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Wellington Secondary CollegePhilosophy Handbook 2016

Units 1 & 2

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M1 Staffroom

VCAA Philosophy Course StructureTextsTimelinesExpectationsPhilosophical Essay WritingUsing Quotes and AuthenticationUseful PhrasesAssessments and Assessment CriteriaPhilosophical Terms: Logic and ReasoningVocabulary

VCAA Philosophy Course Structure:

Unit 1 Existence, Knowledge and ReasoningAoS1 MetaphysicsAoS2 EpistemologyAoS3 Introduction to logic and reasoning

Unit 2 Questions of ValueAoS1 Ethics and moral philosophyAoS2 Further problems in value theoryAoS3 Techniques of reasoning

Texts:In Units One and Two Philosophy, we will utilise many primary and secondary sources, including film, essays, images, textbooks and website/journal articles. All of these will be provided by the College.

Term One

WEEK UNITS OF WORK ASSESSMENTS0

27/1/2016Students start on Friday

11/2/2016

Unit One, Area of Study ThreeLogic and reasoning

28/2/2016

Unit One, Area of Study ThreeLogic and reasoning

315/2/2016

Unit One, Area of Study TwoEpistemology

Outcome One:Logic and reasoning test

422/2/2016


529/3/2016


67/3/2016


714/3/2016


821/3/2016


Term Two


11/4/2016Unit One, Area of Study One

MetaphysicsOutcome: Epistemology

218/4/2016

Unit One, Area of Study OneMetaphysics

325/4/2016


42/5/2016


59/5/2016


616/5/2016


723/5/2016

Unit One Exam Preparation Outcome: Metaphysics

830/5/2016

EXAMS (TBC)

96/6/2016

EXAMS (TBC)

1013/6/2016

Unit Two, Area of Study ThreeTechniques of reasoning

1120/6/2016

Unit Two, Area of Study ThreeTechniques of reasoning

Term Three


11/7/2016Unit Two, Area of Study OneEthics and moral philosophy

Outcome:Techniques of reasoning

218/7/2016

Unit Two, Area of Study OneEthics and moral philosophy

325/7/2016


41/8/2016


58/8/2016


615/8/2016


722/8/2016

Unit Two, Area of Study TwoPolitical Philosophy

Outcome:Ethics and moral philosophy

829/8/2016


95/9/2016


1012/9/2016

Unit Two, Area of Study TwoAesthetics

Term Four


3/10/2016Unit Two, Area of Study Two

Aesthetics2


Aesthetics3


Aesthetics4

24/10/2016EXAM REVISION (TBC) Outcome:

Further problems in value theory5

31/10/2016EXAMS/EXAM REVISION (TBC)

NB: These timelines are a guide only. Modifications to assessments, study order, study duration, etc. may need to be made during the year. Please see your teacher if you have

any questions or concerns.

VCE Philosophy Units One and TwoCourse Expectations

Those who wish to study Philosophy are expected to do the following:

Be open: to new ways of working, new ways of thinking, and being exposed to new ideas and theories.

Be organised: like all VCE study designs, the Philosophy timelines are quite tight. This means that you, I and everyone in the class need to organise our time, responsibilities and resources as well as we can. You must read the allotted materials for homework. You must complete the required tasks; if this cannot be done in class time, it must be completed, by negotiation, for homework. And I must have our resources and assessments ready in a timely fashion. We will never do ‘busy work’; even when I am absent, your work will be relevant and valuable. We must work well together.

Be mature: the ideas and theories we discuss in VCE Philosophy contain some mature themes and are quite complex. You will need to approach these issues with maturity and respect; this includes respect for philosophers, cultures and, most importantly, each other.

Be honest: each student will experience VCE differently, and each student will have different responsibilities to deal with. Please be honest about how you are coping, what you’d like help with and your overall needs. If something is challenging, makes you uncomfortable or makes you feel a certain way, express these thoughts and allow your peers, teachers and other school staff to assist you whenever needed.

Philosophical Essay Writing

We will work extensively on perfecting your philosophical essay writing skills over the course of the year. If the following seems sightly strange to you now, don’t panic – it will become clear.

Philosophy essays revolve around a relatively simple paragraph structure which is used for most responses, including ‘short answer questions’. Each body paragraph should consist of an analysis of an idea or theory and an evaluation of that idea or theory. A full explanation of philosophical essay structure is below. It is quite different to the styles of essay writing used in English, but many of the skills you have learnt in English are transferable to Philosophy.

Topic: the topics are specific in terms of the area of study to which they relate, but often allow for student interpretation when it comes to responding to that topic. For example, an essay topic for an Aesthetics outcome could be: Discuss the following: “All art is quite useless.” ~ Oscar Wilde.

Structure: The introduction of a philosophical essay, like an English essay, addresses the topic and defines any key terms which may have multiple interpretations. The problem being investigated should also be given some kind

of context (if this is not already specified by the topic). The introduction should also mention the main views that need to be considered, as well as any particular philosophers/texts which are relevant to this issue. You may also state a personal opinion in your introduction, but you are not at all obliged to do so.

As mentioned above, the body paragraphs in a philosophical essay follow an analysis/evaluation structure and do not need to follow a standard English structure like TEEAL, but elements of TEEAL are a part of all good essay paragraphs, for example, using topic sentences to signpost the direction of your thoughts.

An analysis is the explanation and justification of a particular idea, argument or theory. This is where you demonstrate your knowledge and understanding, and provide details which exhibit the depth of your knowledge. You should include premises, conclusions and examples relating to the idea in question.

Once you have analysed an idea, you need to evaluate it; this is where you exhibit your ability to think philosophically. An evaluation dissects the idea that has just been analysed and considers whether or not it is logically valid and sound (these are terms which have very specific definitions in Philosophy, separate to their general English meanings), what are the strengths and weaknesses of the idea, are there any fallacies being used, and also expresses counterarguments (opposing arguments). A detailed evaluation may also counter these counterarguments, bringing the reader back around to agreeing with the analysis.

The body of your essay is generally best structured with paragraphs which alternate between analysis and evaluation, but occasionally it may be appropriate to write several points of analysis together and then evaluate these in one block at the end.

The conclusion of a Philosophy essay should indicate your position on the issue at hand. It need not summarise every point that has been made, but should indicate why you have come to your conclusion. It may be that you cannot decide a definite answer to the problem posed, either due to equally compelling arguments or because the answer simply cannot be known at this time, in which case, you should state why this is so. You may also indicate where the inquiry needs to go from here – what further questions need to be asked or what direction we, as philosophers, need to travel in order to further our philosophical discovery.

You should not go into an outcome or exam knowing exactly what you will write. Be prepared to write about a number of ideas, theories and viewpoints, and see which one(s) the topics and questions relate to.

General skills and considerations: The following are ideas and skills to consider when writing your philosophical essay (and also for responding to short answer questions, which require you to analyse and evaluate):

Use formal English – this includes expanding contractions (can’t cannot ), avoiding colloquialisms (kids children ) and taking great care with spelling and grammar.

You may use first person pronouns, e.g. ‘I believe this is the case’.

Clarity of expression is essential; simple, clear statements should be used over florid language which convolutes meaning.

You may include subheadings. Dot points may be used (when necessary) to clarify a particular point or

express an argument in standard form. You may change your point of view during the course of writing your essay,

but ensure you have noted this clearly and explained why. A long essay does equate to a good essay; while detail is important, a good

essayist is able to decide when detail is needed and when it’s best to be concise.

Using Quotes and Authentication

As with most subjects, it is helpful and important to use quotes from reliable sources to support your analyses and evaluations.

Whenever possible, use quotes from relevant, reliable primary sources rather than secondary ones, and check these sources carefully to ensure the accuracy of the quote.

Whenever you use someone else’s words OR ideas, you MUST attribute them to that person. Quotes should always be contained within quotation marks.

Hint: use ellipses to tailor quotes. You may sometimes find that the ‘perfect quote’ is several lines long; in order to still use the quote, you may need to clip it by deciding which phrases are essential to the point you are trying to support. When removing words or phrases from the middle of a quote, use an ellipsis to show the reader that something has been removed, for example:

Original: “Among the essential features of this situation is that no one knows his place in society, his class position or social status, nor does anyone know his fortune in the distribution of natural assets and abilities, his intelligence, strength, and the like.” – John Rawls

Edited version: “…no one knows his place in society… nor does anyone know his fortune in the distribution of natural assets and abilities…”

When tailoring a quote to your needs, it is essential to maintain the author’s intent/meaning. For example, you cannot replace the word ‘not’ with an ellipsis to create the opposite meaning. Such a rule also applies to any use of quotes.

All of your work (written, oral, homework, class work, outcomes, exams… everything) must be your own (or attributed). This includes examples, analogies, definitions, images… everything. When someone steals an idea or quote, they are not exhibiting the values of philosophy.

Useful Phrases

The following phrases indicate a premise:If… then…Because……is demonstrated/indicated by…Since…The reason for this is……implies…We can infer from…Either… or…

The following phrases indicate a conclusion:Therefore…As such…Thus…Hence…Consequently…This establishes/shows that…So…

You may find these phrases useful when writing an analysis:The theory’s original context was…[The philosopher] explains this through the

analogy/example of…This is evidenced by…

You may find these phrases useful when writing an evaluation:

While the argument is valid, it is not sound because…The argument is invalid because…Because the argument is inductive, we cannot assume

it will apply…[The philosopher] has committed the fallacy of…The argument is fallacious because…This could be countered by……which proves that the argument is sound

Assessments and Assessment Criteria

There will be several modes of assessment in Units One and Two Philosophy. These may include, but are not limited to: short written responses, extended written responses, essays, multiple choice tests, oral presentations, and participation in class activities. Some assessments will be completed under exam conditions, but others may be completed in class and at home.

You will be advised prior to all official outcomes of the date/time and nature of the task.

In general, you will be assessed on: Your understanding of the material covered in the course Your ability to evaluate that material

Research and critical thinking skills Respect shown for ideas and people

Philosophical Terms: Logic and Reasoning

Some of the terms and definitions below will not make a lot of sense

without some additional context, so don’t worry if they seem

complicated at first. Their meanings and application will become

clear as we learn about them in class.

Statement: an utterance (spoken) or an inscription (written) this is

capable of bearing a ‘truth value’, i.e. it is capable of being true or

being false.

Argument: A set of premises in support of a conclusion.

Premise: A statement which aims to, in conjunction with other

premises, justify a conclusion.

Conclusion: The end point of an argument; a statement which has,

ideally, been proven by at least two supporting premises.

Inductive: An inductive argument is one where the premises

provide some evidence for the truth of the conclusion, i.e. if the

premises are true, it is improbable that the conclusion could be

false.

Deductive: A deductive argument aims to provide conclusive proof

of its conclusions. A deductive argument is either valid or invalid.

Valid: Arguments are valid if the truth of the premises guarantees

the truth of the conclusion; in other words, if the premises are true,

the conclusion must be true.

Sound: An argument is sound if and only if it is valid and all of its

premises are actually true. Otherwise, a deductive argument is

unsound.

Analogy: a comparison between two objects or ideas which

highlights their similarities.

Logically possible world: similar to the concept of parallel

universes; the way the world could be (e.g. no contradictions like a

three-sided square).

Consistent: when two statements could both be true within the

same logically possible world.

Contradiction: when two statements cannot both be true within

the same logically possible world.

Entailment: when one thing must follow from another.

Counterargument: an argument which proves (or attempts to

prove) a previous argument false.

Counterexample: an example which proves (or attempts to prove)

a previous example false/irrelevant.

Fallacy: a flawed mode of reasoning.

Thought experiment: a consideration of a particular idea (often

utilising elements of fiction) in order to think through its

consequences.

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Wellington Secondary CollegePhilosophy

Unit OneHoliday Homework

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M1 Staffroom

Logic and Reasoning:

1. Read the article titled ‘12 Cognitive Biases Which Prevent You From Being Rational’.2. Choose four of the biases listed and explain a time when you fell victim to each of them.

Epistemology:

1. How do you know what you know? List all the sources of what we generally deem ‘knowledge’.2. Rank/group the list above (this can be done by creating a mind map, numbering, colour-coding, etc.) in terms of the most and least reliable sources of knowledge.3. Write a short reflection on the two activities above; was creating the list easy? Has it changed over time? Why are some forms of knowledge more reliable than others? Can a source be reliable in some circumstances but not in others? (You may use these questions to guide your reflection or you may create your own.)

Logic and Reasoning:The 12 cognitive biases that prevent you

from being rational

The human brain is capable of 10 processes per second, which makes it far more powerful than any computer currently in existence. But that doesn't mean our brains don't have major limitations, such as cognitive biases, those annoying glitches in our thinking that cause us to make questionable decisions and reach flawed conclusions.Before we start, it's important to distinguish between cognitive biases and logical fallacies. A logical fallacy is an error in logical argumentation (e.g. slippery slopes, circular arguments, etc.). A cognitive bias, on the other hand, is a genuine deficiency or limitation in our thinking — a flaw in judgment that arises from errors of memory, social attribution, and miscalculations.Some social psychologists believe our cognitive biases help us process information more efficiently, especially in dangerous situations. Still, they lead us to make grave mistakes.

Confirmation BiasWe love to agree with people who agree with us. It's why we only visit websites that express our political opinions, and why we mostly hang around people who hold similar views and tastes. We tend to be put off by individuals, groups, and news sources that make us feel uncomfortable or insecure about our views. It's this preferential mode of behavior that leads to the confirmation bias — the often unconscious act of

referencing only those perspectives that fuel our pre-existing views, while at the same time ignoring or dismissing opinions — no matter how valid — that threaten our world view.

Ingroup BiasThe ingroup bias is a manifestation of our innate tribalistic tendencies. This bias may be caused by oxytocin (the so-called ‘love mollecule’), which helps us to forge tighter bonds with people in our ingroup, but also makes us suspicious, fearful and even

http://io9.com/5974468/the-most-common-cognitive-biases-that-prevent-you-from-being-rational

http://io9.com/5974468/the-most-common-cognitive-biases-that-prevent-you-from-being-rational

disdainful of those on the outside. Ultimately, it causes us to overestimate the abilities and value of our immediate group at the expense of people we don't really know.

Gambler's FallacyIt's called a fallacy, but it's more a glitch in our thinking. We tend to put a tremendous amount of weight on previous events, believing that they'll somehow influence future outcomes. The classic example is coin-tossing. After flipping heads, say, five consecutive times, our inclination is to predict an increase in likelihood that the next coin toss will be tails. But in reality, the odds are still 50/50; the outcomes in different tosses are statistically independent and the probability of any outcome is still 50%.Relatedly, there's also the positive expectation bias. It's the sense that our luck has to eventually change and that good fortune is on the way.

Post-Purchase RationalisationRemember that time you bought something totally unnecessary, faulty, or overly expensive, and then you rationalised the purchase to such an extent that you convinced yourself it was a great idea all along? That's post-purchase rationalisation in action — a kind of built-in mechanism that makes us feel better after we make crappy decisions, especially at the cash register. It's a way of subconsciously justifying our purchases — especially expensive ones.

Neglecting ProbabilityVery few of us have a problem getting into a car and going for a drive, but many of us experience great trepidation about stepping inside an airplane and flying at 35,000 feet. Flying, quite obviously, is a wholly unnatural and seemingly hazardous activity. Yet virtually all of us know and acknowledge the fact that

the probability of dying in an auto accident is significantly greater than getting killed in a plane crash — but our brains won't release us from this crystal clear logic. It's the same phenomenon that makes us worry about getting killed in an act of terrorism as opposed to something far more probable, like falling down the stairs or accidental poisoning.

Status-Quo BiasWe humans tend to be apprehensive of change, which often leads us to make choices that guarantee that things remain the same, or change as little as possible. Needless to say, this has ramifications in everything from politics to economics. We like to stick to our routines, political parties, and our favorite meals at restaurants. Part of the

perniciousness of this bias is the unwarranted assumption that another choice will be inferior or make things worse.

Observational Selection BiasThis is that effect of suddenly noticing things we didn't notice that much before — but we wrongly assume that the frequency has increased. A perfect example is what happens after we buy a new car and we inexplicably start to see the same car virtually everywhere. Or it could be a unique number or song. It's not that these things are appearing more frequently, it's that we've (for whatever reason) selected the item in our mind, and in turn, are noticing it more often. Trouble is, most people don't recognise this as a selectional bias, and actually believe these items or events are happening with increased frequency.

Negativity BiasPeople tend to pay more attention to bad news — and it's not just because we're morbid. Social scientists theorise that it's on account of our selective attention and that, given the choice, we perceive negative news as

being more important or profound. We also tend to give more credibility to bad news, perhaps because we're suspicious (or bored) of proclamations to the contrary. For example, it is arguable that crime, violence, war, and other injustices are steadily declining, yet most people would argue that things are getting worse — a perfect example of the negativity bias at work.

Bandwagon EffectThough we're often unconscious of it, we love to go with the flow of the crowd. When the masses start to pick a winner or a favorite, that's when our individualised brains start to shut down and enter into a kind of "groupthink" or hivemind mentality. But it doesn't have to be a large crowd or the whims of an entire nation; it can include small groups, like a family or even a small group of office co-workers. This is why opinion polls are often maligned, as they can steer the perspectives of individuals accordingly. Much of this bias has to do with our built-in desire to fit in and conform.

Anchoring EffectThis is the tendency we have to compare and contrast only a limited set of items. It's called the anchoring effect because we tend to fixate on a value or number that in turn gets compared to everything else. The classic example is an item at the store that's on sale; we tend to see (and value) the difference in price, but not the overall price itself. It's also why, when given a choice, we tend to pick the middle option — not too expensive, and not too cheap.

Projection BiasAs individuals trapped inside our own minds 24/7, it's often difficult for us to project outside the bounds of our own consciousness and preferences. We tend to assume that most people think just like us — though there may be no justification for it. It's a bias where we overestimate how typical and normal we are, and assume that a consensus exists on matters when there may be none. Moreover, it can also create the effect where the members of a radical or fringe group assume that more people on the outside agree with them than is the case.

The Current Moment BiasWe humans have a really hard time imagining ourselves in the future and altering our behaviors and expectations accordingly. Most of us would rather experience pleasure

http://bps-research-digest.blogspot.ca/2012/04/people-prefer-middle-option.html

http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/psp/73/3/437/

in the current moment, while leaving the pain for later. This is a bias that is of particular concern to economists (i.e. our unwillingness to not overspend as opposed to saving money) and health practitioners. Indeed, a 1998 study showed that, when making food choices for the coming week, 74% of participants chose fruit. But when the food choice was for the current day, 70% chose chocolate.

(The above is taken from George Dvorsky’s article, which can be found at: http://io9.com/5974468/the-most-common-cognitive-biases-that-prevent-you-from-being-rational)

2. Choose four of the biases listed and explain a time when you fell victim to each of them.

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9831521

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Epistemology:

1. How do you know what you know? List all the sources of what we generally deem ‘knowledge’.

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2. Rank/group the list above (this can be done by creating a mind map at the back of this booklet, numbering, colour-coding, etc.) in terms of the most and least reliable sources of knowledge.

3. Write a short reflection on the two activities above; was creating the list easy? Has it changed over time? Why are some forms of knowledge more reliable than others? Can a source be reliable in some circumstances but not in others? (You may use these questions to guide your reflection or you may create your own.)

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