or

refracve index are dierent when measured along dierent direcons. This is due to

dierent arrangement of parcles in dierent direcons. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.2.

Whereas amorphous solids are isotropic, because there is no long range order in them and

arrangement is irregular along all the direcons. Therefore, value of any physical property

would be same along any direcon. These dierences are summarised in Table 1.1.


2/17


2

Amorphous solids like glass, rubber and plascs nd many uses in our daily lives. Amorphoussilicon is a best photovoltaic material used for conversion of sunlight into electricity.

Classification of Crystalline Solids

Based on intermolecular forces, crystalline solids are classied into four types.

1. Molecular Solids:These are crystalline solids having polar or non-polar molecules at the

lattice points, which are held by either van-der Waals forces or dipole-dipole interactions or

hydrogen bonds. Eg: Ice, Solid NH3, Solid CO2(dry ice), benzoic acid, glucose etc.

(i) Non polar Molecular Solids have the atoms or molecules are held by weak dispersion

forces or London forces. Eg I2

(ii) Polar Molecular Solids: The molecules of substances like HCl, SO2, etc. are formed by

polar covalent bonds. The molecules in such solids are held together by relavelystronger dipole-dipole interacons. Solid SO2and solid NH3are some examples of such

solids.

(iii) Hydrogen Bonded Molecular Solids: The molecules of such solids contain polar covalent

bonds between H and F, O or N atoms. Strong hydrogen bonding binds molecules of

such solids like H2O (ice).

2. Ionic Solids: These contain caons and anions at the lace points. Eg: NaCl, ZnS, KNO3,

MgO, CsCl etc.

3. Metallic Solids: These are crystalline solids having posively charged metal ions at the

lace points immersed in a sea of electrons. Eg: Metals like Na, Cu, Zn, Fe, Al and alloys etc.

4. Covalent or Network Solids: These are crystalline solids having covalently bonded non-

metallic atoms at the lace points. They are also called giant molecules.

Eg: Diamond, Graphite, Silicon carbide (SiC), Quartz (SiO2), BN, Iodine etc.


3/17


3

Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells

A regular three dimensional arrangement of points in space is called a crystal lace.

There are 14 possible three dimensional laces. These are called Bravais Laces. The

following are the characteriscs of a crystal lace:

(a) Each point in a lace is called lace point or lace site.

(b) Each point in a crystal lace represents one constuent parcle which may be an atom,

a molecule (group of atoms) or an ion.

(c) Lace points are joined by straight lines to bring out the geometry of the lace.

Unit cell is the smallest poron of a crystal lace which, when repeated in dierent

direcons gives crystal lace.

A unit cell is characterised by:

(i) Its dimensions along the three edges, a, b and c. These edges may or may not be mutually

perpendicular.

Primitive and Centred Unit Cells

Unit cells are divided into two categories, primive and centred unit cells.

(a) Primive Unit Cells: When constuent parcles are present only on the corner posions

of a unit cell, it is called as primive unit cell.

(b) Centred Unit Cells: When a unit cell contains one or more constuent parcles present at

posions other than corners in addion to those at corners, it is called a centred unit cell.Centred unit cells are of three types:

(i) BCC: Such a unit cell contains one constuent parcle (atom, molecule or ion) at its

body-centre besides the ones that are at its corners.

(ii) FCC: Such a unit cell contains one constuent parcle present at the centre of each

face, besides the ones that are at its corners.

(iii) End-Centred Unit Cells: In such a unit cell, one constuent parcle is present at the

centre of any two opposite faces besides the ones present at its corners.

In all, there are seven types of primive unit cells (Fig. 1.7).

Fig 1.6: Illustraon of parameters

o a unit cell

(ii) Angles between the edges, (between

b and c), (between a and c) and

(between a and b). Thus, a unit cell is

characterised by six parameters, a, b, c, ,

and . These parameters of a typical unit

cell are shown in Fig. 1.6.


4/17


4

Number of Atoms in a Unit Cell:

1. Primitive Cubic Unit Cell

A simple cube has 8 lace points. A parcle present at each corner of the cube is shared by

eight other unit cells. Hence each unit cell gets a share of

th

of that parcle.Total number of atoms per unit cell = x 8 = 1 atom.2. Body- Centred Cubic Unit Cell

A body centred cube has 9 lattice points. A particle present at each corner of the cube is

shared by eight other unit cells. Hence each unit cell gets a share of1/8

thof that particle.

A particle present at the centre of the cube is not shared by any other unit cell. Hence, its

contribution for the unit cell is 1.

Thus in a body-centered cubic (bcc) unit cell:

(i) 8 corners xper corner atom =

x 8 = 1 atom

(ii) 1 body centre atom = 1 1 = 1 atom

Total number of atoms per unit cell = 2 atoms3. Face-Centred Cubic Unit Cell

A face centred cube has 14 lattice points. A particle present at each corner of the cube is

shared by eight other unit cells. Hence each unit cell gets a share of 1/8th

of that particle.

A particle present at the centre of each face of the cube is shared by two unit cells. Hence,

each unit cell gets a share of of that particle.

Thus, in a face-centred cubic (fcc) unit cell:

(i) 8 corners xper corner atom = 8 x

= 1 atom

(ii) 6 face-centred atoms xatom per unit cell = 6 x

= 3 atom

Total number of atoms per unit cell = 4 atoms


5/17


5


6/17


6

Close Packed Structures:

In solids, the constuent parcles are close-packed, leaving the minimum vacant space.

Consider the constuent parcles as idencal hard spheres and build up the three

dimensional structure in three steps.

(a) Close Packing in One Dimension: In one dimension close packing arrangement, the

spheres are arranged in a row touching with each other.

(b) Close Packing in Two Dimensions: There are two dierent ways.

(i) The second row may be placed in contact with the rst one such that the spheres of the

two rows are aligned horizontally as well as vercally. Say, rst row as A type row, the

second row being exactly the same as the rst one, is also of A type. This is called AA type

arrangement. In this arrangement, C.No. of each sphere is 4. The centres of these 4immediate neighbouring spheres when joined, a square is formed. Hence this packing is

called square close packing in two dimensions.

(ii) The spheres of the second row are placed in the depressions of the rst row. If the

arrangement of spheres in the rst row is called A type and the second row is dierent and

may be called B type. When the third row of spheres is placed in the depressions of second

row, its spheres are aligned with those of the rst layer. Hence this layer is also of A type.

The spheres of fourth row will be aligned with those of the second row (B type). Hence this

arrangement is of ABAB type. In this arrangement, free space is less and packing eciency is

more than the square close packing. Each sphere has a C.No. of 6. The centres of these six

spheres are at the corners of a regular hexagon (Fig. 1.14b), hence this packing is called twodimensional hexagonal close-packing. In this arrangement there are some triangular voids

(empty spaces). The triangular voids are of two dierent types. In one row, the apex of the

triangles is poinng upwards and in the next layer downwards.

(c) Close Packing in Three Dimensions:

All real structures are three dimensional structures. As far as three dimensional close packing

is concerned, they can be obtained by stacking two dimensional layers one above the other.

(i) Three dimensional close packing from two dimensional square close-packed layers:

The second layer is placed over the rst layer such that the spheres of the upper layer are

exactly above those of the rst layer. In this arrangement spheres of both the layers are

perfectly aligned horizontally as well as vercally as shown in Fig. 1.15.

In this arrangement, each sphere is incontact with two of its neighbours. Thenumber of nearest neighbours of a parcleis called its coordinaon number. Thus, inone dimensional close packingarrangement, the coordinaon number is 2.

Similarly, we may place more layers one above the other.

If the arrangement of spheres in the rst layer is called

A type, all the layers have the same arrangement. Thus

this lace has AAA.... type paern. The lace thus

generated is the simple cubic lace, and its unit cell is

the primive cubic unit cell (See Fig. 1.9).

(ii) Three dimensional close packing from two

dimensional hexagonal close packed layers: Three

dimensional close packed structure can be generated by

placing layers one over the other.


7/17


7

(a) Placing second layer over the rst layer

Consider a two dimensional hexagonal close packed layer A and place a similar layer above

it such that the spheres of the second layer are placed in the depressions of the rst layer.

Since the spheres of the two layers are aligned dierently, let us call the second layer as B. It

can be observed from Fig. 1.16 that not all the triangular voids of the rst layer are covered

by the spheres of the second layer. This gives rise to dierent arrangements. Wherever asphere of the second layer is above the void of the rst layer (or vice versa) a tetrahedral void

is formed. These voids are called tetrahedral voids because a tetrahedron is formed when the

centres of these four spheres are joined. They have been marked as T in Fig. 1.16. One such

void has been shown separately in Fig. 1.17.

At other places, the triangular voids in the second layer are above the triangular voids in the

rst layer, and the triangular shapes of these do not overlap. One of them has the apex of thetriangle poinng upwards and the other downwards. These voids have been marked as O in

Fig. 1.16. Such voids are surrounded by six spheres and are called octahedral voids. One such

void has been shown separately in Fig. 1.17. The numbers of these two types of voids

depend upon the number of close packed spheres.

Let the number of close packed spheres be N, then:

The number of octahedral voids generated = N

The number of tetrahedral voids generated = 2N

(b) Placing third layer over the second layer

When third layer is placed over the second, there are two possibilies.

(i) Covering Tetrahedral Voids: Tetrahedral voids of the second layer may be covered by the

spheres of the third layer. In this case, the spheres of the third layer are exactly aligned with

those of the rst layer. Thus, the paern of spheres is repeated in alternate layers. This

paern is oen wrien as ABAB ....... paern. This structure is called hexagonal close packed

(hcp) structure (Fig. 1.18). This sort of arrangement of atoms is found in many metals like

magnesium and zinc.


8/17


8

(ii) Covering Octahedral Voids: The third layer may be placed above the second layer in such

a way that its spheres cover the octahedral voids. In this, the spheres of the third layer are

not aligned with those of either the rst or the second layer. This arrangement is called C

type. Only when fourth layer is placed, its spheres are aligned with those of the rst layer as

shown in Figs. 1.18 and 1.19. This paern of layers is oen wrien as ABCABC ........... This

structure is called cubic close packed (ccp) or face-centred cubic (fcc) structure. Metals suchas copper and silver crystallise in this structure.

Both these types of close packing are highly ecient and 74% space in the crystal is lled. In

either of them, each sphere is in contact with twelve spheres. Thus, the C.No is 12.

Formula of a Compound and Number of Voids Filled:

In ccp or hcp structure, two types of voids are generated. The number of octahedral voids

present in a lace is equal to the number of close packed parcles; the number of

tetrahedral voids is twice this number. In ionic solids, the bigger ions (usually anions) form

the close packed structure and the smaller ions (usually caons) occupy the voids. If the

anion is small enough then tetrahedral voids are occupied, if bigger, then octahedral voids.

Not all octahedral or tetrahedral voids are occupied. In a given compound, the fracon ofoctahedral or tetrahedral voids that are occupied depends upon the chemical formula of the

compound, as can be seen from the following examples.

Example 1.1:A compound is formed by two elements X and Y. Atoms of the element Y (as

anions) make ccp and those of the element X (as caons) occupy all the octahedral voids.

What is the formula of the compound?

Soluon: The ccp lace is formed by the element Y. The number of octahedral voids

generated would be equal to the number of atoms of Y present in it. Since all the octahedral

voids are occupied by the atoms of X, their number would also be equal to that of the

element Y. Thus, the atoms of elements X and Y are present in equal numbers or 1:1 rao.

Therefore, the formula of the compound is XY.

Example 1.2:Atoms of element B form hcp lace and those of the element A occupy 2/3rdoftetrahedral voids. What is the formula of the compound formed by the elements A and B?

Soluon:The number of tetrahedral voids formed is equal to twice the number of atoms of

element B and only2/3

rdof these are occupied by the atoms of element A. Hence the rao of

the number of atoms of A and B is 2 (2/3):1 or 4:3 and the formula of the compound is

A4B3.

Locating Tetrahedral and Octahedral Voids:

(a) (b)

Fig. 1: (a) Eight tetrahedral voids per unit cell of ccp structure(b) one tetrahedral void showing the geometry

We know that close packed

structures have both tetrahedral

and octahedral voids. Let us take

ccp (or fcc) structure and locatethese voids in it.

(a) Locang Tetrahedral Voids:

Consider a unit cell of ccp or fcc

lace and divide into eight small

cubes.

Each small cube has atoms at

alternate corners *Fig. 1(a)+.

When joined to each other, they

make a regular tetrahedron.


9/17


9

Thus, there is one tetrahedral void in each small cube and eight tetrahedral voids in total.

Each of the eight small cubes has one void in one unit cell of ccp structure. The ccp structure

has 4 atoms per unit cell. Thus, the number of tetrahedral voids is twice the number of

atoms.

(b) Locang Octahedral Voids:

Consider a unit cell of ccp or fcc lace *Fig. 2(a)+. The body centre of the cube, C is notoccupied but it is surrounded by six atoms on face centres. If these face centres are joined,

an octahedron is generated. Thus, this unit cell has one octahedral void at the body centre of

the cube.

Besides the body centre, there is one octahedral void at the centre of each of the 12 edges.

*Fig. 2(b)+. It is surrounded by six atoms, three belonging to the same unit cell (2 on the

corners and 1 on face centre) and three belonging to two adjacent unit cells. Since each edge

of the cube is shared between four adjacent unit cells, so is the octahedral void located on it.

Only1/4

thof each void belongs to a parcular unit cell.

Thus in cubic close packed structure:

Octahedral void at the body-centre of the cube = 1

12 octahedral voids located at each edge and shared between four unit cells = 12 x = 3Total number of octahedral voids = 4We know that in ccp structure, each unit cell has 4 atoms. Thus, the number of octahedral

voids is equal to this number.

Packing Efficiency:

Packing eciency is the percentage of total space lled by the parcles.

Packing Efficiency in hcp and ccp Structures

b = 4r =

2

or a = = 22 r (we can also write, r =

)

Each unit cell in ccp structure has eecvely 4 spheres. Total volume of four spheres is equal

to 4 (4/3) r

3and volume of the cube is a

3or (22 r)3.

Therefore,

Packing eciency =

%=

( ) % =

=74%

Both types of close packing (hcp and ccp) are

equally ecient. Let us calculate the eciencyof packing in ccp structure. In Fig. 1.20 let the

unit cell edge length be a and face diagonal

AC = b.

In ABC

AC2 = b

2= BC

2 AB

2

= a2a

2= 2a

2or

b = 2 If r is the radius of the sphere, we nd


10/17


10

Efficiency of Packing in Body-Centred Cubic Structures:

Therefore, 3a = 4r OR a = Also we can write, r = In this type of structure, total number of atoms is 2 and their volume is 2 x r

Volume of the cube, a = r

Therefore,

Packing eficiency = Volume occupied by two spheres in the unit cell x 100Total volumeof the unit cell %

=

=

= 68 %

Packing Efficiency in Simple Cubic Lattice:

Thus, we may conclude that ccp and hcp structures have maximum packing eciency.

Calculations Involving Unit Cell Dimensions:

From the unit cell dimensions, we can calculate the volume of the unit cell. Knowing the

density of the metal, we can calculate the mass of the atoms in the unit cell. The

determinaon of the mass of a single atom gives an accurate method of determinaon of

Avogadro constant. Suppose, edge length of a unit cell of a cubic crystal determined by X -ray

diracon is 'a', d is the density of the solid substance and M is the molar mass.

In case of cubic crystal:

Volume of a unit cell = a3

Mass of the unit cell = number of atoms in unit cell mass of each atom = z m

(Here z is the number of atoms present in one unit cell and m is the mass of a single atom)

Mass of an atom present in the unit cell:

m = NA, (M is molar mass)Therefore, , = =

. =

.

The density of the unit cell is the same as the density of the substance.

From Fig. 1.21, it is clear that the atom at the

centre will be in touch with the other two atoms

diagonally arranged.

In EFD,

b2= a2 a2= 2a2b = 2aNow in AFD,

c2= a

2 b

2= a

2 2a

2= 3a

2

c = 3aThe length of the body diagonal c is equal to 4r,

where r is the radius of the sphere (atom), as all

the three spheres along the diagonal touch each

other.

Fig 1.22: Simple cubic unit cell. The

spheres are in contact witheach other along the edge of

the cube

In a simple cubic lace the atoms are located

only on the corners of the cube. The parcles

touch each other along the edge (Fig. 1.22).

Thus, the edge length or side of the cube a, and

the radius of each parcle, r is related as

a = 2r.

The volume of the cubic unit cell = a3

= (2r)3= 8r

3

Since a simple cubic unit cell contains only 1

atom.

The volume of the occupied space = r Packing eficiency = %

=43r

3

8 r3 x 100 =

6 100= 52.4 %


11/17


11

Example 1.3:An element has a body-centred cubic (bcc) structure with a cell edge of 288

pm. The density of the element is 7.2 g/cm3. How many atoms are present in 208 g of the

element?

Soluon:Volume of the unit cell = (288 pm)3

= (28810-12

m) = (28810-10

cm)3

= 2.3910-23

cm3

Volume of 208 g of the element = = 7. = 28.88 Number of unit cells in this volume =

. . / = 12.08 x 10

unit cellsSince each bcc cubic unit cell contains 2 atoms, therefore, the total number of atoms in 208 g

= 2 (atoms/unit cell) 12.08 1023

unit cells = 24.161023

atoms.

Example 1.4:X-ray diracon studies show that copper crystallises in fcc unit cell with cell

edge of 3.608 10-8

cm. In a separate experiment, copper is determined to have a density of

8.92 g/cm3, calculate the atomic mass of copper.

Soluon:In case of fcc lace, number of atoms per unit cell, z = 4 atoms.

Therefore, M = ..

= . . (. ) = 63.1 g/molAtomic mass of copper = 63.1u

Example 1.5: Silver forms ccp lace and X-ray studies of its crystals show that the edge

length of its unit cell is 408.6 pm. Calculate the density of silver (Atomic mass = 107.9 u).

Soluon:Since the lace is ccp, the number of silver atoms per unit cell = z = 4

Molar mass of silver = 107.9 g mol1

= 107.910-3

kg mol1

Edge length of unit cell = a = 408.6 pm = 408.61012

m

Density, = .. = (7. )

(. )(. )= 10.5 10 ;= 10.5 g cm3

Imperfections in Solids:The defects are basically irregularies in the arrangement of constuent parcles. The

defects are of two types, namely, point defects and line defects. Point defects are the

irregularies or deviaons from ideal arrangement around a point or an atom in a crystalline

substance, whereas the line defects are the irregularies or deviaons from ideal

arrangement in enre rows of lace points. These irregularies are called crystal defects.

Types of Point Defects:

Point defects can be classied into three types:

(a) Stoichiometric defects (b) Impurity defects and (c) Non-stoichiometric defects.

(a) Stoichiometric Defects:

These are the point defects that do not disturb the stoichiometry of the solid. They are alsocalled intrinsic or thermodynamic defects. These are of two types, vacancy defects and

intersal defects.

(i) Vacancy Defect: When some of the lace

sites are vacant, the crystal is said to have

vacancy defect (Fig. 1.23). This results in

decrease in density of the substance. This

defect can also develop when a substance is

heated.

(ii) Intersal Defect: When some constuent

parcles (atoms or molecules) occupy an

intersal site, the crystal is said to have

intersal defect (Fig. 1.24). This defect

increases the density of the substance.

Vacancy and intersal defects as explained

above can be shown by non-ionic solids. Ionic

solids must always maintain electrical

neutrality. Rather than simple vacancy or

intersal defects, they show these defects as

Frenkel and Schoky defects.


12/17


12

(c) Non-Stoichiometric Defects:

A large number of non-stoichiometric inorganic solids contain the constuent elements in

non-stoichiometric rao due to defects in their crystal structures. These defects are of two

types: (i) metal excess defect and (ii) metal deciency defect.

(i) Metal Excess Defect:

Metal excess defect due to anionic vacancies: NaCl and KCl show this type of defect.When crystals of NaCl are heated in an atmosphere of sodium vapour, the sodium atoms are

deposited on the surface of the crystal. The Cl

ions diffuse to the surface of the crystal and

combine with Na atoms to give NaCl. This happens by loss of electron by sodium atoms to

form Na+ions. The released electrons diffuse into the crystal and occupy anionic sites (Fig.

1.28). As a result the crystal now has an excess of sodium. The anionic sites occupied by

unpaired electrons are called F-centres (from the German word Farbenzenter for colour

centre). They impart yellow colour to the crystals of NaCl. The colour results by excitation of

these electrons when they absorb energy from the visible light falling on the crystals.

Similarly, excess of lithium makes LiCl crystals pink and excess of potassium makes KCl

crystals violet (or lilac).

(iii) Frenkel Defect: This defect is shown by ionic solids. The

smaller ion (usually caon) is dislocated from its normal site

to an intersal site (Fig. 1.25). It creates a vacancy defect at

its original site and an intersal defect at its new locaon.

Frenkel defect is also called dislocaon defect. It does not

change the density of the solid. Frenkel defect is shown by

ionic substance in which there is a large dierence in the size

of ions, for example, ZnS, AgCl, AgBr and AgI due to small size

of Zn2

and Agions.

(iv) Schoky Defect: It is a vacancy defect in ionic solids where

caons and anions are of almost similar sizes. The number of

missing caons and anions are equal (Fig. 1.26) and hence

solid is electrical neutral.

In this defect the density of the substance decreases. Number

of such defects in ionic solids is quite signicant. For example,in NaCl there are approximately 10

6Schoky pairs per cm

3at

room temperature. In 1 cm3 there are about 10

22 ions. Thus,

there is one Schoky defect per 1016

ions. Eg: NaCl, KCl, CsCl

and AgBr. However AgBr shows both, Frenkel as well as

Schoky defects.

(b) Impurity Defects:

If molten NaCl containing a lile amount of SrCl2

is crystallised, some of the sites of Na ions are

occupied by Sr2

(Fig.1.27). Each Sr2

replaces two

Na ions. It occupies the site of one ion and theother site remains vacant. The caonic vacancies

thus produced are equal in number to that of Sr2

ions. Another similar example is the solid

soluon of CdCl2and AgCl.

: + 12 + 2;

Metal excess defect due to the presence of extra

cations at interstitial sites: Zinc oxide is white in colour at

room temperature. On heating it loses oxygen and turns

yellow.

Now there is excess of zinc in the crystal and its formula

becomes Zn1+xO. The excess Zn2+

ions move to interstitial

sites and the electrons to neighbouring interstitial sites.


13/17


13

(ii) Metal Deciency Defect

There are many solids which are dicult to prepare in the stoichiometric composion and

contain less amount of the metal as compared to the stoichiometric proporon. A typical

example of this type is FeO which is mostly found with a composion of Fe 0.95O. It may

actually range from Fe0.93O to Fe0.96O. In crystals of FeO some Fe2

caons are missing and

the loss of posive charge is made up by the presence of required number of Fe3

ions.Electrical Properties:

Solids can be classied into three types on the basis of their conducvies.

(i) Conductors: The solids with conducvies ranging between 104to 10

7ohm

1m

1are called

conductors. Metals having conducvies in the order of 107ohm

1m

1are good conductors.

(ii) Insulators: The solids with very low conducvies ranging between 1020

to 1010

1

m1

.

(iii) Semiconductors: These are the solids with conducvies in the intermediate range from

106

to 104ohm

1m

1.

Conduction of Electricity in Metals

A conductor may conduct electricity by movement of electrons or ions. Metals conduct

electricity by movement of electrons and electrolytes by the movement of ions.Metals conduct electricity in solid as well as molten state. The conducvity of metals

depends upon the number of valence electrons available per atom. The atomic orbitals of

metal atoms form molecular orbitals which are so close in energy to each other as to form a

band. If this band is parally lled or it overlaps with a higher energy unoccupied conducon

band, then electrons can ow easily under an applied electric eld and the metal shows

conducvity (Fig. 1.29 a).

If the gap between lled valence band and the next higher unoccupied band (conducon

band) is large, electrons cannot jump to it and such a substance has very small conducvity

and it behaves as an insulator (Fig. 1.29 b).

Conduction of Electricity in Semiconductors

In semiconductors, the gap between the valence band and conducon band is small (Fig.

1.29c). Therefore, some electrons may jump to conducon band and show conducvity.

Electrical conducvity of semiconductors increases with rise in temperature, as more

electrons can jump to the conducon band. Eg: silicon and germanium show this type of

behaviour and are called intrinsic semiconductors. The conducvity of the intrinsicsemiconductors is praccally too low. The process of adding an appropriate amount of

suitable impurity to increase the conducvity of semiconductors is called doping.

(a) Doping with electron rich impuries OR n-type semiconductors:

Silicon and germanium when doped with a group 15 element like P or As, containing ve

valence electrons, they occupy some of the lace sites in silicon or germanium crystal (Fig.

1.30 b). Four out of ve electrons are used in the formaon of four covalent bonds with the

four neighbouring silicon atoms. The h electron is available to conduct electricity. Here the

increase in conducvity is due to the negavely charged electron, hence silicon doped with

electron-rich impurity is called n-type semiconductor.

Fig 1.29: Disncon between a) Metals b) Insulator c) Semiconductor

In each case, an unshaded area represents conducon band.


14/17


14

(b) Electron decit impuries OR p-type semiconductors:

Silicon or germanium when doped with a group 13 element like B, Al or Ga p-type

semiconductor is obtained.

Boron has only 3 valence electrons. Hence boron can form bonds with three silicon atoms.

The fourth electron in silicon is le unbounded and hence each boron atom produces a

posive hole and the valency remains unsased.

Electrons from the adjacent bonds jump to ll the posive hole. As a result the posive hole

shis to the adjacent site from where the electron has jumped. The process connues.

Hence, p-type semiconductor conducts electricity by the movement of posive holes.

Applicaons of n-type and p-type semiconductors:Various combinaons of n-type and p-type semiconductors are used for making electronic

components. Diode is a combinaon of n-type and p-type semiconductors and is used as a

recer. Transistors are made by sandwiching a layer of one type of semiconductor between

two layers of the other type of semiconductor. npn and pnp type of transistors are used to

detect or amplify radio or audio signals. The solar cell is an ecient photo -diode used for

conversion of light energy into electrical energy.

Magnetic Properties:

Every substance has some magnec properes due to electrons. Each electron in an atom

behaves like a ny magnet. Its magnec moment originates from two types of moons (i) its

orbital moon around the nucleus and (ii) its spin around its own axis (Fig. 1.31).

On the basis of their magnec properes, substances can be classied into ve categories: (i)paramagnec (ii) diamagnec (iii) ferromagnec (iv) anferromagnec and (v) ferrimagnec.

(i) Paramagnesm: Paramagnec substances are aracted by a magnec eld and are

magnesed in a magnec eld. They lose their magnesm in the absence of magnec eld.

Paramagnesm is due to presence of one or more unpaired electrons which are aracted by

the magnec eld. Eg: O2, Cu2

, Fe3

, Cr3

.

(ii) Diamagnesm: Diamagnec substances are repelled by a magnec eld. H2O, NaCl and

C6H6 are some examples of such substances. Diamagnec substances contain no unpaired

electrons or all the electrons are paired. Pairing of electrons cancels their magnec moments

and they lose their magnec character.

Electron can be considered as a small

loop of current which possesses a

magnec moment. Each electron has

a permanent spin and an orbital

magnec moment associated with it.

Magnitude of this magnec moment

is very small and is measured in the

unit called Bohr magneton, B. It is

equal to 9.27 1024

A m2.


15/17


15

(iii) Ferromagnesm: Substances like iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium and CrO2are aracted

very strongly by a magnec eld are called ferromagnec substances. These substances can

be permanently magnesed. In solid state, the metal ions of ferromagnec substances are

grouped together into small regions called domains and each domain acts as a ny magnet.

In un-magnesed piece of a ferromagnec substance the domains are randomly oriented

and their magnec moments get cancelled. In a magnec eld all the domains get orientedin the direcon of the magnec eld (Fig. 1.32 a) and a strong magnec eect is produced.

This ordering of domains persists even when the magnec eld is removed and the

ferromagnec substance becomes a permanent magnet.

(iv) Anferromagnesm: Substances like MnO showing anferromagnesm have domain

structure similar to ferromagnec substance, but their domains are oppositely oriented and

cancel out each other's magnec moment (Fig. 1.32 b).

(v) Ferrimagnesm: Ferrimagnesm is observed when the magnec moments of the

domains in the substance are aligned in parallel and an-parallel direcons in unequal

numbers (Fig. 1.32 c). They are weakly aracted by magnec eld as compared to

ferromagnec substances. Fe3O

4 (magnete) and ferrites like MgFe

2O4 and ZnFe

2O

4 are

examples of such substances. These substances also lose ferrimagnesm on heang and

become paramagnec.


16/17


16

Exercises1.1 Dene the term 'amorphous'. Give a few examples of amorphous solids.

1.2 What makes a glass dierent from a solid such as quartz? Under what condions quartzcould be converted into glass?

1.3 Classify each of the following solids as ionic, metallic, molecular, network (covalent) or

amorphous.(i) Tetra phosphorus decoxide (P4O10) (ii) Ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4(iii) SiC (iv) I2 (v) P4 (vi) Plasc (vii) Graphite

(viii) Brass (ix) Rb (x) LiBr (xi) Si1.4 (i) What is meant by the term 'coordinaon number'?

(ii) What is the coordinaon number of atoms?

(a) In a cubic close-packed structure? (b) In a body-centred cubic structure?1.5 How can you determine the atomic mass of an unknown metal if you know its density and

the dimension of its unit cell? Explain.

1.6 'Stability of a crystal is reected in the magnitude of its melng points'. Comment. Collectmelng points of solid water, ethyl alcohol, diethyl ether and methane from a data book.

What can you say about the intermolecular forces between these molecules?1.7 How will you disnguish between the following pairs of terms:

(i) Hexagonal close-packing and cubic close-packing?(ii) Crystal lace and unit cell? (iii) Tetrahedral void and octahedral void?

1.8 How many lace points are there in one unit cell of each of the following lace?(i) Face-centred cubic (ii) Face-centred tetragonal (iii) Body-centred

1.9 Explain (i) the basis of similaries and dierences between metallic and ionic crystals.(ii) Ionic solids are hard and brile.

1.10 Calculate the eciency of packing in case of a metal crystal for(i) Simple cubic (ii) body-centred cubic(iii) face-centred cubic (with the assumpons that atoms are touching each other).

1.11 Silver crystallises in fcc lace. If edge length of the cell is 4.07 10

8

cm and density is 10.5g cm3

, calculate the atomic mass of silver.1.12 A cubic solid is made of two elements P and Q. Atoms of Q are at the corners of the cube

and P is at the body-centre. What is the formula of the compound? What are thecoordinaon numbers of P and Q?

1.13 Niobium crystallises in body-centred cubic structure. If density is 8.55 g cm3

, calculate

atomic radius of niobium using its atomic mass 93 u.

1.14 If the radius of the octahedral void is r and radius of the atoms in close packing is R, deriverelaon between r and R.

1.15 Copper crystallises into a fcc lace with edge length 3.61 108

cm. Show that the

calculated density is in agreement with its measured value of 8.92 g cm3

.1.16 Analysis shows that nickel oxide has the formula Ni 0.98O1.00. What fracons of nickel exist as

Ni2and Ni3ions?1.17 What is a semiconductor? Describe the two main types of semiconductors and contrast

their conducon mechanism.

1.18 Non-stoichiometric cuprous oxide, Cu2O can be prepared in laboratory. In this oxide,copper to oxygen rao is slightly less than 2:1. Can you account for the fact that this

substance is a p-type semiconductor?1.19 Ferric oxide crystallises in a hexagonal close-packed array of oxide ions with two out of

every three octahedral holes occupied by ferric ions. Derive the formula of the ferric oxide.1.20 Classify each of the following as being either a p-type or a n-type semiconductor:

(i) Ge doped with In (ii) B doped with Si.

1.21 Gold (atomic radius = 0.144 nm) crystallises in a face-centred unit cell. What is the length

of a side of the cell?1.22 In terms of band theory, what is the dierence?

(i) Between a conductor and an insulator (ii) Between a conductor and a semiconductor.

1.23 Explain the following terms with suitable examples:(i) Schoky defect (ii) Frenkel defect (iii) Intersals and (iv) F-centres.

1.24 Aluminium crystallises in a cubic close-packed structure. Its metallic radius is 125 pm.

(i) What is the length of the side of the unit cell?(ii) How many unit cells are there in 1.00 cm

3of aluminium?

1.25 If NaCl is doped with 103

mol % of SrCl2, what is the concentraon of caon vacancies? 1.26 Explain the following with suitable examples:

(i) Ferromagnesm (ii) Paramagnesm (iii) Ferrimagnesm

(iv) Anferromagnesm (v) 12-16 and 13-15 group compounds.


17/17


17

SOLVED EX ER ISES1. Sodium crystallises in a bcc unit cell. Calculate the approximate number of unit cells in 9.2 g

of sodium. (Atomic mass of sodium = 23)

Soluon: In a bcc unit cell there are eight atoms at corners of the cube and one atom at the

body centre., Number of atoms per unit cell = 8 x 1 x 1 = 2.Number of atoms in 9.2 g of sodium =

. . = 2.41 10

.

, Number of unit cells in 9.2 g of sodium = .

= 1.205 10.

2. Relaon between the nearest neighbour distance (d), the edge length of unit cell (a) and

the radius of atom (r) for pure elements.

Soluon: Relaonship between nearest neighbours distance (d) and the edge length (a) of the

unit cell.

Lattice Type Relationship1. Simple = 2. FCC = =

3. BCC = Relaonship between nearest neighbours distance (d) and the edge length (a) of the

unit cell.

Lattice Type Relationship

1. Simple = =

2. FCC

=

=

3. BCC = =

3. Analysis shows that a metal has the empirical formula M0.96O1.00. Calculate the %age of M2

and M3

ions in the sample.

Soluon: From the given formula, it is clear that for every 100 oxide ions there are only 96

metal ions. If out of 96 metal ions exist as M2ions and (96 ) exist as M3ions.Total posive charge on 96 metal ions = x 2 (96 ) x 3.Total charge on 100 oxide ions = 100 x 2.

Due to electrical neutrality, x 2 (96 ) x 3 = 100 x 2.2 288 3= 200.= 88

, The fracon of metal as M2ions = 100 = 91.66%.The fracon of metal as M

3ions = 100 91.66 = 8.34%.

4. Give reason Frankel defect is not found in halides of alkali metals.

Soluon: In halides of alkali metals, the radius of caon (alkali metal ion) and radius of anion

(halide ion) are comparable. The Frankel defect is observed in ionic compounds where

there is large dierence between sizes of caons and anions.

5. On heang crystal possessing CsCl structure change to NaCl crystal. Give the reason. Soluon: An increase in temperature lowers the coordinaon number. Hence the crystal having

CsCl structure (8:8 arrangement) changes into NaCl structure (6:6 arrangement).

unit 1 the solid state

Documents