unit 13, lesson 1 the age of metternich - welcome to jboss...

The Age of Metternich

Unit 13, Lesson 1

Keywordsage of Metternich

burschenschaften

conservatism

liberalism

nationalism

Russification

volksgeist

Essential Questions• WhowerethekeyplayersinvolvedintheCongressofVienna,andwhat

wasthefinalresolutionoftheirmeeting?

• WhatwastheMetternichsystem?

• HowwereEuropeannationsaffectedbyconservatisminthenineteenthcentury?

• Howwerenineteenth-centuryconservatismandliberalismdifferent?Howweretheysimilar?

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622 Unit 13, Lesson 1

Set the StageThe age of Metternich (1815–1848) was the period in European history dominated by the conservative political philosophy of Austria’s foreign minister, Prince Klemens von Metternich. Conservatism is a political philosophy based on tradition and social stability. It stresses established institutions and prefers gradual development to abrupt change. Prior to the age of Metternich, European society and politics had been severely threatened by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. As a result, a new spirit of international spirit of cooperation and a dedicated effort to maintain European peace emerged briefly among the “great powers” of the Austrian Empire, Great Britain, France, Prussia, and Russia. These countries met at the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) to discuss a variety of political issues meant to restore nations to their traditional form of governments and create a balance of power in Europe that would prevent any single nation from threatening the rest.

Metternich and the Congress of ViennaOnApril4,1814,adefeatedNapoleonabdicatedthethrone,markingtheendofacatastrophicquarter-centuryofrevolutionandwarfare.TheFrenchRevolution(1789–1799)andtheNapoleonicWars(1799–1815)hadprofoundlyshakenEuropeandanewatmosphereofinternationalcooperationemergedinresponse.OnMay 30,1814,Europe’svictoriousgreatpowers—theAustrianEmpire,Prussia,Russia,andGreatBritain—signedthefirstTreatyofParis,confiningFrancetoitspre-Napoleoniceraborders.ThealliedstatesmenrefusedtopunishFrance,impos-ingnolegaloreconomicreparations,inthehopethatthenewFrenchgovernmentwouldremainstable.NapoleonwasexiledtotheislandofElbaontheItaliancoast,wherehewasallowedtokeephisimperialtitleandgivenayearlyincomeof2millionfrancs.ThealliesrestoredtheBourbondynastytotheFrenchthroneandbegantheslowprocessofrestoringandrestructuringpost-NapoleonicEurope.

InSeptember1814,representativesfromnationsthroughoutEuropemetinViennatodiscussamultitudeofpoliticalissues.MostEuropeanslongedforpeaceandsecurity,andtheconservativeelitebelievedthatthereestablishmentof“legitimate”governmentsandthesuppressionofrevolutionarymovementswasthenecessaryprice.Themostimportantconcernsweredecidedbythefourgreatpowers.Forseveralmonths,diplomatsargued,schemed,andcompromisedonissuesaffectingtheirowncountries,aswellasthoseimpactingtheentireEuropeanpoliticallandscape.ThevictoriousallieswererewardedfortheireffortsindefeatingNapoleon,whilethevanquishedcountrieswerepenalizedfortheircollaborationwiththewould-beworldconqueror.

TheCongressofViennawasthefirstinstanceinwhichaninternationalbodymettogetherinasingleplacetodiscussthefutureofEurope.Thecongressincludedrepresentativesfrommorethan200nationsandprincelystates,alongwithdelegates


Unit 13, Lesson 1 623

fromvariouslargecities,religioussects,corporations,andotherspecialinterestgroups.Despitethelargenumberofparticipants,thecongressnevermetinplenarysessions.Instead,mostdiscussionsoccurredininformalface-to-facediscussionsbetweentherepresentativesofthefourvictoriousgreatpowersandFrance.Theparticipationofotherdelegateswasverylimited.ThedominantfigureandhostoftheCongressofViennawasAustria’sforeignminister,PrinceKlemensvonMetternich(1773–1859).Metternich’sinfluenceonthedecisionsoftheCongressofViennaandhisactiveroleinEuropeanaffairsfrom1815to1848wassuchthatthisperiodiscalledtheage of Metternichinhishonor.

MetternichhadservedasAustria’sforeignprimeministerfrom1809to1848andrepresentedtheinterestsofAustrianemperorFrancisI(r.1804–1835)attheCongressofVienna.Duringhisownlifetime,Metternichwasalternatelyreviledandpraised,andhishistoricalreputationremainsequallycomplex.MetternichwasastaunchconservativewhoregardedliberalismandnationalismasthreatstothesurvivaloftheAustrianEmpire.Asthemostmultiethnicofthegreatpowers,Austria,Metternichbelieved,neededtorepressnationalismandcreateasystemofcollectivesecuritytomaintainthestatusquo.Tothatend,Metternichadvocatedaggressiveinterventioninanycountrythatthreatenedtheconservativeorder.Amasterattheartofdiplomacy,Metternichmanagedtoconvincehisinternationalcolleaguestoacceptmanyofhisconservativeprinciples.Tolaterliberalhistorians,Metternichwassynonymouswiththeconservativeoppositiontochange.Yetwhilehisdiplomaticstylecouldappear,attimes,tobeoverlymoralizing,hisphrasingresultedfromastutecalculations.AndthoughMetternichdidopposetheexpansionofcivilrightsassociatedwiththenationalrevolutionarymovements,itisequallytruethathisministrationshelpedEuropeenjoyacenturyofrelativepeacebetween1815and1914.

AfterMetternich,themostinfluentialmemberoftheCongressofViennawasarguablytheFrenchdiplomatCharlesTalleyrand(1754–1838).Despiteitsmilitarydefeat,FrancewishedtoretainitsstatusasagreatpowerandsoTalleyrandworkedcloselywithMetternichtoensurethatFrenchpoliticalconcessionswouldnotcripplethenation.TalleyrandwasLouisXVIII’sforeignminister,andheheldtheunenviablepositionofrepresentingthevariedinterestsofhisdefeatedcountry.Hewaschargedwithupholdingtheliberalagendasofrevolutionary-eraNapoleonic-eraFrance,aswellastheconservativeagendaoftherestoredBourbondynasty.Despitethecomplexityofhisposition,Talleyrandprovedhimselfaskillfulandingeniousdiplomat.Forexample,eventhoughFrancewasinitiallyexcludedfromanyseriousparticipationinthecongress,Talleyrandman-agedtoinserthimselfattheheartofthebody’sdeliberationsbyexposingtheplansofPrussiaandRussiatotakeoverallofSaxonyandPolandwith-outconsultingtheotherpowers.InresponsetothePolish-Saxonquestion,TalleyrandformedanallianceamongFrance,theAustrianEmpire,andGreatBritaintoopposePrussiaandRussia.Thisallianceeffectivelysplittheanti-FrenchcoalitionandallowedTalleyrandtoactasanelderstatesman,freetocriticizeandschemewithdiplomatsfromeverycornerofEurope.

age of Metternich a period in European history from 1815 to 1848 that was dominated by the conservative policy of Austria’s prime minister, Prince Klemens von Metternich

nationalism a sense of national consciousness emphasizing the promo-tion of a nation’s unique culture and language

Klemens von Metternich was a nineteenth-century proponent of conservatism in Europe.



RobertCastlereagh(1769–1822),theBritishforeignsecretaryfrom1812to1822andleaderoftheHouseofCommons,representedGreatBritainattheCongressofVienna.Castlereaghwasapoorpublicspeaker,buthisintegrityandconsistencysethimapartfromthevastmajorityofEuropeandiplomats.ModernhistoriansgenerallyconsiderCastlereagh’sforeignpoliciesastuteandaheadoftheirtime.CastlereaghsharedMetternich’sconservativeviewsandsupportedtherestorationofthebalanceofpoweronthecontinent.Castlereaghproposedthatthegreatpow-ersmeetonaregularbasistodebateandresolveEuropeanaffairs.Thisproposalwasaccepted,andoverthenextdecadefiveEuropeancongressesmettoresolvedisputes.TheBritishdiplomatrefused,however,toinvolvetheBritishnavyinanysortofinternationalpoliceforcemeanttocrushrevolutions.ThisrefusalputBritainatoddswithbothRussiaandtheAustrianEmpire,butitdemonstratedthefactthatBritishcitizensgenerallydislikedthecongresssystemandpreferredtoremainmoreisolatedfromcontinentaldisputes.

Metternich’sclosestallyattheCongressofViennawasthePrussianrepresenta-tivePrinceKarlvonHardenberg(1750–1822),whospokeforFrederickWilliam IIIofPrussia(r.1797–1840).HardenbergsharedMetternich’sbeliefthatthegreatpow-ersneededtocollaboratetomaintainEuropeanpeaceandcivility.Althoughtheleastinfluentialofthegreatpowers,PrussiasupportedAustria,theotherGermanpower,andsowasavaluablepoliticalvoiceinthecongress’sdiscussions.Inaddi-tiontoestablishingageneralpeace,Prussiahopedtoincorporateitslongtimeenemy,Saxony,asaterritory.Forcedtocompromise,PrussiainsteadreceivedtheeconomicallyinferiorRhineland.Despitetheoriginaldisappointmentofthiscon-cession,theRhinelandprovedrichinironandcoalandwouldlaterprovevitaltoPrussian/Germanindustrializationinthe1840s.Hardenberg,likeTalleyrand,wasagenerationolderthanMetternich,butunliketheFrenchdiplomat,hewasfrequentlyoutmaneuveredbytheAustrianstatesman.Hardenbergwasconsideredacharmingandamicablediplomat,butheultimatelyprovedunabletonavigatetheshiftingtidesofPrussianconstitutionalreform.

RussiawasthelargestofthevictoriouspowersanditsinfluenceinEuropeanpoliticswasgrowingrapidly.RussiawasrepresentedbyTsarAlexanderI(r.1801–1825),whochosetoattendthecongresspersonally.AlexanderIhadbegunhisreignasareformerbuthadgrownincreasinglyconservativeandmorereligiousinresponsetowesternEuropeanrevolutions.WhilethetsargenerallyagreedwiththeconservativepoliciesofMetternich,healsopushedforsubstantialRussianterritorialacquisitions,particularlyinPoland.RussiaeventuallyreceivedtheeasternhalfofthePolishkingdom,andappearedtoacceptthecreationofasmallindependentkingdomknownasCongressPoland.Inreality,RussiaignoredanypretenceofPolishindependenceandby1863hadincorporatedtheterritoryintoRussia.Alexander Ialsopushedforthecreationofaninternationalbodythatcouldintervene,withforceifnecessary,toprotectthestatusquoandensurepeace.OnSeptember26,1815,Russia,Prussia,andtheAustrianEmpireformedtheHolyAlliance,supposedlymeanttopromotetheChristianvirtuesofcharityandpeace.Inpractice,however,theHolyAlliancewasusedasabastionagainstrevolutionarymovements.TheHolyAllianceprotesteddemocracy,liberalism,andsecularismforadecade,untilitbecameessentiallydefunctafterthedeathofAlexanderI.

1SeLf-CheCK

What was the Polish-

Saxon question debated

at the Congress of

Vienna?



Despitetheirpersonaldifferences,therepresentativesattheCongressofViennawereeachguidedbythreemainprinciples:legitimacy,compensation,andbalanceofpower.Thefirstprinciple,legitimacy,meanttherestorationof“rightful”mon-archstothosenationswhichhadexperiencedrevolutions.ForFrance,thismeantthecoronationofLouisXVIII(r.1814–1824),brotheroftheexecutedLouisXVI(r.1774–1792).FrenchBourbonclaimsinSpainandNapleswerelikewiserecog-nized.LouisXVIII,likeotherrestoredEuropeanmonarchs,wasforcedtoacceptaconstitutionrestrictingroyalpowerandexpandingparliamentaryruleindeferencetopublicopinion.Thesecondprinciple,compensation,ensuredthatanynationthathadlostterritorytoNapoleonreceivedsomeformofreimbursement.Thethirdprinciple,balance-of-power,attemptedtoensurethatnoonenationgrewpowerfulenoughtothreatentherestofEurope.

Eachoftheseprincipleswassubjecttolongdeliberationsandargumentsinwhicheachnationordefunctnationattemptedtoswayrivalnationsinsup-portofvariousagendas.Whenthecongressfinallyconcluded,thediplomatshadalteredEuropeanpoliticalboundariesconsiderably.Thealliedstatesessen-tiallyquarantinedFrancebehindaseriesofbufferstatesincasethespecterofrevolutionreareditsheadoncemore.Forinstance,tothenorthofFrance,thehistoricDutchRepublic,extinctsince1795,wascombinedwiththeAustrianNetherlandstocreatetheKingdomoftheNetherlands.ItwashopedthatthiskingdomwouldbestrongenoughtodiscourageFrancefromexpandingintotheLowCountries.Additionally,theGerman-heldleftbankoftheRhinewascededtoPrussiatoactasabulwarkagainstFranceinthewestandRussiainthe

The major participants in the Congress of Vienna pursued balance-of-power politics after the Napoleonic Wars.



east.Tothesouth,theKingdomofPiedmont-Sardinia,Italy,wasrestoredandstrengthenedbytheincorporationofthedefunctRepublicofGenoa,whichhadceasedtoexistby1797.TheAustrianEmpiretookbackTuscanyandMilan,bothheldbefore1796,aswellasthedefunctRepublicofVenice,effectivelygivingthemcontrolofnorthernItalyformuchofthenineteenthcentury.ThecongressalsorecognizedtherestorationofPopePiusVII(r.1800–1823)inthePapalStatesandtherestorationofseveralformerrulersinsmallduchies.Lastly,thecongressconfirmedthekingsofBavaria,Wurttemberg,andSaxony,andrecognizedGeorgeIII(r.1760–1820)astheBritishmonarch.

Fortheretobeatruebalanceofpower,strongnationshadtobewillingtoputasidetheirownterritorialdesires.Forinstance,earlyinthedeliberations,itbecameapparentthatRussiahopedtoclaimtheancientKingdomofPolandwhilethePrussianswantedtoincorporatethewealthyKingdomofSaxony.SuchterritorialacquisitionswouldhavecreatedadangerousimbalanceofpowerincentralEuropeandbeenpotentiallydetrimentaltotheAustrianEmpireandGreatBritain.ForcedtobandtogetherwiththedefeatedFrance,thethreenationssignedasecretalliancedirectedagainstRussiaandPrussia.Withthethreatofwarlooming,RussiaandPrussiaacceptedterritorialcompromises.ThePolish-SaxonquestionallowedFrancetoregainitsgreat-powerstatusandendeditsdiplomaticisolation,atleastbriefly.

WhiletheCongressofViennadeliberated,NapoleonescapedfromexileinElbaandreclaimedhispositionasemperor.WithaFrencharmyathisback,NapoleonbeganadeterminedmarchedintoBelgium.Afterawhirlwind100-daycampaign,however,Napoleon’sluckchanged.OnJune18,1815,analliedforceledbyBritain’sDukeofWellingtonmetNapoleon’sarmyatWaterlooandwonagreatvictory.Napoleonwasforcedtoabdicateforasecondtimeandwasagainsentintoexile.Thistime,NapoleonwasimprisonedontheisolatedAtlanticislandofSt.Helena,1,240milesfromanylandmass,whereheremainedfortherestofhislife.ThealliedforcesrestoredLouisXVIIItothethroneandanewpeacetreatywasmadewithFrance,understandablymoreseverethanthefirst.ThenewtreatyimposedminorchangestotheFrenchfrontiersandincludedabriefarmyoccupationandanindemnityof700mil-lionfrancs.Peacerestored,theCongressofViennacontinued,withFranceoncemoredemotedfromitsstatusasagreatpower.Talleyrandwasformallyexcludedfromtherestofthecongress’sdeliberations,andtheFrenchforeignministerresignedlaterthatyear.

ThefinalresolutionsoftheCongressofViennareflectedthetraditionaldiplomacyofthegreatpowerswhoredrewthemapofEuropetomeettheirownnationalandimperialgoals.Afteralmostninemonthsofdeliberations,andafinalwaragainstNapoleon,thegreatpowerscompletedtheirworkinJune1815.FrancewasforcedtorelinquishallterritoryconqueredduringtherevolutionaryandNapoleonicwars,andtheQuadrupleAlliancewasformedbetweentheAustrianEmpire,GreatBritain,Prussia,andRussiatoensurepeaceandstability.DuringtheCongressofVienna,theAustrianEmpire,Prussia,andRussiaalsoformedtheHolyAlliance,envisionedbyAlexanderIasan



internationalcoalitionagainstrevolutionarymovements.AustriaandPrussiaadditionallyjoinedtheGermanConfederation,aunionof39statesandfourfreecitiesthatjoinedtogethertostabilizecentralEurope.

Lastly,eachofthegreatpowersagreedtomeetperiodicallytodiscussissuesofmutualconcern,especiallythoserelatedtowarandrevolution.ThesemeetingswereknownastheConcertofEurope,orCongressSystem,andprovidedadegreeofinformalsecurityinEuropeforthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury.Inmanyways,theConcertofEuropewasaprimitiveversionofthemodernUnitedNations,anditactedasanexperimentalstepintheformationofinternationalregulations.Thegrowthofinternationalinstitutionswasblocked,however,bytheindividualinterestofeachsovereignstate.Sowhilethenationsmightagreeonasubject,thewherewithaltocarryouttheirobjectiveswasoftenblockedbytheneedsordesiresofindividualnations.

The Metternich System AttheCongressofVienna,MetternichwaschieflyresponsibleforcreatingthebalanceofpowerinEurope.Forthenext30years,theAustrianwoulddedicatehimselftostabilizingandconsolidatingthisbalance.Theso-calledMetternichsystemensuredstabilitybycensoringpoliticalandreligiousviewsthatthreatenedtheconservativestatusquo.SeveraltimesaftertheCongressofVienna,thegreatpowersevokedtheConcertofEuropetoaddressinternationalaffairs.Inreality,theselatercongressesservedmainlyasaconservativefrontstosuppressrevolution-aryandnationalisticmovements.

The key representatives from France, Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia determined territorial changes in Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815.



ThefirstgeneralpostwarassemblagewastheCongressofAix-la-Chapelle,whichmetin1818todiscussthestatusofFrance,theAtlanticslavetrade,andBarbarypiratesoperatingalongthecoastofNorthAfrica.ThemembersoftheQuadrupleAlliancedecidedthatFrance,whichhadpaiditsindemnitywithaloanfromprivatebankers,shouldbefreedofthearmyoccupationandenjoyequalfootingwiththeothergreatnations.Fromthispointonward,theQuadrupleAlliancewasknownastheQuintupleAlliance,andFrancebecameanimportantparticipantinlatercongresses.Itwasunanimouslyagreedthatboththeslavetradeandpiracyshouldbesuppressed.ButonlytheBritishpossessedanavylargeenoughtobeusefulinthesetwinaims,andthecontinentalstatesrefusedtorelyontheBritishfleetforfearthatitwouldendthefreedomoftheseas.AsfortheBritish,itwasunthinkablethattheirnavycouldbeplacedundertheauthorityofaninternationalbody.So,despitemoralobjections,thetransatlanticslavetradecontinued.Indeed,evenasnationsonbothsidesoftheAtlanticbannedtheslavetradeinthefirstquarterofthenineteenthcentury,illegaltraffickerscontinuedtoshiplargenumbersofAfricanslavestotheAmericasuntilthe1860s.MeanwhileBarbarypirateslootedshipsandcapturedthousandsofEuropeansandAmericans,whowerethensoldasslavesinNorthAfrica.GreatBritain,theUnitedStates,France,andtheNetherlandseachengagedinwarswiththeBarbaryStatesandvariousMuslimkingdoms,includingthosethatmakeupthemodernnationsofMorocco,Algiers,Tunisia,andLibya.ThedangersposedbyBarbarypirateswerenotfullyeradicateduntilAlgiersbecameacolonyofFrancein1830.

DuringtheCongressofAix-la-Chapelle,Alexander Iproposed that the great powers form a permanentEuropeanUnionwithaninternationalmilitaryforcethatcouldbeusedtosupportexistinggovernmentsagainstviolentrevolutions.CastlereaghofGreatBritainrejectedthetsar’sidea.TheBritishhaddeclaredthemselveswill-ingtomakeinternationalcommitmentsinthecaseofspecificcontingencies,suchasarevivalofFrenchmilitaryaggressionorthereturnofNapoleon.ButtheBritishhadnointerestinobligatingthemselvestoactuponindefinitefutureeventsthatmightnotaffecttheBritishEmpire.Britishforeignpolicieswouldreservetherightofinde-pendentjudgment.Thismarkedthefirstsignificantbreakintheaccordbetweenthegreatpowers,butitwouldnotbethelast.

Intheearly1820s,revolutionsbrokeoutinsouthernEurope.In1820,arevolutionary-ledarmyforcedFerdinand VIIofSpainandNaples(r.1808,1814–1833)toruleinaccordancewiththeliberalconstitutionof1812,whichhehadprevi-ouslyignored.Laterthatsameyear,asimilarrevolutionbrokeoutintheKingdomoftheTwoSicilies,whoseabsoluterulerFerdinandI(r.1816–1825)wasforcedtoacceptaconstitution.Theseconstitutionallimitsonroyalpowerwereperceived

2SeLf-CheCK

What was the hundred-

day campaign?

Alexander I represented Russia at the Congress of Vienna and became the first Russian king of Poland.



byMetternichandhisalliesasthebeginningofrevolutionaryviolencewhich,ifleftunchecked,mightspreadthroughoutEurope.Metternichurgedtheothergreatpowerstosignaprotocolcommittingthemtoaunitedaction.TherevolutionsofsouthernEuropeweretheprincipalsubjectsdiscussedatthecongressesofTroppauandLaibach,heldin1820and1821,respectively.TheAustrianEmpire,Russia,andPrussiachosetosigntheProtocolofTroppau,whichassertedtheirrighttointerveneinothercountriestoopposerevolutions.GreatBritainandFranceobjectedtotheideaofinternationalactionagainstallrevolutionariesandrefusedtosigntheprotocol.Thethreeconserva-tivepowersfurtherdistancedthemselvesfromGreatBritainduringtheCongressofLaibach,inwhichAustriawasauthorizedbytheothergreatpowerstosuppresstherevolutionintheKingdomoftheTwoSicilies.

In1822,thegreatpowersmetforafinaltimeattheCongressofVeronatodiscussthecontinuedinstabilityofSpain,aswellasrevolutionsinSpain’sLatinAmericancolonies.Inbothcases,GreatBritainstronglyobjectedtoaninternationalmilitaryresponse.InthecaseofSpain,GreatBritain’sobjectionswereoverruledandaFrencharmywasauthorizedtosubduethethreatstotheSpanishmonarchyandpunishtherevolutionaries.TheFrenchinvasionwasacompletesuccess,withthemajorityofSpanishpeopleviewingtheforeignarmyasdeliverersbringingpeaceviatherestoredCatholicChurchandBourbonking.InthecaseoftheLatinAmericanrevolts,Britain’sobjectionsheldmoresway.Britainhopedtoeconomi-callyexploitthebreakupoftheSpanishEmpireandrefusedtoallowtheothergreatpowerstointerveneinLatinAmerica.WithoutthebackingoftheBritishfleet,itwasimpossibleforanyEuropeanarmedforcetosailtotheAmericas.Equallyimportant,theUnitedStatesissuedtheMonroeDoctrinein1823,whichwarnedEuropeansfromfurthercolonialventuresintheAmerican“sphereofinfluence.”

Throughoutthe1820sand1830s,MetternichcontinuedtobattleagainstliberalpoliticalchangeandrevolutionsinEurope.Likemanyotherconservatives,Metternichsincerelybelievedthatmiddleclassliberalismstirredthelowerclasstoopenrevolu-tion,bringingnothingbutpainandsufferingtoall.Hethereforededicatedhimselftomaintainingpeaceatallcosts.Inafewcases—thedynasticchangeoversofFranceandBelgiumin1830and1831,forexample—Metternichwasunabletopreventrevolutionarymovements.But,forthemostpart,Metternich’spoliciessuccessfullyrepressedrevolutionaryimpulsesandtherebypreventedtheoutbreakofwar.TheMetternichsystemremainedthemostactivesystemofgovernanceincentralEuropeuntil1848,andhispoliciesdominatedtheAustrianEmpire,theItalianpeninsula,andtheentireGermanConfederation.

TheGermanConfederationcompriseddozensofindependentGermanstates,includingPrussiaandtheAustriaEmpire,whichmetincomplicatedassembliesonaregularbasis.TheAustrianEmpirewasthedominantmember,withPrussiaactingasitsjuniorpartnerintheplanningandexecutionofrepressivemeasuresfollow-ingtheconservativepartyline.ThemostinfamouspolicyissuedbytheGermanConfederationwasMetternich’s1819CarlsbadDecrees.ThedecreesrequiredthateachoftheGermanmemberstatesdestroysubversiveliberalideaspermeatinguni-versitiesandnewspapers.Theyalsocreatedapermanentcommitteewhosespiesandinformerswereusedtoinvestigateandpunishradicalorganizations.Metternich’s

3SeLf-CheCK

How did the Congress

of Aix-la-Chapelle

propose to deal with the

reoccurring problem of

Barbary pirates?



latertendencytowardrepressivepoliciescontrastedwidelywiththemoderationhehaddisplayedinthegeneralpeacesettlementattheCongressofViennayearsbefore.

Characteristics and Impact of Conservatism in europe in the Nineteenth Century Conservativesconsideredthemselvestheguardiansoftradition.DuringtheEnlightenmentandtheFrenchRevolution,itwasoptimisticallybelievedthathumanbeingswerecapableofbeinggovernedbyreason.ButaftersurvivingthechaosofrevolutionandNapoleon,conservativespessimisticallyconcludedthatpas-siondriveshumannatureandthat,ifcivilizationwastoremainintact,institutionsneededtochangeslowly.Mostconservativeswantedareturntopre-1789Europe,asocietydominatedbyanobleblendofmonarchy,bureaucracy,andaristocracy.Conservativeswerenotnecessarilyopposedtoconstitutions,buttheyinsistedthesedocumentsbebasedonsociety’sactualexperiencesratherthanabstract“universal”principles.Conservativephilosophysupportedtherestorationgovernmentsofthepost-1815orderandinfluencedpoliticalthoughtinvirtuallyeveryEuropeannationduringthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury.

ThephilosophicalbasisforconservatismcanbefoundinthewritingsofthepoliticaltheoristEdmundBurke(1729–1797).BurkewasamemberoftheEnglishHouseofCommonsandastrongsupporteroftheAmericanRevolution.HebelievedthattheAmericancolonistswantednothingmorethantoprotecttheirtradi-tionalformofgovernanceandthattheirgrievancesagainsttheGerman-bredGeorgeIIIwerevalid.HewassimilarlysupportiveduringthedawnoftheFrenchRevolution,whichhesawasafightforlibertythatwasakintotheEnglishCivilWar(1641–1651).Butwhenthescopeofdestruction,intermsofbothtraditionalinstitutionsandhumanlife,becameclear,BurkecametocondemntheFrenchRevolution.Burke’smostfamouswork,Reflections on the Revolution in France,pub-lishedin1790,waswidelyreadthroughoutEurope.Init,heproposedanewformofconservatismthatencouragedchangethroughadaptationratherthanviolentrevolution.Hearguedthathumansusereasontoexcuseself-interestedactions,whiletraditionsactasacheckonselfishpassions.Traditionsthereforeshouldbecarefullyguarded.Burkeattackedtheprinciplesoftherightsofmanandnaturallawasfundamentallydangeroustosocietybecausetheythreatenedthetraditionsthatunderpinnedtherightsoftheelite.Burkeknewthatchangewasimportantforallsocieties,buthecautionedthatlarge-scalechangesshouldbeappliedslowly.

Onthecontinent,amoreextremeformofconservatismemergedinthewritingsofJoseph-MariedeMaistre(1753–1821).Alawyer,diplomat,andwriter,deMaistrewasanémigréduringtheFrenchRevolutionandoneofthekeyintellectualfiguresintheCounter-EnlightenmentworkingforthereturnofCatholicsupremacyandtherestorationofhereditarymonarchies.Inhisnumerousworks,hedescribedhowtheFrenchRevolution’sbreakwithitstraditionsofmonarchy,nobility,andthechurchhadcausedittodescendintoviolentchaos.DeMaistreencouragedmonarchstoberuthlessagainstanysuggestionforpoliticalreform,goingsofarastosaythatthe“firstservantoftheCrownshouldbetheexecutioner.”AstrongCatholic,deMaistrehopedtoseethereturnofpapalprivilegesinsecularmatters



andbelievedthatthechurchactedasthefoundationofsocietyandthatallpoliti-calauthorityultimatelystemmedfromGod.

ConservatismwasmostwidelyembracedincentralandeasternEurope,whereitattemptedtofindabalancebetweentraditionandprogress.Itwasalternatelyaidedandthreatenedbytheriseofnationalism.JohannGottfriedvonHerder(1744–1803)wasthearchitectofcentralandeasternEuropeannationalism.Hismaintreatise,Ideas on the Philosophy of the History of Humanity,definednationalismasbringingtogetherpeoplewhoseattributesformacommonsenseofidentity,anideabestrepresentedbythetermvolksgeist,or“spiritofthepeople.”Apeople’slanguage,literature,religion,culture,andhistorywereallelementsofvolksgeist.AlthoughHerder’sphilosophygenerallydescribedculturalnationalism,therewerepoliticalimplications.Aseachgroupofpeopleacquiredagreatersenseofcom-monalitythroughappreciationoftheirlanguageandhistory,theyincreasinglydesiredself-governance.InGermanyandItaly,nationalismprovedtobeaunifyingforce,bringingtogethernumeroussmallkingdomsandeventuallyconsolidatingthemintostrongercentralnations.NationalismwaslikewiseembracedinimperialRussiaasthetsarsworkedtounitetheirlargemixedpopulationintoasinglepeople.Incontrast,nationalismthreatenedtheAustrianEmpirebecause,asvariousethnicgroupsacquiredtheirownsenseofnationalconsciousness,theylongedtosecedefromtheempiretoformindependentnations.

Austrian empireThroughouthispoliticalcareer,Metternichstrovetomaintaintheabsolutemonar-chyofthemultinationalAustrianEmpire.InhisroleasforeignprimeministerunderFrancisI(r.1804–1835)andFerdinandI(r.1835–1848),Metternichdefendedtheprinciplesofconservatism.TheAustrianEmpirewasinhabitedbynumerouspeoples,includingGermans,Magyars(Hungarians),Poles,Ruthenians(Ukrainians),Czechs,Slovaks,Serbs,Croats,andSlovenes,aswellasmanyothers.Metternichwasafraidthatthesegroupsmightbegintoformnationalidentities,adevelopmentwhichwouldinevitablydestroytheempire.Metternichstronglyopposedparliamentarygovernments,believingthattheyprovidedaforumfornationalgroupstoconsolidatepowerandultimatelyfightagainsttheirHapsburgrulers.DespiteMetternich’sefforts,nationalismwasarisingforcethatcouldnoteasilybesnuffedout.Nationalismemergedamongmanyofthesubjectnationalities,includingtheCzechsinBohemiaandseveralsouthernSlavicgroups,suchastheSerbs,Croats,andSlovenes.

TheriseofHungariannationalismposedthegreatestthreattoHapsburgimpe-rialpower.TheMagyarsformedoneofthemostpopulousandpowerfulregionsintheempire.Between1825and1848,theMagyarsstruggledtoestablishseveralculturalreforms,suchasmakingHungarianoneofthenewofficialimperiallan-guages,replacingtheoutdatedLatin.OneofthemostimportantearlyleadersofHungariannationalismwasStephanSzechenyi(1791–1860),awealthylandownerandmodernist.HeworkedtirelesslytopromoteMagyarcultureandcreateastrongHungarianeconomy.Szechenyididnot,however,activelyseekHungarianinde-pendence.Thatwaslefttomoreradicalnationalists,suchasthefieryjournalistLajosKossuth(1802–1894),whoservedasgovernor-presidentduringtheHungarianRevolutionof1848.Radicalnationalistsbecameincreasinglyvocalintheirdemand

4SeLf-CheCK

Who provided the

philosophical basis for

nineteenth-century

conservatism?

volksgeist German term for “spirit of the people”; refers to the unique traits that form a common sense of national identity



forHungarianindependenceandeventuallyforcedtheAustrianEmpiretocreatethedualmonarchyofAustria-Hungary(1867–1918).

German ConfederationIn1815,theCongressofViennacreatedtheGermanConfederation.TheAustrianEmpirewasthelargestandmostpowerfulnationintheconfederationandtheAustrianemperoractedasitspermanentpresident.Whileeachstateremainedindependentinprinciple,Metternichwasabletousetheconfederationtoblockthespreadofliberalandnationalistideasthroughouttheregion.Thesecond-largestGermanstate,Prussia,generallyaccepteditspositionasjuniorpartnertoAustria,butnotsoinregardtonationalism.PrussiawantedtobringaboutacommercialintegrationoftheGermanstates.In1819,PrussiasignednumeroustreatiesthatreducedtariffsandotherbarrierstotradewithneighboringGermanstates.Thatsameyear,acoalitionofGermanstatesformedtheZollverein,orGermanCustomsUnion,whichmanagedthecustomsandeconomicpoliciesofitsmemberstates.By1834,itincludedalmosteveryGermanstate,withtheexceptionoftheAustrianEmpire.AstheeconomicstrengthoftheZollvereingrew,itexasperatedthepoliticalrivalrybetweenPrussiaandAustriafordominanceincentralEurope.

TheGermanConfederationwasestablishedbyconservativeswhohopedtomain-taintheirpoliticalpolicieswithoutanysignificantopposition.Conservativessoonfoundthemselvesthreatenedbyuniversitystudentsinspiredbyliberalandnationalisticideals.AtmanyGermanuniversities,studentsformedburschenschaften,orstudentassociations,whichsoughttoreplaceprovincialloyaltieswiththeliberalnotionofaunifiedGermannation.In1817,aburschenschaftattheUniversityofJanastagedacelebrationofthe300thanniversaryofMartinLuther’spostingofNinety-fiveTheses,theeventwhichsparkedtheReformation,andthefourthanniversaryoftheBattleofLeipzig,oneofthemostdecisivedefeatssufferedbyNapoleon.ThestudentsmetatWartburgCastle,whereMartinLutherhadtranslatedtheBibleintoGerman,andthecelebrationincludedbonfires,songs,andparades.Itwasattendedbymorethan500 people.Althoughtheeventwaswhollypeaceful,thegatheringunnervedGermanrulerswhowerewaryoftheliberalidealsespousedbythestudents.In1819,KarlSand,aJanaUniversitystudentandburschenschaftmember,murderedtheconservativedramatistAugustvonKotzebueforridiculingthestudentorganization.Sandwastriedandexecuted,instantlybecomingamartyrtoGermannationalists.Inresponse,MetternichandotherGermanprincesissuedtheCarlsbadDecrees,whichrestrictedacademicfreedomandoutlawedtheburschenschaften.ThevoicesofliberalismandnationalismweresuppressedintheGermanstatesforatime,butultimatelycouldnotbedestroyed.By1871,theGermanstateshadunitedundertheleadershipofPrussia,whilethefadingAustrianEmpirebecameincreasinglyisolatedincentralEurope.

Italy In1800–1814,NapoleoncontrolledtheItalianpeninsula.FollowingtheCongressofVienna,theregionbecameanotherbastionofAustrianpowerandinfluence.TheCongressofViennahadgrantedAustriathenorthernItaliankingdomofLombardy-Venetia,andrelativesoftheAustrianemperorruledoverParma,Modena,andTuscany.IntheFrenchBourbonKingdomoftheTwoSicilies,anAustrian

burschenschaften German student associa-tions dedicated to liberal and nationalist ideals



archduchessreignedasqueenandhelpedspreadconservativepoliticalpoliciesthroughoutsouthernItaly.AselsewhereinEurope,MetternichandlaterAustrianpoliticiansadvocatedconservatismandfoughtagainstliberalreactionaryrule.FormanynativeItalians,however,theAustrianrulerswereviewedaslittlemorethanforeigndictators.

TheonlynorthernItalianstatethatAustriadidnotinsomewaycontrolwasthekingdomofSardinia-Piedmont,ruledbytheItalianHouseofSavoy.ThekingdomhadbeenconqueredbyNapoleonin1796andtherealmreconstitutedbytheCongressofVienna.Itsruler,VictorEmmanuelIofSardinia-Piedmont(r.1802–1821),wascommittedtoreactionarypoliciesandhostiletoeverythingFrench.HeabolishedthereformspassedbyNapoleon,includingfreedomofreligionandtheNapoleoniccivilandcriminalcodes.Hisreignwasfiercelyoppressive,andthekingrefusedtoacceptanyconstitutionallimitstohispower.HewasconsideredatyrantbymanyItalianswhohopedtoformaunifiedItalianstate.

TheItalianstatesharboredseveralsecretsocietiesdedicatedtoradicalideas.ManyItalianshadenjoyedthemodernFrenchstyleofgovernment,andweredismayedbythereturnoftheancientregimes.SomeradicalshopedtocreateaunifiedItalianpeninsulawithaliberalconstitutionalgovernment.OneofthemostactiveradicalgroupswastheCarbonari,orcharcoalburners,whohopedtofreeItalyfromboththeAustriansandtheItalianprinces.In1820–1821andagainin1831,theCarbonariledabortiverevolts.ThefailureoftheserevoltsultimatelydiscreditedtheCarbonariandpavedthewayfortheriseofnewradicalorganizations.In1831,GiuseppeMazzini(1805–1872),theleaderofaradicalgroupknownasYoungItaly,becametheleadingrevolutionaryinItaly.Mazzini’sgoalswerethesameasthoseoftheCarbonari:toendAustriandominanceinItalianaffairs,overthrowItaliantyrants,anduniteItalyasaliberalanddemocraticrepublic.Mazziniwasassistedbymanyzealousfollowers,includingGiuseppeGaribaldi(1807–1882).Together,theyledrepeatedrevoltsagainsttheconservativerulers.

RussiaAtthebeginningofhisreign,TsarAlexanderIwasinterestedinreformingtheout-datedcentralizedsystemsoftheRussiangovernmentandgatheredtogetheragroupofyoungandenthusiasticliberalstoserveasadvisers.In1808,MikhailSperansky(1772–1839),popularlyknownasthe“fatherofRussianliberalism,”becamethetsar’sclosestadviser.Speranskydraftedaproposalforaconstitutionalgovernmentthatincludedanelectedlegislativebody.Onthesurface,AlexanderIappearedtoapproveofSperansky’sreforms,butinrealityfewchangeswereputintoeffect.Thereformer-adviseralsoproposedthegradualabolitionofserfdom,aprojectthatultimatelyprovedtooliberalforAlexanderI.InthegrandtraditionofRussiantsars,AlexanderI’sreignwasspentengaginginthenever-endingquestforterritorialexpansion.In1801,heconqueredpartofnorthwesternPersiaandannexedtheCaucasusstateofGeorgia.ThetsaralsotookadvantageofEuropeandistractionduringtheNapoleonicWarstoexpandintowesternEurope.In1809,RussiaannexedFinlandafterasuccess-fulwarwithSweden.In1812,RussiatookcontrolofaprosperousagriculturalregionknownasBessarabia,locatedinmodernRomania.TheCongressofViennaconfirmedthesegainsin1815andgrantedRussiaadditionalterritoryinPoland.

5SeLf-CheCK

Which university student

became a martyr to

German nationalism?



AlexanderIdiedonDecember1,1825,withoutadirectheir,andsocitizensinSt.Petersburgproclaimedhisbrother,theGrandDukeConstantine(1779–1831),thenewemperor.Hisreignwasshortlived,however,asthedukechosetoabdicatethethroneinfavorofanotherbrother,NicholasI(r.1825–1855).Asnewsofthesuccessionbecamepublic,reactionariesattemptedtopersuaderegionalleaderstorefusetoswearallegiancetothenewtsar.OnDecember14,1825,agroupofyoungliberalarmyofficersstagedarevoltinSt.Petersburg.TheleadersoftheDecembristRevoltcalledforimmediatereforms,includingaliberalconstitutionandtheabolitionofserfdom.TherebelsweredefeatedtwoweekslaterandtheirleadersexecutedorexiledtoSiberia.Thoughtheirrevoltfailed,theDecemberistsservedasaninspirationforlaterRussianradicals.Fortherestofhislife,NicholasIremainedutterlyterrifiedofrevolutionaries.Heestablishedasecretpoliceunderhisdirectcontrolinwhichtorootoutrevolutionariesandsuspectedrevolutionaries.

Anautocracyisagovernmentheadedbyonepersonwhowieldsabsolutepower.NicholasIwasoneofthemostautocraticrulersofthenineteenthcentury,aswellasoneofthemostreactionaryrulersinRussianhistory.Althoughherec-ognizedthateconomicgrowthandsocialimprovementrequiredreform,herefusedtoembracevirtuallyanychangetothestatusquo.HisreactionarytendenciesdrovehimtocreateaprogramcalledOfficialNationality,whosesloganwas“orthodoxy,autocracy,andnationalism.”Accordingly,theRussianOrthodoxChurchworkedverycloselywiththeseculargovernmenttocontrolRussianschoolsanduniversi-ties.YoungRussianswereprovidedwithastrictmoraleducationandexpectedtoshunsocialmobility.Meanwhile,politicalpropagandistscelebratedtheautocraticrulesoftsarssuchasPetertheGreat(r.1682–1725)andCatherinetheGreat(r. 1762–1796)andsuggestedthatitwasunderautocraticrulersthatRussiamostprospered.UnlikeMetternich,NicholasIembracednationalism,seeingitasawaytoglorifyRussia.OfficialNationalityprogramsencouragedRussianstoviewtheirreligion,lan-guage,andcustomsasdistinctfromandsuperiortothoseofwesternEurope.Russiannationalismledtodiscriminationagainstmembersofthenon-RussiannationalitiesandledtoapolicyofRussification,whichwasdesignedtocompelallcitizenstoadoptanationalRussiancultureandforgetregionaldifferencesamongdifferentgroups.

Inafewcases,NicholasIprovedamenabletomuchneededreforms.In1833,forinstance,hecommandedthestatefinancestobereorganizedandauthorizedMikhailSperanskytocodifyRussianlaw.However,improvingthequalityoflifeforserfswastheonereformthatNicholasIrefusedtoconsider.Over90percentofRussianswereserfs,peasantswhoenjoyedvirtuallynopersonalfreedomandlivedinabjectpoverty.Criesfortheabolishmentofserfdomgrewincreasinglyloud,andtheyresultedinmorethan700serfuprisingsduringNicholasI’sreign.NicholasI’ssonandheir,AlexanderII(r.1855–1881),wasgiventhemonikerof“theliberator”whenhefinallyagreedtoabolishserfdomin1861.

RussiawasshieldedfrommostoftherevolutionaryturmoilthataffectedEuropeinthe1830sand1840s,butnotallofit.In1830,NicholasIsoughttointerveneinrevolutionsinFranceandBelgium,butsoonwasdistractedbyarevoltinPoland.RussiahadacceptedthedecisionoftheCongressofViennatocreatetheCongressofPoland,establishingalimiteddegreeofPolishautonomywhileinstallingNicholas I

Russification to replace a region’s eth-nic culture with Russian traditions and language



asthecountry’sking.InNovember1830,asnewsofFrenchandBelgianrevolutionsreachedPoland,asmalluprisingbeganinWarsaw.DiscontentsoldiersandidealisticstudentssoonspreadtherevoltthroughoutPolandanddeposedofNicholasIasking.Inresponse,thetsarsentRussiantroopstoquelltheuprisingandarresttheleaders.In1832,NicholasissuedtheOrganicStatute,makingPolandanintegralpartoftheRussianEmpire,suspendingthePolishconstitution,andinitiatingapolicyofRussificationinPoland.Despitereoccurringserfuprisings,Russiaremainedsufficientlystablethroughoutthe1840stoallowNicholasItoprovideassistancetoAustriatosuppresstheHungarianrevoltof1849.

Conservatism and Liberalism in the Nineteenth CenturyBetween1815and1848,Europewitnessedtheriseofseveraldoctrines,manyofwhichremainvibrantmovementstothisday.Thetermliberalismwasfirstusedin1818,whileradicalismwasintroducedin1820.Termssuchassocialism, conserva-tism, individualism, constitutionalism, humanitarianism, feminism,andmonarchismallappearedinthe1830s.Nationalismandcommunismdatetothe1840s,andcapitalismwasfirstusedintheearly1850s.Theideasbehindthese“isms”oftenstretchedtothefarpast,butitwasonlyinthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturythatpeoplebegantosystematicallyorganizetheirideas.

Thepoliticalrivalrybetweenliberalismandconservatismfirstbeganintheearlynineteenthcenturyandhascontinuedintothepresentday.Understandingtheoriginsandoriginalagendasofthesetwopoliticaldoctrinesisimportant,bothforunderstandinghistoricaleventsandforfollowingcurrentones.Ingeneral,conservativeshavealwaysvaluedsocialstabilityandsoughttomoderatethepaceofchangetopreservethatstability.Liberals,ontheotherhand,havehistoricallybeenopentomorerapidchangeandhavevaluedtheprotectionofpoliticalandcivillibertiesmorethansocialstability.Surprisingly,however,someclassicalliberalideashavebeenadoptedbymodernconservatives;limitedgovernmentinterven-tion,forinstance,wasinitiallyanideafavoredbyclassicalliberals.Likewise,someclassicalconservativeideasarenowchampionedbymodernliberals;forexample,thefirstwelfareprogramswereinitiatedbyclassicalconservativesinthenineteenthcentury.Bothliberalsandconservativesshareddeephumanitarianconcernsinthenineteenthcentury,andproponentsofbothphilosophiesworkedtogethertohelpoutlawtortureandslaveryinthateraandtodramaticallyimprovetheconditionsinprisons,hospitals,asylums,andorphanages.

From1814to1848,conservativesdominatedthepoliticalsceneinmostEuropeancountries.Conservativepoliticalphilosophyinsistedthatanation’shistoricalinstitutionsshouldbesubjectedtoverygradualadaptationsandnotabandonedinsuddenrevolution.Mostconservativeswantedtoprotectupperclassinstitutions,suchasthemonarchy,thechurch,andthearistocracy,andopposedtherepresentativegovernmentssoughtbyliberalgroups.However,theconcernsvoicedbycontinentalconservativeswereoccasionallyopposedbyGreatBritain,whoserepresentativegovernmentwasalreadywell-established.Despitesomeinterestamongconservativesincreatingapermanentinternationalbodyofgovernment,

6SeLf-CheCK

Where did the

Decembrist Revolt

take place?

liberalism a politi-cal philosophy based on belief in progress, human logic, and good-ness, standing for the protection of political and civil liberties

conservatism a political philosophy based on tradition and social stability, stressing established institutions and preferring gradual development to abrupt change



nationalinterestsremainedcriticalpoliticalforces.Economically,conservativesadvocatedlaissez-fairepolicies,whichdiscouragegovernmentintervention.Inmostotherareas,conservativesembracedtheoccasionaluseofgovernmentinterventiontopreservethetraditionsandmoreswithineachsociety.

ClassicalliberalismwasbasedonthephilosophiesoftheEnlightenment,whichpromotedreason,progress,andindividualrights.Itsprimarilysupportersweremiddleclasspropertyowners.Politically,liberalsfavoredthesocialcontracttheoryoflimitedgovernmentadvocatedbyJohnLockeandtheFrenchrevolutionaries.Theysupportedconstitutionsandtheformationofparliamentarybodies.LiberalismwasacriticalcomponentduringtheearlystagesoftheoriginalFrenchRevolutionandcanbeseenintheestablishmentoftheconstitutionalmonarchyandtheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandCitizen,whichservesasitsbasicfoundationaldocument.Liberalshopedthatamorelimitedgovernmentwouldleadtoreligioustolerance,allowingeachindividualtofollowhisorherownbeliefsystemwithoutdiscrimination.Liberalsalsopromotedtheexpansionofindividualrights,suchastherighttolife,liberty,property,andthepursuitofhappiness.Theirconstitutionsincludedsuchprovisionsasthefreedomofspeechandthepress,equalityunderthelaw,andfreedomfromarbitraryarrestandimprisonment.Liberalswerenotnecessarilydemocrats,however,andmanyopposeduniversalmalesuffragebecausetheyfearedtheexcessesofmobrule.Theygenerallydisapprovedoflaborunionsandwerestronglyinfavorofprotectingprivateproperty.Economically,liberalsfavoredpoliciesinlinewithAdamSmith’snewlycreatedtheoryofcapitalism.

TheEuropeangovernmentthatliberalsmostadmiredwastheBritishsystemofconstitutionalmonarchy.Inthissystem,thepowerofthemonarchywaslimited,andtheprimeministerandothercabinetministerswereresponsibletoParliament.JeremyBentham(1748–1832),oneofthemostimportantBritishchampionsofliberalism,articulatedwhatheviewedasthepotentialvalueoftheBritishsystembydevelopingaphilosophyknownasutilitarianism.Inthisphilosophy,“good”wasdefinedasthatwhichprovidespleasureand“evil”asthatwhichcausespain.AccordingtoBentham,thepurposeofgovernmentwastopromotethe“greatestgoodforthegreatestnum-ber,”andhefelttheBritishsystemwasbest-suitedtodothat.Benthamsupportedtheseparationofchurchandstate,women’srights,andanendtoslavery.

UtilitarianismwasalsothephilosophybehindtheworksofJohnStuartMill(1806–1873).Hismostfamoustreatise,On Liberty,publishedin1859,remainsoneofthemostelegantdefensesoffreedomofexpressionandthedangersofthe“tyrannyofthemajority”everwritten.LikeBentham,Millwasanearlysupporteroffeminism.Millcollaboratedwithhiswife,HarrietTaylor,towriteimportantworksonthesocial,legal,andpoliticalinequalitiesfacedbywomeninEuropeansociety.Theirmostfamouscollaboration,The Subjugation of Women,waspublishedin1869andthecoupleappearedbeforeParliamenttopromotefemalesuffrage.Asthedecadespassed,manyofthesesocialagendaswouldbepromotedandacceptedbyconservativesandliberalsalike.

Extensions• ReadMetternich’sspeech“OftheNecessityoftheCensorshipofthe

Press.”Providethreejustificationsthathegivesforlimitingfreedomofexpressionandthepress.

7SeLf-CheCK

Which government

was most admired by

classical liberals?



1. During the Congress of Vienna, Prussia and Russia secretly planned to take all of Saxony and Poland without consulting the other nations. The plan was exposed by the representative Talleyrand, who formed an alliance with Great Britain and the Austrian Empire.

2. Napoleon escaped from Elba, re-proclaimed himself emperor, gathered a French army, and marched on Belgium. His campaign ended at Waterloo; he was then exiled to the remote island of St. Helena, where he spent his final days.

3. The great powers wanted piracy suppressed, but only the British possessed a large enough fleet. Continental nations refused to use the British navy, fearing it would threaten the freedom of the seas. Britain refused to allow its navy to be used by an international body.

4. Edmund Burke

5. Karl Sand

6. St. Petersburg, Russia

7. The British constitutional monarchy

SeLf-CheCK ANSweRS

SummaryTheageofMetternich(1815–1848)wasaperiodinEuropeanhistorydominatedbytheconservativepoliticalphilosophyofleadersliketheAustrianforeignministerKlemensvonMetternich,RussiantsarsAlexanderIandNicholasI,PrussianprinceKarlvonHardenburg,BritishforeignsecretaryRobertCastlereagh,andmanyoth-ers.TheseleadersbelievedthatEuropeansocietyrequiredthereestablishmentof“legitimate”governmentsandattemptedtosubdueviolentrevolutionarymove-ments.Europe’s“greatnations”agreedtomeetonaregularbasistodiscussissuesofmutualconcern.Ultimately,however,thegrowthofinternationalinstitutionswasblockedbytheindividualinterestsofeachsovereignstate.Throughoutthenineteenthcentury,conservatismwouldbattleagainstliberalideas,particularlynationalism.InstatessuchasGermany,Italy,andRussia,nationalismwasbelievedtobeausefulpolicyforunitingpeopleunderacommoncause.IntheAustrianEmpire,bycontrast,nationalismwasfiercelyrepressedasadangerousthreattoimperialpower.

Looking AheadWhiletheconservativeelitedominatedEuropeanpoliticsinthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury,Europeanwriters,painters,andmusiciansusheredinacomplexartisticmovementknownasromanticism.TheRomanticmovementwasanartisticreactionagainstthescientificrationalizationofnaturethathadcharacterizedtheEnlightenment.Thechampionsofromanticismemphasizedemotion,untamednature,andspontaneity.Visualartstypicallyincludednaturallandscapesandemotion-provokingimages,incorporatingbothmedievalandcontemporaryscenes.Itswriters,whichincludedthepoetJohnKeatsandthenovelistVictorHugo,workeddiligentlytobothevokeandcriticizethepast.PerhapsthemostwellknownandenduringproductsoftheRomanticmovementarethemusicalcompositionsofclassicalcomposers,suchasBeethoven,Brahms,andChopin,whosemasterpiecescontinuetobeplayedbysymphonyorchestrasaroundtheworld.


Unit 13, Lesson 2

The Romantic Movement

Keywordsromanticism

Young Germany

Essential Questions• HowdidtheRomanticmovementdifferfromclassicism?

• WhoweretheprimaryRomanticwriters,painters,andcomposers?



Set the StageIn the first half of the nineteenth century, art experienced profound changes that corresponded with the many political and social upheavals of the period. The Romantic movement challenged the established standards of classicism, which called for order and restraint in art. In contrast, the Romantics believed that art based upon emotion and a deep appreciation of the natural world could help individuals reach their full potential. The Romantic movement revolutionized music, literature, and painting, and its influence was felt for generations. New literary voices like Goethe’s, Wordsworth’s, and Hugo’s offered unrestrained, passionate dramas, stories, and poems, while Delacroix, Constable, and Goya moved patrons with their dynamic use of the paintbrush. Music saw the unbridled enthusiasm of such masters as Beethoven, Wagner, and Verdi. All of these artists, and many more, rejected the old classicist forms and adopted dynamic, fiery modes of expression that resonated throughout Europe and the world.

The Romantic Movement JustasdynamicpoliticalchangesweptacrossEuropeinthefirsthalfofthenine-teenthcentury,radicalnewideasinliteratureandtheartsalsoemergedonthecontinent.TheRomanticmovementstronglyinfluencedEuropeancultureandleftitsimpressionuponartistsandwritersfordecadestocome.ThecreativeenergyofEuropewasgalvanizedinitsrejectionoftheorderandrestraintassociatedwiththeEnlightenmentanditsembraceofpassion,emotion,faith,andspontaneity.Themovementwasalreadyhalfacenturyoldwhentheword romanticismfirstappearedinEnglandinthe1840s.

ClassicismhadactedastheartisticcomponentofrationalistEnlightenmentthink-ing.FromtheEnlightenment’semphasisonreason,restraint,andordercameartisticstandardsbaseduponthesupposedlyperfectedartformsofancientRomeandGreece.Theseancientartists,sotheclassicistssaid,haddiscoveredeverlastingvalidaestheticstandardsthatmodernartistsshouldemulate.Classicistsdominatedtheacademiesandcourtsofearlynineteenth-centuryEuropeandwereabletoinsistonthismodeofartisticexpression.

Bycontrast,emotionalexuberancecharacterizedromanticism.Romanticwriters,artists,andcomposersrejectedreasonandorderandlookedforinspira-tioninfeelingsandintuition,belief,andimagination.EarlyGermanRomanticsinthe1770sand1780scalledthemselvesSturm und Drang(“StormandStress”)artists.Powerful,oftentransitoryemotionsdictatedtheirdecisionsanddomi-natedtheirworldview.TheseRomanticartistsledpassionate,intenselivesthatwereoftenpunctuatedwithtragedy.Suicide,duelstothedeath,strangesick-nesses,andmadnesswerenotuncommon.Inrejectionofsocialmores,Romanticartistsoftenworetheirhairlongandunkemptratherthanwearingtraditionalpowderedwigs.Theypreferredthesqualorofcoldgarretstotheopulenceof

romanticism an artistic movement that rejected the classicist standards of order and restraint to embrace emotion and spontaneity



drawingroomsasawayofrejectingmaterialism,andtheyviewedartasawaytoembracespiritualtruthsthatmoneyorstatuscouldnotoffer.

TotheRomantics,thedevelopmentofone’sownpotential was the paramount goal of life. At thesametime,manyRomanticsrejectedtheoptimistic,Enlightenmentnotionthathumansandhumansoci-etycouldbeperfected.TheRomanticsalsostressedeachperson’svalueandtheimportanceofpersonalfreedom.RomanticartistssharedRousseau’sbeliefthatemotions—feelingandpassion—gavebirthtothecre-ativeprocess.Theyrejectedtheanalyticalstudyofnaturethatwasthehallmarkofphilosophyandinsteadembracedintuition,whichdrewinsteaduponthewon-dersandmysteryofthenaturalworld.ThepoliticalconceptofnationalismresonatedwiththeRomantics,asitrepresentedbothpositivefuturechangeandasenseofcontinuitywiththepast.ReligionfoundanaturalallyintheRomanticmovement.Areligiousrevivalcoincidedwiththeriseofromanticism,andtheemphasisofbothonmysticism,faith,andemo-tionfoundmanycommonadherents.RatherthantheEnlightenment’sstressoncollectivehumanachieve-ment,Romanticslaudedtheuniqueindividual.TheychampionedmenlikeNapoleonandBeethoven,pow-erfulfigureswhoshooktheworldwiththeirgeniusandtalent.Therewasauniverseoflimitlesspossibili-tiesthatdrovetheRomantics.Theyyearnedtodiscernthosethingsonthedistanthorizonsofknowledge,andtheybelievedthatthequesttounderstandwasitselfapowerfulreward.

Classicism’srigidrulesofartisticexpressionstifledRomanticnotionsofcre-ativity.Romanticism’srebellionagainstclassicism’sinflexibilityisunderlinedbytheirdifferingconceptionsofthenaturalworld.Classiciststendedtoseenatureasbeautifulandchaste,butmostlyirrelevanttolargerhumanquestions.SamuelJohnson,anEnglishwriteroftheclassicistschool,offered,“Abladeofgrassisalwaysabladeofgrass;menandwomenaremysubjectsofinquiry.”Incontrast,theRomanticsviewednatureaswondrousandenchanting.ThéodoreGericault’spaintingThe Raft of the Medusaillustratesshipwreckedsurvivorsdesperatelyclingingtotheirraftamidaviolentsea.Thepaintingportraysnatureasawesomeandpas-sionate,itselfacharacterofthestudy.NatureservedalsoasasourceofinspirationandspiritualmotivationfortheRomantics.JohnConstable,thefamedEnglishlandscapeartist,stated,“NatureisSpiritvisible.”

ThegrowthofindustrywastroublingtomostRomantics,whosawitsspreadasanattackuponbothadorednatureandhumanindividualism.Areasasyetuntouchedbyindustrywereveneratedandvisited.Romantics,forinstance,

This energetic work of the German Romantic movement, Caspar David Friedrich’s The Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog, captures man’s powerful and equally delicate place in nature.



treasuredthesereneLakeDistrictofnorthernEnglandandthehauntinglystrangewildsofNorthAfrica.Similarly,theMiddleAgesbecameidealizedforitsclosecommunitywithnature.Atthesametime,someRomanticsfoundindustrializationitselfexotic,thevastandpowerfulmovementoftheindus-triallandscaperesonatinginthecreativebreast.Thegreatfiresgeneratedbyironworksechoedthoseofhell,andtheentireindustrialmachineseemedahumanincarnationofasatanicsystem.JohnMartin’s1850painting,The Great Day of His Wrath,dramaticallypresentstheLastJudgmentfromtheBookofRevelations.Thepaintingpresentsthemodernworldbeingdestroyedthroughsomeunknowndisaster.Greatblackcloudsswirloveraseaoffirewhileunfor-tunatesoulsprepareforjudgmentintheforeground.Martin’s’nighttimevisitthroughthe“blackcountry”ofEngland’sindustrialmidlandsinspiredhisRomanticmasterpiece.

TheRomanticmovementhadahealthyrespectforthepastandfortheemo-tionalbondsthatlinkedgenerations.Whiletheeighteenth-centuryEnlightenmentthinkersviewedhistoryasemotionlessandinert,fortheRomantics,historyrep-resentedtheartofsocialandtechnologicalchangeoverthecenturies.Romanticsthereforethoughtofhistoryasdynamic,exciting,andattractive.ParticularlyinterestingandpresentintheirworkswastheMiddleAges,withitsemphasisonfaith,religion,andthecourageoftheindividual.

Based on interviews from survivors, Théodore Géricault painted The Raft of the Medusa, a vision of the devastating shipwreck of a French ship off the coast of West Africa. Only 15 of 147 crew members survived the ordeal.



Literature Germanyexperiencedavirtualgoldenageduringthelateeighteenthcentury.TwoofthegreatestwritersoftheperiodwereJohannWolfgangvonGoethe(1749–1832)andFriedrichvonSchiller(1759–1805).Theidealsofromanticismpermeatedtheirworks.BorninFrankfurt,GoethesettledinWeimar,amajorculturalmeccainGermanyduringtheSturm und Drangperiod,in1775.Lostloveandsuicideconstitutethemajorthemesofhis1774novel,The Sorrows of Young Werther.Faust,Goethe’smasterpiece,retoldthetime-honoredGermanstoryofamanwhosoldhissoultoSatanfortemporaldelights.Goethepub-lishedpartoneofFaustin1790andcompletedtheworkin1831,onlyayearbeforehisdeath.

Schiller,Goethe’sfriendandrival,madeWeimarhishome,aswell.Schiller’sidealismandfaithinhumanfreedomfoundtheirgreatestexpressioninhisdramaticworks.His1781workDie Räuber(The Robbers)wasascathingattackagainsttyrannicalgovernment.Mary,QueenofScots,JoanofArc,GeneralWallensteinoftheThirtyYears’War,andSwissfreedomfighterWilliamTellalsofeaturedprominentlyastheheroesofSchiller’swork.

Jacob(1785–1863)andWilhelm(1786–1859)GrimmminedGermany’spastforfolktales.TheycollectedandwrotetheseculturalstoriesintheRomantictraditionandpublishedthemasGrimm’s Fairy Tales(1812–1815).Thiscollec-tionhighlightedGermany’sfancifultalesandincludedearlyversionsof“SnowWhite”and“Rumpelstiltskin.”AnotherinfluentialGermanwriteroftheperiodwasHeinrichHeine(1797–1856),animportantfigureoftheYoung Germanymovement.TheyoungandexperimentalGermanwritersofthismovementgenerallyconsideredthemselvesapolitical,buttheirworkswerebannedincertainareasforbeingtoonationalistic.TheRomanticbeliefintheessentialvalueofindividualhumanexperiencesplayedacentralroleinHeine’slyricalpoetry,whichincludedthe1827Buch der Lieder(Book of Songs),oneofmanycollectionsofhispoetry.

Britainalsoplayedaleadingpartinromanticism’sliterarydevelopmentasBritishpoetsandwritersofprosebecametoweringfigureswhoseinfluencespreadacrossthecontinent.OnesuchfigurewasWilliamWordsworth(1770–1850),whotraveledtoFranceafterhisgraduationfromCambridge.WhiletherehestudiedtheworksofRousseauandtheradicalideasofearlyFrenchrevolutionarythinkers,fellinlovewithaFrenchwoman,andbecameafather.TheFrenchRevolutionandsubsequentwarsdroveWordsworthtoholdmoreconservativeviewsastimepassed,andhemovedbacktoEngland,where,withhissisterDorothy,hesoonmadeahomeintheEnglishcountryside.Nearbylivedhisfriendandcollabo-rator,SamuelTaylorColeridge(1772–1834),andtogetherthepoetspublishedtheirLyrical Balladsin1798.ThecollectionincludedWordsworth’sfamouspoem“TinternAbbey”andbecameoneofthemostinfluentialworksinEnglishliteraryhistory.Thepoets’abandonmentofextravagantpoeticconventionsandtheirembraceofcommoneverydayspeechmarkedtheirgroundbreakingstyle.Theypresentedsubjectssuchasleavesorthewindasmajestic.CriticsfirstignoredandthendenouncedWordsworth’sandColeridge’srejectionofclassicalpoeticrules.

1SeLf-CheCK

What was classicism, and

how did the Romantic

movement challenge it?

Young Germany an innovative Romantic literary movement in early nineteenth- century Germany



By1830,however,thestylewasacceptedandthepoetslauded.Wordsworth’s“Daffodils”isastrikingexampleofthepoet’sliterarygeniusandanexpressionofRomanticvalues:

I wandered lonely as a cloudThat floats on high o’er vales and hills,When all at once I saw a crowd,A host, of golden daffodils;Beside the lake, beneath the trees,Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Continuous as the stars that shineAnd twinkle on the Milky Way,They stretched in never-ending lineAlong the margin of a bay;Ten thousand saw I at a glance,Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.

The waves beside them danced, but theyOut-did the sparkling waves in glee:A poet could not but be gay,In such a jocund company:I gazed—and gazed—but little thoughtWhat wealth the show to me had brought:

For oft, when on my couch I lieIn vacant or in pensive mood,They flash upon that inward eyeWhich is the bliss of solitude;And then my heart with pleasure fills,And dances with the daffodils.

Thesimplicityofthepiecehelpsfocusreaderattentiononthespeaker’sfondnessfornature.Wordsworthcastsnatureasacharacterthatcaninspire,instruct,elevate,andinfluence.ThispowerfulviewofnaturewasrootedinRomanticprinciples.Wordsworthconceivedofpoetryasoverpoweringemotionlaterrecalledfromapositionofserenity.Thelaststanzademonstratesthisview.

JustasWordsworthwasinspiredbynature,Coleridgefoundinspirationfromtheexoticandmysterious.Coleridge’smajorcontributiontoLyrical BalladswashisThe Rime of the Ancient Mariner.Inthissolemnstory,asailorlaborsunderacursebroughtaboutbythemurderofanalbatross.SimilarmysticalthemespermeateColeridge’slaterpoetry,inworkssuchasChristabelandKubla Kahn.

ThreeotherEnglishpoetsoftheRomanticperiodcreatedbrilliant,emotionalpoetryduringtheirbrieflives.LordByron(1788–1824),PercyByssheShelley(1792–1822),andJohnKeats(1795–1821)allwrotestunningandpowerfulliteraryworksthatprofoundlyshapedthecourseofromanticism.ByronwasthemostpopularEnglishpoetfromtheperiod,andhisworksincludeChilde Harold’s Pilgrimage(1812–1818),The Prisoner of Chillon(1816),andDon Juan(1819–1824).

2SeLf-CheCK

From what and whom

did Goethe and Schiller

draw inspiration, and

who were their works’

protagonists?



Aeschylus’s“PrometheusBound”provedtheinspi-rationforShelley’splayPrometheus Unbound(1820).Inthisexcerpt,thespeaker,Prometheus,asymbolofman’sgoodness,battlesJupiter,arepresentationofevilandoppression:

I hear a sound of voices: not the voiceWhich I gave forth. Mother, thy sons and thouScorn him, without whose all-enduring willBeneath the fierce omnipotence of Jove, Both they and thou had vanished, like thin mistUnrolled on the morning wind. Know ye not me,The Titan? He who made his agonyThe barrier to your else all-conquering foe?Oh, rock-embosomed lawns, and snow-fed streams, Now seen athwart frore vapours, deep below,Through whose o’ershadowing woods I wandered onceWith Asia, drinking life from her loved eyes;Why scorns the spirit which informs ye, nowTo commune with me? me alone, who checked, As one who checks a fiend-drawn charioteer,The falsehood and the force of him who reignsSupreme, and with the groans of pining slavesFills your dim glens and liquid wildernesses:Why answer ye not, still? Brethren!

Keats’s poems are among themost beautiful intheEnglishlanguage.In1820,hepublishedThe Eve of St. Agnesand“OdeonaGrecianUrn.”His“OdetoaNightingale,”alsopublishedin1820,conjuresthethemesofimaginationandreality,immortalityandmortality,anddeathandthefullnessoflife:

My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk, Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains One minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk: ‘Tis not through envy of thy happy lot, But being too happy in thine happiness, —That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees, In some melodious plot Of beechen green and shadows numberless, Singest of summer in full-throated ease.

O, for a draught of vintage! that hath been Cool’d a long age in the deep-delved earth, Tasting of Flora and the country green, Dance, and Provençal song, and sunburnt mirth!

An intriguing individual known for his mistresses, extrava-gant lifestyle, and dangerous associations, Lord Byron served as one of England’s greatest Romantic poets. He died of a fever while fighting for the Greeks in their war for independence.



O for a beaker full of the warm South, Full of the true, the blushful Hippocrene, With beaded bubbles winking at the brim, And purple-stained mouth; That I might drink, and leave the world unseen, And with thee fade away into the forest dim:

Fade far away, dissolve, and quite forget What thou among the leaves hast never known, The weariness, the fever, and the fret Here, where men sit and hear each other groan; Where palsy shakes a few, sad, last gray hairs, Where youth grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies; Where but to think is to be full of sorrow And leaden-eyed despairs, Where Beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes, Or new Love pine at them beyond to-morrow.

Away! away! for I will fly to thee, Not charioted by Bacchus and his pards, But on the viewless wings of Poesy, Though the dull brain perplexes and retards: Already with thee! tender is the night, And haply the Queen-Moon is on her throne, Cluster’d around by all her starry Fays; But here there is no light, Save what from heaven is with the breezes blown Through verdurous glooms and winding mossy ways.

I cannot see what flowers are at my feet, Nor what soft incense hangs upon the boughs, But, in embalmed darkness, guess each sweet Wherewith the seasonable month endows The grass, the thicket, and the fruit-tree wild; White hawthorn, and the pastoral eglantine; Fast fading violets cover’d up in leaves; And mid-May’s eldest child, The coming musk-rose, full of dewy wine, The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.

Darkling I listen; and, for many a time I have been half in love with easeful Death, Call’d him soft names in many a mused rhyme, To take into the air my quiet breath; Now more than ever seems it rich to die, To cease upon the midnight with no pain, While thou art pouring forth thy soul abroad



In such an ecstasy! Still wouldst thou sing, and I have ears in vain—To thy high requiem become a sod.

Thou wast not born for death, immortal Bird! No hungry generations tread thee down; The voice I hear this passing night was heard In ancient days by emperor and clown: Perhaps the self-same song that found a path Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home, She stood in tears amid the alien corn; The same that oft-times hath Charm’d magic casements, opening on the foam Of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn.

Forlorn! the very word is like a bell To toll me back from thee to my sole self! Adieu! the fancy cannot cheat so well As she is fam’d to do, deceiving elf. Adieu! adieu! thy plaintive anthem fades Past the near meadows, over the still stream, Up the hill-side; and now ‘tis buried deep In the next valley-glades: Was it a vision, or a waking dream? Fled is that music:—Do I wake or sleep?

WilliamBlake(1775–1827)wasaskillfulEnglishpainter,engraver,andpoetoftheperiod.Hispoems“TheTyger,”“TheLamb,”and“TheMentalTraveler”alldisplayhisuniquepowerofimaginationandfeelingcoupledwithaprofoundsenseofthemystical.AlfredLordTennyson(1809–1892)andRobertBrowning(1812–1889)arepoetsgenerallyassociatedwiththeVictorianperiod,althoughtheirworkisinfusedwithRomanticelements.Tennyson’s1859workIdylls of the Kingillustratestheauthor’sattractiontotheMiddleAgeswithamasterfulrenditionoftheKingArthurtale.TheItalianRenaissanceisthesettingforRobertBrowning’s“MyLastDuchess”(1842),oneofhismanydramaticmonologuesandversedramas.WalterScott(1771–1832)isperhapsthegreatestBritishnovelistoftheRomanticperiod.HisinterestintheMiddleAgesandhisloveforhisnativeScotlandprovidedinspirationforover30historicalnovels,whileGoetheandtheGermanRomanticmovementalsoinfluencedhisworkconsiderably.Scott’sstoriesadmirablyrecre-atedtheatmosphereofagespastandtheexcitementofpivotaleventsinhistory,withScotlandoftenservingasthecenterpiece.Setinthetwelfthcentury,hismostpopularnovel,Ivanhoe(1820),tellsthestoryofaSaxonknightwhoseloyaltyistoKingRichardtheLionheartedattheendoftheThirdCrusade.

FrenchliteratureflourishedduringtheRomanticperiod,aswell.HonorédeBalzac(1799–1850)startedoutwritingoftheMiddleAgesbutsoonfoundinspira-tionintheworldaroundhim.ManyofhisworksdealwiththelivesoftheFrenchbourgeoisieinagritty,realisticstyle.Anexpansiveviewofhumancharacteris



attheheartofhisalmost100novelsandstories,collectivelycalledThe Human Comedy.AlexandreDumas(1802–1870),whosefatherservedasoneofNapoleon’sgenerals,wroteswashbucklingtales,suchasThe Three Musketeers(1844)andThe Count of Monte Cristo(1845).VictorHugo,alsothesonofageneral,developedawide-rangingpoeticstylethatblendedlanguage,imagery,andrhythm.Larger-than-lifecharacters,exoticlocations,andhumanpassionsarethehallmarksofHugo’scompellingnovelsandstories,whichechothelargerfascinationsoftheRomanticmovement.AdeformedbellringeremergesastheprotagonistinHugo’s1831workHunchback of Notre Dame.Perchedatopthecathedral,HugodescribesQuasimodoasa“humangargoyle”whospiesthepeopleoffifteenth-centryParisbelow.Hugo’srejectionofhispreviouspoliticalconservatismandhisembraceofliterary,political,andsocialfreedomwasmarkedwithhisworkHermani(1830),inwhichhedeliberatelybrokeestablisheddramaticconvention.Hugoembracedrealismforhis1862novelLes Misérables,whichtoldthegrippingstoryofFrance’spooranddisenfranchisedduringtheParisstudentuprisingsof1830.Interestingly,whereWordsworth’syouthfulradicalismevolvedintoamorematurecaution,Hugo’searlyconservatismgavewaytoamiddleagefilledwithliberalideals.

InRussia,writerssuchasAlexanderPushkin(1799–1837)andNikolaiGogol(1809–1852)hadaprofoundimpactontheRomanticmovement,aswell.UntilPushkin,mostRussianwriterswrotenotintheirnativelanguagebutinSlavonic,thetongueoftheRussianOrthodoxChurch.Pushkin’sgreat-grandfatherhadbeenageneralunderTsarPetertheGreat,anditwasinRussia’spastthatPushkinfoundinspiration.GrandfiguresfromRussianhistoryservedasthebasisforhisnovelsEugen Onegin(1825–1831)andBoris Godunov(1831).HailedasthefatherofrealisminRussia,GogolfirstgainedacclaimbypublishingstoriesofhisUkrainianchild-hoodinthe1830s.His1836satiricalplay,The Inspector-General,becameasourceofcontroversyasitportrayedstupidityandcorruptioninthetsar’sgovernment.AftersettlinginItaly,Gogolwrotehisscathingindictmentofserfdom,Dead Souls(1842),whichremainshismostpopularwork.

PaintingClassicismdominatedtheearlyyearsofthenineteenthcenturyandonlygraduallygavewaytoromanticism.TheFrenchpainterJacque-LouisDavid(1748–1825)rosetofameduringtheFrenchRevolutionandtheNapoleonicera.Hisstylewasrootedinclassicism,andheremainedacentralfigureofthatschoolevenasyounger,moredynamicRomanticartistsappeared.EugèneDelacroix(1798–1863)channeledlightandcolorinnewwaystoachievestrikinglyboldeffects.Whileclassicismcalledfororderanddiscipline,Delacroix’sworkswereflamboyantandunrestrained.HisThe Massacre of ChiosillustratedTurkishbrutalityinthemidstoftheGreekwarforinde-pendence.His Liberty Leading the Peopledramaticallycommemoratedthe1830FrenchrevolutioningrandRomanticfashion.LibertyisportrayedbyMarianne,thetraditionalsymbolofFrance,assheleadsfightersfromallsocialclassesinthecauseoffreedom.

Landscapeartistsoffereduniquenewperspectivesontheworldandnature.FrancesawtheriseofCamilleCorot(1796–1875)andothersfromtheBarbizonschool,whoseartistspainteddramatic,romanticlandscapesfromaround1830to1870.J.M.W. Turner(1775–1851)andJohnConstable(1776–1837),twonotableEnglishRomanticpainters,



foundinspirationinthenaturalworldandoffereddifferinginterpretationsofnature.Theircontrastingviewsoftheenvironmenthighlightedtheremarkableartisticvari-etywithinromanticism.Turnerpaintedtheforcesofnatureinalloftheirterrorandbeauty.Hisfavoritestudiesusuallydealtwithshipwrecksandtumultuousstorms.Incontrast,ConstablepreferredthegentlelandscapesofWordsworthforhisworks,creationsthatdepictedthecomfortandpeaceofruralEngland.TheSpanishpainterFranciscoGoya(1746–1828)madehismarkinworksdepictingFrenchviolencedur-ingtheNapoleonicoccupationofSpainandwithunflatteringportraitsofthecorruptSpanishBourbons.HispaintingThe Third of May, 1808,vividlyportraysthehorrorsofthePeninsularWar.Weseeonlythebacksofthedark,regimentedFrenchsoldiersastheypreparetofireuponagroupofhelplessSpaniards.Severalbodieslayslumpedintheforegroundwithbloodrunningred,whilethecentralfigure,cladinwhiteandarmsoutstretched,ispresentedasChrist-likeinhismartyrdom.

MusicPerhapsthegreatestoutletforthefreeexpressionandpassionateintensitythattheRomanticssovaluedwastheera’smusic.Likeotherartists,eighteenth-centurycomposersweremiredinhighlystructuredandwell-definedmediums,suchas

Eugène Delacroix included himself as the gentleman wearing the opera hat in this Romantic painting of the 1830 revolution in France, Liberty Leading the People. The revolt ended Charles X’s reign.

3SeLf-CheCK

What political ideologies

did Wordsworth and

Hugo embrace, and how

did their views change

over time?



theclassicalsymphony.Callinguponahostofdifferentmusicalforms,theRomanticscreatedastrikingnewmusicallandscapethatunleashedpowerfulemotionsinlisteners.Torealizetheirgranddramaticvision,Romanticcomposersoftenrequiredmoreandgreatersound.ThusthesizeofthesmallclassicalorchestrawasincreasedthreefoldbytheRomantics,aswindandper-cussioninstrumentswereaddedtoaugmentedsectionsofstringsandbrass.FrédéricChopin’s“revolutionary”etudeusedcrashingchordstosuggesttherushofthemasses;Beethoven’sThirdSymphonyofferedtheunrelentingdesolationoflossinitsfuneralmarch;Schumann’sRhenishSymphonyevokedthesobermagnificenceofreligioustraditionsandevents.Genuinehumanfeelingwastheproductofthesecomposers’musical labors,andthestrikingnewpowerandrangeofmusicelevateditsimportanceinsocietyandturnedcomposersintocelebratedartists.Traditionally,musichadbeenforchurchservices,andmusicianswereoccasionallyhiredtoplayforthewealthyatmeals.TheachievementsoftheRomanticsledtomusicbeingenjoyedinitsownrightasanartformcomparabletopaintingandliterature.Indeed,manysoonconsideredmusictobethegreatestartformpreciselybecauseofitspowertoevokethestrongestemotions.Musicwaswelcomeinthegrandestconcerthalls,andagreatvirtuosowhocouldcommandhislistenertotheheightsordepthsofhumanemotionwashailedasaculturalhero.

LudwigvanBeethoven(1770–1827)wasanimportantfigureintheshiftfromclassicismtoromanticism.Beethovenexpandedandshatteredclassicalformsandcreateddramaticconflictinhismusicwithcontrastingtonesandopposingthemes.Inthismethod,Beethovenwasneversurpassed.BorninBonn,Germany,BeethovenmadeVienna,Austria,hishomefrom1792untilhisdeath.Avarietyofpianoconcer-tos,violinandpianosonatas,andstringquartets;ninesymphonies;oneopera,Fidelio(1803–1805);andonemass,theMissa Solemnis(1818–1823),makeupthebodyofhiswork.GermanyproducedseveralRomanticcomposersafterBeethoven.CarlMariavonWeber(1786–1826)isgenerallyrecognizedasthefatherofGermanRomanticopera.Der Freischutz(1821)andOberon(1826)arethemostpopularofhis10operas.FranzSchubert(1797–1828)combinedthepianowithvoicetocreatemorethan600 lieder,poemsreadwithmusicalaccompaniment.FelixMendelssohn(1809–1847)composedchamberandchoralmusic,aswellasvariousworksforthepianoandviolin.Threeofhisfivesymphonies,theScottish(1890–42),theItalian(1833),andtheReformation(1830–1832),standoutashisbest-knownworks.RobertSchuman(1810–1856)likewisecomposedpianoconcertosandsymphoniesintheRomanticstyle.TheworksofRichardWagner(1813–1883)representedtheculminationofthe

Francisco Goya’s rendering of Napoleon’s soldiers in The Third of May, 1808, provides powerful commentary on the faceless horror that war brings upon innocents.

Beethoven bridged the classi-cal and Romantic periods with his brilliant compositions.



GermanRomanticmovementinmusic.ApassionateGermannationalistandfieryanti-Semite,WagnerlookedtoGermanhistoricalepicsforinspiration.The Ring of the NibelungencompassedfourWagnerianoperas—Das Rheingold, Die Walküre(TheValkyries),Siegfried, andGötterdämmerung(TheTwilightoftheGods).TheseworkspremieredinBayreuth,Germany,in1876.

France’sgreatestRomanticcomposer,HectorBerlioz(1803–1869),wrotetheemotionallychargedSymphonie Fantastique,whichpremieredupontheParisstagein1830.ItalyprovidedtwodynamicRomanticcomposersinthefiguresofGiuseppeVerdi(1813–1901)andGiacomoPuccini(1858–1924).Aprolificoperacomposer,Verdi’sbest-knownworksareRigoletto(1851),La Traviata(1853),Il Trovatore(1853),andAida(1871).Puccini’smostpopularworkisLa Bohème(1896).ManyofhiscontemporariesconsideredHungarianFranzLiszt(1811–1886)tobeEurope’sgreatestconcertpianist.Aprolificpianocom-poser,LisztlookedtothefolkmusicaltraditionsofHungaryforinspiration.FolkmusicalsoinspiredRussiancomposerMikhailGlinka(1804–1857)andthePolishFrédéricChopin(1810–1849).Glinka,thefirstRussiancomposerfromthenationalistschool,isperhapsbestknownforhisoperasA Little Life for the Czar (1836)andRussian and Ludmilla(1842),thelatterbasedonaPushkinpoem.Chopin’sartfulpianocompositionsincludetheEminor(1833)andF minor(1836)concertos.

Extensions• ReadPercyByssheShelley’s“OdetotheWestWind”(1819).Howdoes

theauthorcharacterizeforcesofnature?

• ViewFranciscoGoya’sYard with Lunatics(1794).Howdoesthepainteruselightanddarknesstoaccentuatetheimpressionofsufferingandsadism?

• ListentoRichardWagner’s“RideoftheValkyries”(1870).Howdoesthecomposerusestringsandbrasstocreationanimpressionofaweandmajesty?

SummaryRejectingestablishedclassiciststandardsofartisticexpression,theRomanticsstruckoutinnewanddynamicways.Thisledtothecreationofgrippingpoetry,stirringpaintings,andinspiringcompositions.TheRomanticmovementwasnothinglessthanarevolutionintheworldofartthatintenselyinfluencedwriters,painters,andmusiciansfordecadestocome.

TheRomanticsbelievedthatemotion,notreason,wasthekeytothehumanexperience.Tothisend,grandsensations,deeppassions,andageneralawarenessofhumanfeelingpermeatedtheirwork.Beethovendidnotseektolifttheintellect,buttoassaulttheheartofthelistener.Keatsdidnotwishtostudiouslyeducatethereaderinthescienceofplantlife;hewishedtostirthesoulwithvisionsofdelicateflowersandmajestictrees.WesterncultureowesagreatdebttotheRomanticsandtheirviewofanexciting,fearful,andemotiveworld.

4SeLf-CheCK

How was Beethoven a

transformative figure

in music?



1. A product of the Enlightenment, classicism advocated a precise, reasoned approach to the arts that was rooted in the ancient world and enforced by leaders of society in courts and the academies. The Romantic movement shattered this ideal with its emphasis on emotion, spontaneity, and individualism.

2. For his masterpiece Faust, Goethe looked back to a traditional German folktale. Schiller found inspiration in history, and some of his protagonists were major historical figures, such as Joan of Arc and Mary, Queen of Scots.

3. Though he initially held radical views and sympathized with the leaders of the French Revolution, William Wordsworth later found solace in the English countryside and adopted a more conservative outlook. By contrast, Victor Hugo started out as a conservative writer, but later equated artistic freedom with political freedom and became a radical.

4. Emerging from the eighteenth-century school of composition, Beethoven’s work became more and more emotive over time, shifting music away from classicism and securing his position as an early Romantic composer.

SeLf-CheCK ANSweRS

Looking AheadThefiresofnationalismandliberalismcontinuedtospreadthroughouttheheartsofEuropeansasthenineteenthcenturyprogressed.Germanwritersandphilosophers,includingHerderandHegel,workedtorefinetheirideasofculturalnationalismwithaneyetowardeventualGermanunification.Atthesametime,ItalianagitatorslikeMazziniandGaribaldisoughttothrowofftyrannyfromViennaanduniteItaly.Spainexperienceditsownliberalandnationalistrevolutionwhenitsrestoredkingfailedtoliveuptohisconstitutionalpledges.Greece’swarofindependenceagainsttheOttomanEmpireinspiredRomanticartistsandcapturedtheimaginationofEurope.Theforcesofliberalismandnationalismincreasinglychallengedthecon-servativestatusquoandofferedbothperilsandpromiseforthepeopleofEurope.


Nationalism and Revolution

Unit 13, Lesson 3

KeywordsCortes

pan-Slavism

reactionary policies

Young Italy

Essential Questions• HowdidnationalismsparkrevolutionsinGreece,Spain,andItaly?

• HowwastheSpanishrevolutiontiedtoliberalaims?

• HowwereRomanticartistsoftheperiodaffectedbypoliticalturmoil?



Set the StageRevolution proved to be the engine of nationalism in the nineteenth century and led to many European conflicts. The concept of the volksgeist, the cultural nationalism advocated by Herder, became increasingly politicized as Germans sought a politically unified nation based upon their language, history, and culture. Meanwhile, Greece sought independence from the Ottoman Empire, and a brutal war ensued. Some Romantic artists were so moved by the struggle of the Greeks that they quickly took up action. For instance, the poet Byron fought in the war, while the painter Delacroix offered a stunning masterwork commemorating an Ottoman massacre of the Greeks. The Italian states also agitated for unity and freedom from Austrian domination and found leaders in Mazzini and Garibaldi. Finally, Spanish liberals fought their reactionary king for constitutional liberties, but the intervention of foreign powers put an end to their hopes.

Nationalism and RevolutionNationalismprofoundlyshapednineteenth-centuryEurope,anditsconsequencesarestillfelttoday.Anunderstandingofthiscombustibleideologyisnecessarytocomprehendthevastturmoilandoftenexplosiveeventsthatmarkedthecentury.

Nationalismisrootedintheconceptthatanindividual’sprimaryloyaltyistoone’sownnationbecauseaperson’sveryidentityisdefinedbyhisorhernationality.Thisbeliefexistedtosomeextentforyearsbeforethebeginningofthenineteenthcentury,anditfoundnewandpowerfulsupportduringtheFrenchRevolution.ThisperiodsawFrance’slevée en masse,anationalschemethatcalledforthemassconscriptionofyoungmen,andthesubordinationofallindividualsandindustrytotheneedsofFranceduringwartime.Thisideameantreplacingolderviewsthatthevillage,thetown,ortheprovincewastheprimaryobjectofanindividual’sallegiance.Nowitwasthenationthattrumpedallotherloyalties.

Culturalrevivalandtheobservanceoftraditionmarkedthestartingpointformostnationalistmovements.PolyglotGermany,whichconsistedofmanysmallpolities,experiencedanintensesurgeofculturalnationalismduringtheNapoleonicWars.TheGermans’desiretoseetheirtraditionallandsfreeofFrenchoccupationignitedaspark,aunitingpurposethatgreatlyaidedinthecreationofanationalidentity.JohannGottfriedHerder(1744–1803)coinedthetermvolksgeist,or“spiritofthepeople”tohelpdefinehisconceptofthenation.StressingGermanculture,Herderreplacedthetraditionalideaofthestate,understooduntilthenasmainlyapoliticalandjudicialentity,withthenotionofaculturallyorganicnationcenteredonpeopleandtheirartisticandlinguistictraditions.Culturally,theGermanpeoplecelebratedtheirheritagethoughartistssuchasBeethovenandtheGrimmbrothers.Relyingonemotionandspontaneityinhisart,Beethovencreatedstirringsymphoniesandmajestic



tones,whiletheGrimmbrothersminedfolk-loreandstandardizedhistoricGermanictales.Nationalismwouldnotbelimitedmerelytoculturalspheres,however,anditsoontookonsignificantpoliticalimplications.GermanphilosopherGeorgHegel(1770–1831)cele-bratedtheconceptofthenation-stateastheGermanpeoples’historicdestiny.Accordingtotheconceptofthedialectic,whichHegelpro-moted,oneculturallyorpoliticallyacceptedidearepresentedathesiswhenanotheroppos-ingidea,orantithesis,appeared.Outoftheclashofthesetwoideas,athirdidea,orsyn-thesis,emerged.ForHegelthewholeprocessofhumanhistorywasbaseduponthissystemandcreatedasocialevolutionfromslaveryanddespotismtoliberalfreegovernment.Hegel’sconceptconvincedhimthateventualGermanpoliticalunificationwasinevitable.

Secretnationalistsocietieswerenotuncom-monintheconservativepoliticalatmosphereofreactionandrepressionfollowing1815.InItaly,nationalistGiuseppeMazzini(1805–1872)joinedtheundergroundCarbonarimovement,whichsoughttoridtheItalianpeninsulaofHapsburginfluence.In1831,heformedhisownmovement,Young Italy,aimedatcreatingaunitedItalianstate.YoungItalyinfluencedthecreationofYoungEuropein1835,amoreinter-nationalorganizationthatpromotedtheunifica-tionofnation-statesandtheindependenceofterritoriesvyingforgreaterautonomy.MazzinialsosupportedYoungGermany,YoungPoland,andYoungSwitzerlandmovements.

NationalisttraditionsalsofloweredineasternEurope.SlavicpeoplessuchastheSerbs,Czechs,Poles,Croats,Slovaks,andotherssawmuchintheideaofaunitedSlavstate.Slavicintellectualspointedtosimilaritiesinlanguageandculturetojustifythisnotionofnationalism.Between1815and1850,variousSlavicpeoplesrevoltedagainstimperialpowerandpromotedtheideaofpan-Slavism,butrepeatedfailuresagainsttheHapsburgandOttomanEmpiresdemonstratedtheirinabilitytoachievesuchagoalwithouthelp.Manypan-SlavsbeganlookingtoRussiaforpatronage,andsoonRussiabecameknownasthe“protectoroftheSlavs.”Nationalistsandliberalshadmuchincommoninthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury.Bothplacedemphasisonpoliticalequalityandindividualfreedom,whichbothsawasconceptsthatwerecentralpillarsofanystate.

Young Italy a leading Italian nationalist group that was created by Mazzini in the aftermath of failed Carbonari revolts

pan-Slavism the belief that a large, united nation consisting of all the Slavic peoples throughout eastern Europe should exist

The Young Europe Movement began in the 1830s and supported the unification or independence of European countries. Members called for “liberty, equality, and fraternity” for all mankind.



Nationalismgaverisetorevolutionsinthe1820sand1830sinGreece,Portugal,Spain,andSardinia.In1821,GreecerevoltedagainsttheOttomanEmpireinthehopesofgaininginde-pendence.SinceancientGreecehadbeenthebirthplaceofdemocracy,thisconflictcapturedtheimaginationofEurope’sliberals.LiberalsregardedthecontributionsoftheancientGreeksintheprogressofWesterncivilizationwithasacredreverenceandmanyactedupontheirfeelings.LordByron(1788–1824),theEnglishRomanticpoet,traveledtoGreecetoofferaidagainsttheOttomans.Hediedduringthewar,thoughitwasafever,notabullet,thattookhislife.

Inspiteofcenturiesofforeigndomina-tion,theGreekshadremainedaunifiedpeo-plethankstotheircommonlanguageandtheinfluenceoftheGreekOrthodoxChurch.Thissenseofnationalunityledtothecreationofsecretnationalistsocietiesintheyearsleadinguptotherevoltin1821.ThesemovementsfoundapassionateleaderofGreekpatriotisminaRussianarmygeneralofGreekorigin,AlexanderYpsilanti.TheOttomanTurksprovedruthlessinputtingdownthisrevolt,andby1825itlookedasthoughtheyhadalmostcom-pletelycrushedtherebels.By1827,however,theEuropeanpowerssawitintheirinteresttointervene,andBritain,France,andRussiaorganizedacoordinatedfleettoassisttherevo-lutionariesbysea.In1828,theRussiansattackedTurkeyoverland.Finally,1832witnessedthebirthofanindependentGreece,butthenewnationfailedtoliveuptothehighhopesofEurope’sliberals.Insteadofanidealizedliberalrepublic,GreeceemergedasamonarchywithaBavarianprinceinvitedtorule.TheGreekwarforindependencehighlightedthe“easternquestion,”amajorconcernforEuropeanleaders:howwouldtheincreasingweaknessandatrophyoftheOttomanEmpireaffectthebalanceofpowerinEurope?AboutthesametimethatGreeceproclaimeditsnewstate,theOttomansgrantedindependencetoSerbia,whichhadstrongtiestoRussia.AsthelargestSlavstate,RussiawasseentobetheprotectorofallSlavicpeoplesthroughouteasternEuropeandchampionedthenewSerbiannation.RussianpowerincreasedastheOttomanEmpire’sdeclined.

RebellionfiredupontheothersideoftheMediterraneanSeaaswell.FollowingtheFrenchwithdrawalfromSpainin1814,FerdinandVIIhadbeenrestoredto

1SeLf-CheCK

In what ways did Herder

and Hegel support the

German nationalist idea?

In Scenes of Massacre at Chios, Eugène Delacroix paints a horrify-ing scene of Greeks before their slaughter at the hand of Turkish aggressors. Delacroix sympathized with the Greek effort to gain independence from the Ottoman Empire.



thethrone.In1812,theCortes,theSpanishparliament,hadcreatedaliberalconstitutionwhilemeetingintheunoccupiedSpanishtownofCadiz.Atthetimeoftherestoration,Ferdinandagreedtorecognizeandfollowthisconstitution.Yetsoonafterhisrestoration,Ferdinandtoreupthedocument,harasseditsliberalframers,anddissolvedtheCortes.In1820,asrebellionssprangupinSpain’sSouthAmericancolonies,Ferdinandcalleduponthearmytoputthemdown.Soon,unitswithinthearmyitselfbegantorebelagainstthemonarchandwerejoinedbySpain’ssmallbutinfluentialmiddleclass.Fearingforhisthrone,Ferdinandagreedtoreinstatetheconstitutiontosatisfytherebelsandendtheconflict.TheconservativepowersofEurope,however,decidedtointervene.Austria,Prussia,Russia,andFrancefearedthatsuccessfulrevolutioninSpainwouldbreedsimilarmove-mentsintheirowncountries.Britaindidnotagreewithsuchaninterventionistpolicy.Contentwiththeirconceptof”splendidisola-tion”fromthecontinent,Britainwasunwillingtocommititsmilitarytopoliceactions.The1822CongressofVerona,ameetingbetweenrepresentativesfromAustria,Russia,Prussia,andFrance,approvedtheinterventionofaFrencharmytosupportFerdinand.WiththebackingoftheFrenchmilitary,FerdinandrestoredhisabsoluteruleofSpain.Justnextdoor,Portugalexperiencedasimilarbutlessbloodyrebellionasarmyofficerssoughttocreateaconstitutionalmonarchy.JohnVIhadescapedtoBrazilduringtheNapoleonicWars,andhisabsenceofferedPortugueseliberalshopeforgreaterpoliticalgains.WhenJohnreturnedtoLisbonin1821,hesworefidelitytothenewconstitution.

ItalyremainedinthecontroloftheAustrianHapsburgsintheyearsfollowing1815.UnderMetternich,Austria’spolicyintheregionwasconservativeandreactionary,eagertorootoutanysemblanceofItaliannationalistsentiment.ImperialrelativesruledtheItalianstatesofParma,Modena,andTuscany.ThewifeoftheBourbonkingoftheTwoSicilieswasanAustrianarchduchess.TheAustrianEmpireconsideredregionssuchasLombardyandVenetiainnorthernItalycriticalprovinces,andSardinia-Piedmont,anorthernItaliankingdom,wasruledbyVictorEmmanuelI(r.1802–1821).AlthoughnottechnicallyapartoftheAustrianEmpire,theHouseofSavoysharedandemployedMetternich’sreactionary poli-cies.VictorEmmanuelhatedallthingsFrenchandrepealedreformscreatedduringtheFrenchoccupationofthekingdom.Freedomofreligion,theNapoleoniccode,andthecriminalcodewereallabolished.Despitethereactionarypoliciesoftheregime,liberalsandnationalistscontinuedagitatingfortheirpoliticalaims.Themostdynamicgroupduringtheperiodfollowing1815wastheCarbonari(charcoalburn-ers).AsecretsocietycommittedtoItalianunification,theCarbonarisawthrowingofftheAustrianyokeasessentialtotheiraim.Tothisend,theCarbonarilaunchedunsuccessfulrebellionsin1820–1821andin1831.

TheCarbonarilosttheircredibilityafterthesefaileduprisingsandsoonfadedfromthepoliticalscene.PickingupwheretheCarbonarileftoff,however,

Cortes a Spanish parliament during the French occupation, which created a constitution that Ferdinand VII agreed to, then renounced, thus sparking rebellion

reactionary policies conservative plans, often incorporating violence, designed to keep nationalist and liberal forces in Europe from gaining ground

In Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi, Delacroix’s dramatic play of movement and color reveals a female in Greek attire standing before citizens of Missolonghi, who took their lives rather than succumb to Turkish invaders.



GiuseppeMazzinifoundedYoungItalyin1831andappealedtothosestillhopingtoseeaunitedItaly.MazzinisoonbecamethecentralfigureoftheItaliannationalistmovementandreiteratedthemaingoalsoftheCarbonari:expeltheAustriansfromthepeninsula,deposetheItaliantyrants,andcreateaunifiedandliberalItalianrepublic.OneofMazzini’sbestknownsupporterswasGiuseppeGaribaldi.TogetherthetwomenledseveralabortiverebellionsthroughoutItalyagainsttheAustriansandtheItalianprinces.

TherevolutionssweepingthecontinenthadaprofoundinfluenceonmanyRomanticartists.EugèneDelacroix’soutrageoverthenewsofbrutalTurkishrepressionagainsttheGreeksontheislandofChiosledtooneofhisbestknownandmoststrikingworks.The Massacre of ChiosbrilliantlyportraysthehorrorsofApril1822,whentheTurksmurderednearly20,000Greeks.Thepaintingshowsabarren,war-tornlandscapesurroundingagroupofprisonerswhowaitfearfullyfortheirexecution.Thoughsomecriticsrespondedadverselytothework,depictionslikeDelacroix’sinspiredRomanticyouththroughoutEurope.AfterviewingJohnConstable’sThe Hay WainattheSalonof1824,Delacroixactuallyreworkedhispainting,makingthelandscapebackgroundmorevibrantandalive.The Massacre of ChiosdemonstratesDelacroix’sdisgustattheslaughterperpetratedbytheSublimePorte,theWesterndiplomatictermfortheOttomanEmpire,andservesasadenunciationofsuchgenocide.Withitsbolduseoflightandvibrantcolors,Delacroix’sworkcommentedimpressivelyuponthepoliticallandscapeoftheday,andithelpedchangethecourseofpaintinginthenineteenthcentury.Justoveracenturylater,anotherartistandDelacroixadmirer,sickenedbyamassacrecommittedduringtheSpanishCivilWar,wouldoffertheworldhisownartisticdenunciationofmassslaughter.PabloPicasso’sGuernicastandsbesideDelacroix’sThe Massacre of Chiosasapowerfulreminderofmankind’scapacityforcrueltyduringwartime.

Extensions• ReadHerder’sMaterials for the Philosophy of the History of Mankind.Howdoes

Herderdefineanation?

SummaryNationalismcontinuedtohaveintensepowerthroughoutEuropeinthedecadesafter1815,promptingconservativesthroughoutthecontinentintomoreandgreaterreactionarymoves.InGermany,greatmindslikeHerderandHegelpredictedthepoliticalcondensationoftheirbelovedfatherland,whileinItalyMazziniandGaribaldilednumerousunsuccessfulrevolutionsaimedatItalianunification.Theirmovement,YoungItaly,cameintobeingonlyaftertheCarbonariprovedthemselvesincapableofbringingaboutliberalandnationalistchange.Spainsawitsrestoredking,FerdinandVII,rejectaliberalconstitutionandfacehisownnation-alistuprising.OnlytheinterventionofthepowersofEuropeaftertheCongressofVeronaallowedFerdinandtocrushtherebelsandretainhisthrone.TheGreekwarforindependencestirredRomanticartistswithnewsofvaliantGreekfreedom

2SeLf-CheCK

Why did the European

powers decide to

intervene in Spain during

the Congress of Verona?



1. Herder’s concept of volksgeist called for German cultural unity, while Hegel saw in his dialectic model the certainty of German political unification.

2. Austria, France, Russia, and Prussia believed that a successful revolution in any European state could

lead to more revolutions. Their intervention was designed to crush the revolution and secure the conservative order.

SeLf-CheCK ANSweRS

fightersandbrutalTurkishmassacres.TheseconflictsmarkedanintenseperiodinthedevelopmentofEuropeandultimatelyprovedharbingersofevengreaterdisturbancestocome.

Looking AheadWiththedefeatofNapoleonin1815,Francewasreestablishedasaconservativemonarchydeterminedtokeeptheforcesofpoliticalandsocialoppositionatbay.Napoleon’sdownfalldidnotmarkthetotalterminationofrevolutionarysenti-mentinFrance,however.Forthreedecades,thefiresofliberalismandnational-ismcontinuedtoburnandoccasionallyexplodedintorevolutionaryaction.In1830andagainin1848,Parisianstooktothebarricadeswiththehopethattheiractionswouldcreateamorejustandfairsociety.Theserevolutionswouldhavefar-reachingconsequences,profoundlyupsetEurope’sconservativeorder,andseetheemergenceofnewanddynamicfigurescommittedtocreatingabetterworld.


Revolutions in France

Unit 13, Lesson 4

Keywordsaristocracy

émigré

national workshops

premier

republic

Essential Questions• WhatwerethehopesofthereturningFrencharistocracy,andhowwere

theyatoddswithgainsmadebythebourgeoisie?

• WhatfactorsledtotheestablishmentoftheJulyMonarchy,andwhydidthisregimeultimatelyfail?

• HowandwhywastheSecondRepubliccreated,andwhatweretheprimarypoliticalfactionsthatdominatedit?



Set the StageThe French revolutionary and Napoleonic periods had completely reordered French society. By 1848, France had been without a king for nearly a quarter of a century, had experimented with various republican systems, and had even endured the military dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte. The Congress of Vienna had restored the Bourbon line to the throne of France and created a new conservative order dedicated to stamping out revolutionary sentiment throughout Europe. However, underneath the veneer of European order lurked profound unrest and dangerous new ideologies. In France, liberal sentiments were never completely crushed and lingered on in the hearts of the newly empowered bourgeoisie and working classes. The new French monarchy would have to deal with political issues only vaguely present during the reign of Louis XVI before the explosion of revolution.

Revolutions in franceFollowingthe1814TreatyofFontainebleauandNapoleon’sabdicationasFrance’semperor,theBourbondynastywasrestored.Thisrestorationperiodcontinueduntil1830andsawtwokingssitupontheFrenchthrone:LouisXVIIIandCharlesX.Louis XVI,whohadlosthisheadtotheguillotineduringtheFrenchRevolution,wastheelderbrotherofbothoftheserestorationmonarchs.Themurderedking’ssonwasregardedbyBourbonsupportersasLouisXVII,althoughtheyoungprincediedincaptivityin1795,beforehehadachancetoassumethethrone.Thefirstrestorationmonarch,LouisXVIII(r.1814–1824),recognizedthattheOldRegime couldnotbereconstitutedexactlyasithadexistedbeforetheFrenchRevolution,andthereforeadvo-catedamoderatepoliticalcourse.France’snobilityhadfledduringtheRevolutionandnowreturnedexpectingthefullrestorationoftheirpre-Revolutionrightsandproperty.Themiddleclassliberalbourgeoisie,whichhadbenefitedgreatlyfromrevolutionaryandNapoleonicreforms,jealouslyguardedtheirnewfreedomsandprerogatives.Inthispoliticalminefieldthenewkingsoughtbalanceforallparties.

Thepost-Napoleonicconstitution,theCharterof1814,establishedabicamerallegislature.Theupperhouse,theChamberofPeers,wasmadeupofmonarchialappoin-tees,whilethelowerhouse,theChamberofDeputies,consistedofrepresentativeswhowereelectedbaseduponpropertyqualifications.Thecharterrecognizedindividualrightsandfreedoms.AlthoughRomanCatholicismwasrecognizedastheofficialstatereligion,freedomofreligionwasguaranteedbythecharter.Notwishingaradicalreorganizationoflawandsociety,theNapoleonicCoderemainedthebasiclawofFrance.Additionally,propertyredistribution,includinglandtakenfromthenobilityandthechurch,wasconfirmed.Thereturningaristocracy,thereactionaryultra-royalistsorémigrés,werenaturallyunhappyoverbeingdeniedthereturnoftheirpropertyandthegenerallymoderatepoliticalstanceofthecharter.Theking’sbrother,theCountofArtois,ledaparticularlyreactionaryfactionofémigrésthatcametobe

aristocracy the landed nobility that returned to France after Napoleon’s fall and wished restoration of their property

émigré French word for those aristocratic nobles that fled France during the French Revolution and returned after the fall of Napoleon



knownsimplyastheultras.The1820electionssawamajorvictoryfortheultrasintheChamberofDeputies,andtheybeganrestrictingcivilliberties,limitingvotingrights,andintroducingseverecensorship.

Obeseandill,LouisXVIIIdiedinSeptember1824.Asthekinghadnoheirs,hisbrother,theCountofArtois,wascrownedKingCharlesX(r.1824–1830).Thekingsoonbecameunpopularwiththebourgeoisieforhismeddlingwithgovernmentbonds.Themiddleclassesheldmanybondsandexpectedlargereturns.Seekingmoneyforaristocraticcompensationfortheirconfiscatedlands,Charlesreducedinterestratesonthebondsfrom5percentto3 per-cent.Additionally,theNationalGuard,whichhadbeenstaffedlargelybythebourgeoisie,wasdisbanded.Intheelectionsof1827,liberalsandmoderateswonbacktheChamberofDeputiesandthekinginitiallytriedtoworkwiththem.By1829,however,itwasobvioustheirpoliticalgoalswereirreconcilable,andCharlesXappointedAuguste-Jules-Armand-MarieofPolignac(1780–1847)asthenewFrenchpremier.TheliberalswereenragedandwonaclearmajorityintheChamberofDeputiesintheelectionsofMay1830.Infearofpopularresentmentandgrowingliberalpoliticalpower,thekingandPolignacissuedtheFourOrdinances.Thesedecreesincreasedcensorshipofthepress,disbandedtheChamberofDeputies,calledfornewelections,andfurtherlimitedtheelec-torateinthehopesofweakeningthepoliticalopposition.

Inreactiontotheseharshandone-sidedlaws,theartisansandmerchantsofParis,promptedbythebourgeoisie,struckoutinopeninsurrectionagainsttheking.Fearingarepeatofthe1790sReignofTerror,CharlesXabdicatedandfledtosafetyinBritain.Therevolutionariesweretornastowhatformofgovernmenttheyshouldcreate.Somebelievedthatarepublic shouldbeestablished,whilemanyliberalsintheChamberofDeputiescalledforaconstitutionalmonarchybasedontheBritishmodel.CharlesTalleyrand(1754–1838),AdolpheThiers(1797–1877),andFrançoisGuizot(1787–1874)wereamongtheconstitutionalmonarchistswhoquicklyproclaimedthedukeofOrléans,LouisPhilippe,asFrance’snewking.LouisPhilippe(r.1830–1848)wasoftenreferredtoasthe“citizenking”andhisreignasthe“JulyMonarchy”afterthemonthofhisascensiontothethrone.AcousinofCharlesX,thenewkingwasthesonofPhilippeEgalité,anaristocraticfigurewhoinitiallyembracedtheFrenchRevolution,thoughhewassenttotheguillotinenevertheless.OneofthereasonsforLouisPhilippe’spopularitywashiscarefullycultivatedimageasafriendlybourgeoisfigure.Ratherthanacceptingthetitle“kingofFrance,”LouisPhilippestyledhimself“kingoftheFrench,”animportantdistinctionthatfurtherboostedhisstandingamongFrance’smiddleclasspopulace.ThewhiteandgoldcolorsoftheBourbonflagwerereplacedwiththerevolutionarytricolorofblue,white,andred.RomanCatholicismremainedtheoverwhelmingmajorityreligionofFrance,butitceasedtoberecognizedasthestatereligion.TheCharterof1814wastinkeredwithtoexpandtheelectorate,buthighvoterpropertyqualificationsremained,whichcontinuedtolimitthenumber

premier the prime minister to the king; a political leader instru-mental in creating policy

republic a democratic-representative system of government that eschews monarchy and guaran-tees certain civil liberties

1SeLf-CheCK

According to the Charter

of 1814, how were the

upper and lower houses

of parliament selected?

Exiled during the French Revolution and Napoleon’s One Hundred Days, Louis XVIII would ultimately govern France for 10 years.



ofeligiblevoters.TheprimarygoalsofLouisPhilippeandhisgovernmentweretoencourageprosperity,protectprivateproperty,andsecurepeaceathomeandabroad.Inthe1830s,thehistorianAdolpheThiersplayedakeyroleingovernment,oftenservingasprimeministertotheking.

FrancecontinueditspolicyofhighforeigntariffsunderLouisPhilippe.Thiswasdonetoprotectindustrialistsandfactoryownersfromgrowingcompetitionabroad.GreatBritainwasinthefullflowerofitsindustrialrevolutionatthistimeandofferedanarrayofmanufacturedgoodsthatthreatenedFrenchindustry.Additionally,tariffsonimportedgrainensuredprotectionforFrenchfarmers.Yetwhiletheneedsofthefactoryownersandfarmerswerelookedafter,povertystillreignedinFrance’scities,thoughitelicitedlittlenoticefromthekingandhisministers.Theyears1840to1848sawtheconservativeFrançoisGuizot,themostprominentfigureinthegovernment,easingoutThiers.AbandoningThiers’moderation,Guizot’spoliciestendedtobemuchmorearbitraryandautocratic.ThispromptedgreateroppositiontotheJulyMonarchy,whichonlyincreasedfollowingabadgrainharvestin1846andaneconomicdepressioncenteredonindustrythefollowingyear.SobaddidthesituationbecomethatrevolutionbrokeoutinFebruary1848.TherevolutionariesoverthrewLouisPhilippeandestablishedtheSecondRepublic.

Thecausesforthe1848revolutionweremany.DiscontentlayintheshadowsofaEuropeseeminglytranquilunderthepost-1814conservativeorder.Economicsetbacksinthe1840sbroughtmuchofthatdiscontenttotheforeground.Thelingeringeffectsofthe1837depressionstillhauntedEuropeanindustrywellintothenextdecade,andthe1840sbecameknown“thehungryforties.”Poorharvestsincreasedthemiseryanddiscon-tentofEurope’spoor,andurbanworkerscontinuedtoexperiencepovertyandback-breakinglaborwithlittlereward.Itwasnottheworkersandpeasantswhoplayedtheleadingroleintherevolu-tionof1848,however.Rather,middleclassliberalsfromthecitieswerethedominatingfigures.Likeliberalsthroughoutthecontinent,theFrenchrevolutionariesagitatedforawrittenconstitutionthatwouldlimitthepoweroftheking,providefortrulyrepresentativeelectedparliaments,andassureclearlydefinedcivilliberties.TheEnlightenmentandtheFrenchRevolutionhadpopularizedtheseideals,andtheypervadedliberalcirclesthroughoutEuropeinthemid-nineteenthcentury.By1848,Frenchliberalswereuniqueintheirdesiretocompletelyridthemselvesofthemonarchyandestablisharepublic.Theirexperimentswithconstitutionalmonarchy,basedupontheBritishmodel,hadgivenwaytoevenmoreradicalchange.Frenchliberalswerealsouniqueintheircallforuniversalmalesuf-frage,whichwoulddoawaywiththepracticeoflimitingthevotetoproperty-qualifiedmembersofthemiddleclass.ElsewhereinEurope,inplacessuchasGermany,Austria,andItaly,theliberalcausewastiedwiththenationalistcause.ManyGermansandItalianshopedtounifytheirrespectivenationsunderaliberalconstitution.Inthe

Known as the July Monarch, Louis Philippe served as the last French king.



AustrianEmpire,subjectpeoplesliketheMagyarsofHungaryhopedtothrowoffthechainsofAustriandominationandcreatetheirownindependentandsovereignnations.Francewasalreadyasovereignnation,soFrenchliberalsdidnotsharetheseconcerns.

Byearly1848,FrenchdiscontentwithLouisPhilippe’sarbitrary ruleapproachedtheboilingpoint.MiddleclassopponentsofthekingandGuizotpreparedtoholdalargebanquetonFebruary22.Fearingthiseventcouldgen-eratefurtherpopularoppositiontotheregime,thegovernmentattemptedtoforbidtheevent.SpontaneousriotingfollowedandsoonPariswasablazewithrevolution.ThenextdayliberalsdemandedthatLouisPhilippedismissGuizot,andthekingreluctantlyagreed.TheriotingcontinuedtogrowworseuntilFebruary24,whenLouisPhilippeabdicatedthecrowninthehopesofendingtheviolence.HefledtoGreatBritain.TheChamberofDeputiesactedquicklytofillinthepowervacuumleftbytheking’sabdication.Theycreatedaprovi-sionalgovernmentthatsoonestablishedtheSecondRepublic.WorkingtomakethenewrepublicapracticalFrenchgovernment,twofactionsemergedwithintheprovisionalgovernment.Thefirstfactionwasmadeupofmoderaterepub-licanswhosawthenewgovernmentasaworkablepoliticalinstrumentinandofitself.ItwasledbypoetandpoliticianAlphonsedeLamartine(1790–1869).Thesecondfactionwasmadeupofsocialistswhosawthenewrepublicasthemeanstoanend—atruesocialistsociety.ThisfactionwasledbyLouisBlanc(1811–1882).KnowingthatBlanchadconsiderablecredibilityamongParisiansocialistsandworkers,theprovisionalgovernmentofferedBlancakeyposttoquelltheunrest.Blancwastaskedwithcreatinganorganizationofnational workshopsthroughoutFrancetocombatunemployment.Thissystemulti-matelybecameaformofreliefforthepoor,ratherthanatruesocialistschemetoputthepowerofindustryinthehandsoftheworkers.

SocialistsandotherradicalstendedtodominateFrance’scities,particularlyParis,Lyons,andMarseilles,whiletheFrenchcountrysideandsmallertownsremainedfundamentallyconservativeintheirpoliticalandeconomicoutlook.AnationalassemblywasrequiredtodraftaconstitutionforthenewrepublicandelectionswerescheduledforApril.Themoderaterepublicansbecamethemajorityfactioninalandslidevote.WithaclearmandatefromtheFrenchpeopleandwaryofsocialistdesigns,thenationalrepublicanscalledfortheterminationofthenationalworkshops.WorkersinParisdidnottakekindlytothenotionofimminentunemployment,andonceagainriotsbrokeout.TheJuneDaysRevolt,asitcametobeknown,lastedfromJune23toJune26andsawbitterclassfightingbetweenradicalsandthearmyunderGeneralLouisCavaignac(1802–1857),whohadbeendispatchedbytheprovisionalgovernmenttoputdowntheinsurrection.Theviolentdisturbanceresultedin10,000radicalsbeingkilledandensuredtheestablishmentofamoderate,notradical,republic.

ByNovember1848,theFrenchNationalAssemblyhadfinisheditsconsti-tutionaldraftfortheSecondRepublic.Theconstitutioncalledforapresidentandaunicamerallegislature.PropertyqualificationsforvotersweretossedoutanduniversalmalesuffragebecamethelawofFrance,whichwidelyexpanded

national workshops socialist-inspired system of government-sponsored employment that ultimately became a form of poor relief rather than a revolu-tionary form of worker empowerment

2SeLf-CheCK

Why did France continue

a policy of high tariffs for

foreign trade?



theelectorate.Thefollowingmonth,LouisNapoleonBonaparte,thenephewoftheFrenchemperor,gainedover5millionvotesandbecamethepresidentoftheSecondRepublic.Foryears,LouisNapoleonhadbeenonthefringeofFrenchpoli-tics,asomewhatcomical,ifwell-meaning,figure.Yetthedisturbancesof1848andthepromiseofanewgovernmentledmanytoassociatehimwiththegrandeur,glory,andstabilityofFranceunderhisuncle.Easilyforgottenweretheprivation,death,andmiseryoftheNapoleonicWars.LouisNapoleon’sopponentsintheraceincludedLamartine,Cavaignac,andthesocialistAlexandreLedru-Rollin(1807–1876).Combined,theywonfewerthan2millionvotes.WhileLouisNapoleonhadbeenelectedpresidentoftheSecondRepublic,hesecretlydesiredtorecreatetheimperialdictatorshipofhisuncleandbeganlayingthegroundworkfortheSecondFrenchEmpire.

Extensions• ReadVictorHugo’sLes Misérables(1862).HowdoesHugodescribethe

revolutionarysentimentsandactionsofhisprotagonistsin1830?

• ReadJulesMichelet’sLe Peuple(1846).WhatistheroleoftheFrenchpeopleinhistory,andhowdoesheviewtheimpactoftheFrenchRevolution?

SummaryAftertheabdicationofNapoleonin1814,theBourbondynastywasrestoredtothethroneofFrance.LouisXVIIIacceptedtheNapoleonicCodeandtheredistributionoflandundertherevolutionaryandNapoleonicregimes.Thisangeredmanyofthereturningaristocrats,whohadhopedtoregainthepropertytheylostduringtheFrenchRevolution.AfterLouisXVIII’sdeathin1824,hisyoungerbrotherwascrownedCharlesX.CharlesXloweredinterestratesongovernmentbondsanddisbandedtheNationalGuard,moveswhichalienatedtheFrenchbourgeoisie.WhenCharlesXissuedunpopularandrepressivelegislationagainstliberals,Parisexplodedintorevolution.Therevolutionof1830sawtheabdicationofCharlesXandthecrowingofhiscousin,LouisPhilippe.InwhatcametobeknownastheJulyMonarchy,thenewkingruledfor18yearsand,althoughinitiallypopular,eventu-allyengagedinrepressivemeasures.In1848,afteradecadeoftougheconomictimes,anotherrevolutionrockedtheFrenchcapital.AprovisionalgovernmentwassetuptocreateanewFrenchrepublic.Moderaterepublicansandsocialistsbothviedforleadershipofthenewgovernment,withthemoderaterepublicanseventuallygainingamandatefromtheFrenchpeople.Theyear1848alsosawtheelectionofLouisNapoleonBonaparte,nephewoftheemperor,asthenewFrenchpresident.LouisNapoleonsoonsetaboutlayingthegroundworkforhisowndictatorship.

Looking AheadThe1848revolutiondidnotendonthestreetsofParis.Insurrectionarymove-mentssoonappearedthroughoutthecitiesofEurope.TakingtheircuefromParis,liberalsandnationalistsviolentlyagitatedagainsttheconservativestatusquoandsoughttheirownpoliticalaims.Germanliberalsandnationalistsgatheredin

3SeLf-CheCK

Which political faction

supported national

workshops in the

provisional government,

and why did this scheme

ultimately fail?



1. The upper house, the Chamber of Peers, was made up of representatives appointed by the king. The lower house, the Chamber of Deputies, was made up of representatives elected by property qualified voters.

2. High tariffs protected French industry and agriculture from cheaper, foreign manufactured goods and grain.

3. Within the French provisional government of 1848, the socialists, led by Louis Blanc, called for the creation of national workshops to combat unemployment. The system of national workshops ultimately became a form of relief for the poor rather than a system of empowering the working classes.

SeLf-CheCK ANSweRS

FrankfurttocreatethebasisforGermanunification.Vienna’srevolutionforcedtheemperortoabdicateandsoonspreadtoinflamenationalistsinBudapest,Prague,andthroughouttheAustro-HungarianEmpire.Russia,curiouslyfreefromrevolutionaryoutbreaks,offeredmilitaryassistancetoAustria.Italyalsoexperiencedashort-livedRomanRepublic,whichwascrushedbyFrance’sLouisNapoleonBonaparte.


The Revolutions of 1848

Unit 13, Lesson 5

KeywordsCongress System

Junker

robot

Essential Questions• Whatweretheeffectsofthe1848revolutionsthroughouttheAustrian

Empire,andhowdidtheimperialgovernmentdealwiththedisturbances?

• HowdidthenationalassemblyinFrankfurtseektorealizeGermannationalistideals?

• HowwasRussiaabletoavertsimilarrevolutionsinitscities?



Set the StageOver the course of the early nineteenth century, nationalist and liberal forces continued to threaten the entrenched conservative order. Metternich’s blueprint for Europe, laid out at the Congress of Vienna and held in place by the Congress System, increasingly fought a rearguard action against these powerful and spreading ideologies. The Young Italy movement, for instance, determinedly provoked Italian tyrants and the Austrian Empire alike in its quest for a united and liberal Italy. Vienna faced threats from other quarters, as well. The Hungarians increasingly saw themselves as having their own unique national identity, and they were just one people among many in the polyglot empire who believed that they deserved to be able to form their own autonomous governments. In Germany, liberals and nationalists agitated for a united German nation that would recognize German language, culture, and history as its foundation. Throughout Europe, these forces waited for their moment to take bold action and achieve their aims. That moment arrived in early 1848.

The Revolutions of 1848 Theyear1848sawrevolutionsunleashedthroughoutEurope.Manyoftheseattacksupontheestablishedorderfailedtoachievetheirstatedgoals;neverthe-less,theconsequencesoftherevolutionaries’actionscastlongshadowsoverthecontinentfordecadestocome.Thisunprecedentedoutburstofrevolutioncanbetracedtothreechiefcauses.First,liberals,whohadbeenagitatingforgreaterpoliticalfreedomforyears,feltthatnosignificantgainshadbeenmadethroughlegalorundergroundmethods.Second,aftertheCongressofViennabrusquelyrejectedtheideaofnationalself-determination,nationalistthinkersandgroupssteppeduptheireffortstooverturntheconservativeorder.Finally,theurbanworkingclassandruralpeasantsexperiencedhardtimesintheyearsleadingupto1848.Agriculturalproductivitysufferedsogreatlythatthedecadewasreferredtoasthe“hungry‘40s.”Atthesametime,industrializationmeantfactoriesrequiredlessmanuallaborandjobsbecamescarce.Eachofthesefac-torscontributedtotheviolencethateruptedin1848.

TheAustrianEmpire,longtheconservativewatchdogofEurope,experienceditsownrevolutioninthatfatefulyear.TheAustrianemperor,Ferdinand I(r. 1835–1848)had severehealthandmentalproblems.AlongwithKlemensvonMetternich,atriumvirateofAustriannotablesrantheday-to-daybusinessoftheempire.AstheAustrianforeignminister,MetternichhadoverseentheCongressofViennaandthesubsequentCongress System ofthesucceedingdecades,yetthiscooperationofconservativerepresentativesofEurope’smon-archsprovedunabletowithstandtheviolentupheavalsof1848.WhenwordarrivedinViennaoftheFebruaryRevolutioninFrance,theAustriancapitalexplodedintoinsurrection.March13sawstudentsandworkersleadriotingmobsinthestreets.Fearingthewrathoftherevolutionaryrabble,Metternich

Congress System regular meetings held among the conservative powers of Europe during the first half of the nine-teenth century to ensure the maintenance of the international status quo



wasforcedtostepdownasforeignminister.Hespent much of the next decade in exile inEnglandandBelgiumbeforereturningtoAustriatodiein1859.AfterMetternich’sdismissal,anAustrianconstituentassemblyconvenedandtookupthetaskofdraftingaconstitutioninJuly1848.Perhapsthemostsignificantactoftheassemblywasitseliminationoftherobot,thefeudalsystemofserfdomandcompulsorypeasantlabor.Thisledtotheendofpeasantrevolutionaryactivityamongtheempire’speas-ants.Astherevolutionaryfurorbegantoburnitselfoutandinstancesofviolencedecreased,theAustriangovernmentregaineditsconfi-dence.By lateOctober, imperialarmyunitsretookVienna and began to reestablish theemperor’scontrol.Withinafewweeks,amajorfigureofthegovernment,FelixSchwarzenberg(1800–1852) negotiated the abdication ofFerdinandI.Ferdinand’snephew,the18-year-oldFranzJosephI(r.1848–1916),waschosentobehissuccessor.Hopingforacleanbreakwithcon-servativetraditionsandrevolutionaryevents,thegovernmentstatedthatallofFerdinand’scommitmentswerenotbindinguponthenewemperor.Stillhopingtoreorganizetheempireandaccommodatenationalistsentiments,theconstituentassemblycalledfordecentralizationofimperialauthorityandmoreautonomyforregionswithintheempire.Itwashopedthatthiscompromisemightappealtotheempire’snationalistsandsoftentheirdesireforfullindependence.SchwarzenbergrejectedtheideaandinsteadofferedhisownblueprintforamorecentralizedAustriansystem.Schwarzenberg’sconstitutionneverwentintoeffect,however.Intheyearsimmediatelyfollow-ingthe1848revolution,itwasdecidedthatFranzJosephshouldhavenocheckstohisrule,andthereforeSchwarzenberg’sconstitutionwastemporallysetasidebeforeitcouldbeimplemented.By1851,theconstitutionwasofficiallyandpermanentlysuspended.Liberalandnationalisthopesweredashedasthepre-1848systemofimperialrulewasrestoredandViennaonceagainbecamethecentralizedpowerhouseoftheempire.

AustriadealtwithsignificantunrestoutsideofVienna,aswell.BothHungaryandBohemia(thewesternportionoftoday’sCzechRepublic)experiencedrevolutionsin1848.LouisKossuth(1802–1894),anextremeMagyarnational-ist,demandedregionalautonomyforHungaryonMarch3,1848.InspiredbytherevolutioninParis,theHungarianDiethadproclaimedMagyarlibertyand

robot a system of forced labor that tied tenant farmers to the land

Street fighting broke out in Berlin during the revolution of 1848 in Germany. Frederick William IV’s soldiers fired on rebel factions.



withinafewweekspassedtheMarchLaws.ThisnewHungarianlegislationabolishedserfdomandcreatedademocraticparliamenttoreplacethediet.WithrevolutioninVienna,theimperialgovernmenthadnochoicebuttogoalongwiththeMarchLaws.Ineffect,thismeantthatHungarywasnowonlynominallypartoftheempireandacted,internallyatleast,morelikeasovereign,independentnation.RevolutionsoonspreadtoPrague,thecapitalofCzechBohemia,andsoontheAustriangovernmentbegantheprocessofmollifyingradicalsthere.Tothatend,onApril8,1848,theimperialgovernmentpledgedaconstituentassemblytoservetheCzechpeopleintheKingdomofBohemia.Additionally,theempiresawoutbreaksofliberalandnationalistrevolution-aryactioninGalicia,Moravia,Dalmatia,andTransylvania.EarlyJunesawthemeetingofthefirstPan-SlavCongressinPrague.ThisassemblypromotedSlavsolidarityinthefaceofAustrianimperialismandcalledforindependencefortheempire’ssubjectpeoples.OnJune17,FieldMarshalAlfredvonWindisschgrätz(1787–1862),commandingunitsoftheimperialmilitary,violentlyputdowntheCzechrebellionandinstitutedmilitarygovernorshipofBohemia.Byautumn,theimperialmilitarymovedagainsttheHungarianrevolutionaries,too.Inabril-liantdefensebornofdesperation,KossuthledthousandsofvolunteersinanewlycreatedHomeDefenseArmy.ThisforcewasabletodrivemostoftheAustrianarmyfromHungary.ByApril1849,theHungarianDietwaswillingtomakeatotalbreakwithVienna.ThebodydeclaredHungarianindependenceandestablishedarepublic.Kossuthwassoonelectedasthenewnation’sfirstpresident.Fearingthefar-reachingresultsofrevo-lutionarysuccesses,TsarNicholasIofRussiaofferedtoreinforcetheAustrianarmy.InJune1849,EmperorFranzJosephIacceptedtheaidofhisfellowmonarch,andsoon10,000RussiantroopspouredintoHungary.ThecombinedRusso-AustrianforcedefeatedtheHungariansattheBattleofTemesvaronAugust9,1849.KossuthescapedtotheOttomanEmpireandlivedtherestofhislifeinexile.

ByFebruary1848,revolutionhadalsosweptintotheGermanstates.InspiredbytherevolutioninParis,PrussianliberalsriotedinBerlin,inwhatcametobeknownastheMarchDays.ThePrussianmonarchFrederickWilliamIV(r.1840–1861)hadconsistentlyresistedreformoranyformofpowersharingwithademocraticbody.Theriotscompelledhimtoofferconcessionsliketheeliminationofcensorship.Therioterspressedfurther,demandingawrittenconstitution,andsoonthekingcalledforanassemblytobegindraftingone.ThisassemblyconvenedinMayandcontinuedtodeliberatewellintothefall.For

1SeLf-CheCK

What were the primary

causes for the revolutions

of 1848?

Louis Kossuth appears as the heroic revolutionary of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.



manyGermannationalists,thetimehadcometofinallyunifyGermanyintoonestate.InMarch,liberalnationalistsfromalloverGermanydecidedtocreateapreliminaryassemblyspecificallychargedwithworkingouttheproblemsofGermanunification.Theassembly,orVorparlament,thencalledforanationalassemblytaskedwithcreatingaconstitutionforaunitedGermany.OnMay18,1848,theGermanNationalAssembly,electedthroughuniversalmalesuffrage,metinFrankfurt.OnemajorissuedealtwithAustria:shouldGermanAustriabeincludedinthenewandunitedGermanstate?ManyGermannationalistswereloathtoincludeVienna’spolyglotempireofvaryingnationalitiesintotheirnewGermany,andAustriawasnotabouttopartwiththesourceofhisstrength.Ontheotherside,manyconservativestotheassemblyfavorednotonlyincludingAustria,butinvitingitsemperortobethenewstate’smonarch,aswell.LiberalsfearedthattheHapsburgswouldneveracceptaliberalconstitution.Thisdebateovera“small”vs.“large”Germanydraggedonforsometime,anditallowedcon-servativesthechancetoreasserttheirinfluenceaftertherevolutions.Ultimately,however,theanti-Austrianfactionprevailed.

Astherevolutionaryfervorbegantodieout,FrederickWilliamIVreassertedhisownauthorityandactivelysuppressedradicalsentimentsinPrussia.Backedbyhisarmy,hedissolvedPrussia’sconstitutionalassemblyinDecember.HethendeclaredaroyalPrussianconstitutionthatfunctioneduntilGermany’scollapsein1918.ThisroyalconstitutionprovidedforabicameralparliamentknownastheReichstag.ThePrussianJunkers,anaristocraticland-owningclass,dominatedtheupperhouse,whileacomplicatedsystemofpropertyrequirementlimitedthenumbersofpeoplewhocouldvoteforrepresentativestoserveinthelowerhouse.Athree-classvotingregulationensuredthatonlythewealthiest20percentofvoterselectedtwo-thirdsofthelowerhouserepresentatives.Royalauthoritycontinuedtobesafeguardedasthekingheldvetopoweroveranylegislationandtheauthoritytorulebydecreeandsuspendcivillibertiesintimesofcrisis.TheGermanNationalAssemblycompletedthedraftingofaunitedGermanconstitutioninFrankfurtinMarch1849.HavingrejectedtheAustrianemperorasasuitablemonarch,therep-resentativesvotedtoofferthekingofPrussiatheimperialGermancrown.FrederickWilliamIV,whilewillingtoentertaintheideaofbeingcrownedemperorbyhisfellowGermanmonarchs,soundlyrejectedthenotionwhenitcamefromnational-istsandliberals.Inhiswords,hewouldnotaccepta“crownfromthegutter.”InsteadofimperialauthoritythroughoutGermany,PrussialookedtocreateanorthGermanpoliticalfederationthatlookedtoBerlinforleadership.FearinggrowingPrussianpower,inNovember1850,theAustriansforcedBerlintogiveupthisprojectinwhatcametobeknownastheHumiliationofOlmütz.Withthisfeatherintheircap,theAustriansthenworkedtoreconstructthedefunctGermanConfederation.

Italywasnotsparedprofoundrevolutionarydisturbancesin1848.TheseuprisingsweredirectedagainstboththeItalianprincesandtheAustriandomi-nation.InFebruary,FerdinandII(r.1830–1859),theBourbonsovereignoftheKingdomoftheTwoSicilies,wascompelledtoacceptaconstitutionbyliberalrevolutionaries.Metternich’sfallfrompowerinViennaonMarch13sparkedrevolutionaryriotinginMilan,Lombardy,whichhadbeenannexedtothe

Junker Prussian landed aristocrat



AustrianEmpirealongwithVenetiaattheCongressofVienna.TherevoltinMilancametobeknownastheFiveDays(March18–22).VenicealsosawthecreationofagovernmenthostiletoAustriathatwasledbyDanieleManin(1804–1857).OnMarch4,CharlesAlbert(r.1831–1849),theSavoymonarchofSardinia-Piedmont,grantedaliberalconstitutionknownastheStatutoof1848tohissubjects.CharleshimselfsoontookupthebannerofItalianliberalnationalism.InmanyregionsofItaly,however,thesegainswereshortlived.ConservativeforceswithintheKingdomoftheTwoSiciliesactedquicklysothatbyMay1848,therevolutiontherehadbeencompletelysuppressed.Similarly,anAustrianforceunderthecommandofGeneralJosephRadetzky(1766–1858)defeatedaPiedmontarmyintheBattleofCustozzainJuly,openingthewayforarestorationofAustriancontrolovertheregion.Furthersouth,though,theItalianrevolutionscontinued.GiuseppeMazzini(1805–1872)andGiuseppeGaribaldi(1807–1882)proclaimedaRomanRepublicinFebruary1849.Therevolutionar-ieshadforcedPopePiusIXtofleethepapalstatesbecauseofhisrejectionofmodernism.MazziniandGaribaldideclaredtheirnewstatetofillthepoliticalvacuuminRomeafterthepope’sexile.March1849alsosawaresumptionofthewarbetweenPiedmontandAustria,though,onMarch23,theforcesofPiedmontwereonceagaindefeatedinthebattleofNovara.ThissecondcrushingdefeatforcedCharlesAlberttoabdicate.Hisson,VictorEmmanuelII(r.1849–1878),wascrownedking.TheFrenchsooninterferedinItalyasLouisNapoleonBonapartesenttroopstofightthenewRomanRepublicinApril1849.HismotivationwastosecurehispositionamongFrance’smanyCatholics,whoresentedtheinfantrepublic’streatmentofthepope.BytheendofJune,RomefelltotheFrencharmy.Furthernorth,Austriacontinuedtheprocessofsuppressingrevolutions,andAustrianforcescrusheduprisingsinTuscanyinMayandVenetiainAugust.

WhilerevolutionspreadrapidlythroughoutmanyEuropeancitiesduring1848,Russiaremainedcalm.NicholasIwasneitherignorantnorablindreactionaryfanatic,yethisregimeulti-matelyrepresentednineteenth-centuryautocracyinitsmostextremeandrepressiveform.NicholasknewthatreformwasthekeytotransformingandmodernizingRussiansocietyandeconomy.Atthesametime,hegreatlyfearedtheconsequencesofchange.Hestatedbeforehisstatecouncilin1842,“Thereisnodoubtthatserfdom,initspresentform,isaflagrantevilwhicheveryonerealizes,yettoattempttoremedyitnowwouldbe,ofcourse,anevilmoredisastrous.”

Russia’snobilitybelieveditspowerresteduponserfdom;therefore,anymovetoabolishserfdommightunderminearis-tocraticloyaltytothetsar.Withthisinmind,NicholasIwascontenttoacceptRussia’sstatusquoandtableanyserioustalkofreform.Hisreignsawafar-reachingexpansionofsecret

2SeLf-CheCK

Why did Frederick

William IV refer to the

national assembly’s offer

as a “crown from

the gutter”?

Nicholas I of Russia crushed the Decembrist Revolt and supported, yet did not secure, the demise of serfdom in his land.



policeactivities,includingsurveillanceandcensorship.Russia’simperialadmin-istrationremainedlargelyinefficientandoftencorrupt.TheonlysignificantmovementtowardreformunderNicholaswastheRussiancodificationoflawin1833.ThisfirmlyestablishedsystemofpoliticalrepressionandgovernmentalpowerensuredthattherevolutionsignitingEuropein1848completelypassedoverRussia.SostalwartdidRussiaseeminitsabilitytoprotecttheconservativeidealthatitsoonofferedtroopstoputdownliberalandnationalistuprisingsthroughoutEurope.

Extensions• ReadtheprefacetoMemories of My ExilebyLouisKossuth.Accordingto

Kossuth,whataretheHungarians’grievances?WhatarethedutiesofHungariansaccordingtotheauthor?HowdoesheconnecttheplightofHungariansintheAustrianEmpiretolargerEuropeanandinternationalevents?

• Read“ThePan-SlavicCongressCallsfortheLiberationofSlavs”fromtheManifesto of the First Pan-SlavicCongress(trans.MaxRiedlspergerfromI.I.Udalzow,Aufzeichnengen über die Geschichte des nationalen und politischen kampfes in Böhme in Jahre 1848,Berlin:Rutten&Loening,1953,223–226).WhatdifferencesbetweenvariousSlavicpeoplesdidthecongressfailtoaddress?

SummaryFollowingtheexampleofParis,manyEuropeancitiesbrokeoutintorevolu-tionin1848andprofoundlydisturbedthecontinent’sconservativeorder.ThepolyglotAustrianEmpireexperiencedtremendousupheavalasliberalandnationalistmovementsinHungary,Bohemia,andelsewherechallengedimperialcontrol.Atthesametime,Viennaitselfexplodedwithpotentiallydisastrousresultsfortherulingclique.RevolutionintheGermanstatesbroughtaboutanationalassemblyinFrankfurttaskedwithcreatingaunitedGermanstate.Asconservativeforcesreassertedthemselvesinthefollowingmonths,thisnationalistdreamwascrushed.Italianuprisingsbroughtliberalsandnationalistsclosertotheirgoals,aswell,buttheyultimatelyfalteredundertheimpactofFrenchintervention.ThisperiodofrevolutionaryturmoilleftRussiaunaffected,andthetsar’stroopssoonintervenedtorestoreordertoacontinentshakenbyuncertainty.

Looking AheadWhilemostofcontinentalEuropeexplodedinrevolutionin1848,Britainfol-lowedadifferentpath.Withitsparliamentarysystemofconsensualgovern-mentfirmlyinplace,Britainwasbetterabletoweatherthestormofnationalistandliberalforcesthanitscounterpartsonthecontinent.Occasionalseditiousplotsandviolentrepression—suchasthePeterlooMassacre—sometimesthreat-enedtoignitegeneralinsurrection,buttherewasnocomparableoutbreakof



1. Liberals had become increasingly frustrated with their lack of progress for their political goals. Nationalists stepped up their agitation after it was clear that the conservative powers of Europe entirely rejected their position at the Congress of Vienna. Finally, the 1840s were particularly hard on Europe’s peasants and working classes as agricultural production fell drastically.

2. Frederick William IV viewed the national assembly at Frankfurt as a collection of nationalists and liberals whose ideologies he found particularly repugnant and detrimental to the conservative order.

SeLf-CheCK ANSweRS

revolutioninLondonin1848.ThemassworkingclassmovementknownasChartismofferedasafer,thoughstillpotentiallydangerous,roadtoreform.Chartismprovedademocraticsafetyvalve,whichthemanystatesthathadexplodedintorevolutionlacked.


Reform in England

Unit 13, Lesson 6

KeywordsChartists

demagogues

electorate

franchise

habeas corpus

pocket boroughs

rotten boroughs

subsistence economy

suffrage

Tory

Whig

Essential Questions• HowdidBritainexpanditspoliticalparticipationtothelowerclasses

withoutresortingtorevolution?

• WhyweretheCornLawssoodioustoBritain’slowerclasses,andhowweretheyeventuallyrepealed?

• WhatwerethecausesandresultsoffamineinIreland?

• WhatwastheChartistmovement,andwhatwereitsdemandsuponthegovernment?



Set the StageThe three-decade long struggle among Europe’s conservative, liberal, and nationalist forces finally exploded into general revolution throughout the continent in 1848. Chaos and disorder threatened to tear apart the Austrian Empire, while German nationalists agitated and organized in the hope of creating a liberal and constitutional German state. France, Italy, and Spain all likewise suffered revolutionary turmoil in that fateful year. In Russia, however, the storm of revolution failed to strike, and the tsar helped restore the conservative order of Europe through military force. On the other flank of Europe, Great Britain also avoided revolution, but not reform.

Reform in englandTheexcessesoftheFrenchRevolutionremainedafearfulspecterinthemindsofmostEnglishmenafter1815.Britishupperclassesrecoiledatthethoughtofaguil-lotineinPiccadillyCircusandarevolutionaryrabbleproclaimingdecreesfromWhitehall.ThisfearofaBritishRevolutiongrewacutewhenBritainenteredapostwareconomicrecessionthatsawrisingunemploymentandincreasingpovertyamongthenation’slowerclasses.TheToryPartyactedasthepoliticalvoiceandinstrumentofBritain’slandedaristocracyandwascharacterizedatthistimebyitsprofounddistrustandhostilitytoradicalmovementsbothinBritainandonthecontinent.ThenotedToryRobertCastlereaghhadservedasforeignsecretaryandworkeddiligentlywithMetternichattheCongressofVienna.Theirworkrepresentedtheconservativedesiretoniprevolutionarymovementsinthebud,beforetheycouldcausethekindofchaosthatParisexperienced.AndasCastlereaghlaboredtoinstitutionalizeconservatismabroad,theToryprimeminister,RobertJenkinson,theEarlofLiverpool(1770–1828),foughtforitinLondon.Servingasprimeministerfrom1812to1827andbackedbyalike-mindedcabinet,Liverpooljealouslyguardedthestatusquowithreactionaryfervorandinitiallyopposedallattemptsatreform.Voicesofdiscontent,seenastheharbingersofrevolution,werequicklystifled.

The1815revisionofBritain’sCornLawsstrengthenedconservatismconsid-erably.After1815,previouslyunusedlandinEnglandbegantobecultivated.Thissignificantlyenrichedthearistocracy,whosawabonanzaofrentsfromnewtenantfarmers.WiththeendofthewaragainstNapoleon,importationofgraincouldresume.Mostmiddleandlowerclasspeoplerejoicedatthisprospect,asitwouldmeanlowerpricesforwheatandbread.Fearingthatthelowerpriceswoulddrivetheirnewtenantsoutofbusiness—whichwouldresultinthelossofrentrevenue—thearistocracyactedthroughtheToryPartytochangetheCornLaws.Underthenewlaw,grainimportationwasprohibitedunlessthepriceofgraininBritainexceeded80shillingsperquarter-ton.Asthislevelhadn’tbeenreachedsincebefore1790,andthenonlyintimesofharvestdisasters,thelawamountedtoavirtualbanonforeigngrainimportation.Ineffect,Britain’slandedaristocracy

Tory British political party made up of land-owning aristocrats



hadlegislatedselfishlyfortheirowneconomicinterestsandattheexpenseofthelowerclasses.InAugust1819,acrowdgatheredatSt.Peter’sFieldsinManchestertolistentospeakerspreachreformofParliamentandrepealoftheCornLaws.Chargedwithkeepinganeyeontheperceivedrabble,Britishsoldiersengagedthecrowdandultimatelyfiredintoit,killing11people.InaplayonwordsrecallingWellington’shistoricvictoryatWaterloofouryearsearlier,theeventinManchestercametobeknownasthe“PeterlooMassacre.”ForBritishradicalsandreactionariesalike,thePeterlooMassacrestoodforgovernmentrepressionandextremeconservatisminthefaceofreformandagitation.

InthewakeofthePeterlooMassacre,Parliamentpassedtough,reactionarylegislationinDecember1819.TheSixActs,astheywerecalled,restrictedmanyfreedomsthatEnglishpeoplehadlongtakenforgranted.Freedomofspeechandassemblywereabridged,andnewtaxeswereplaceduponnewspa-persinthehopesofbankruptingtheradicalpress.Largefinescouldbeleviedforsupposedseditiouslibel,whilepolicepowersincreaseddramatically.Homescouldbesearchedwithaminimumofjudi-cialoversight.Speedytrialswithseveresentencesalsotypifiedthenewlaws.Armedmilitarytrainingofanykind,otherthanthatconstitutedbythestate,wasforbidden.InJanuary1820,the81-year-oldGeorge IIIdiedandhislong-waitingson,theprinceregent,wasfinallycrownedGeorgeIV(r. 1820–1830).Thenextmonthaconspiracytomurdergovernmentminis-terswithinthecabinetcametolight.TheconspiratorsviewedthegovernmentastyrantsbecauseofthePeterlooMassacreandtheSixActs,andtheysoughttotakeadvantageofthedisorderfollowingGeorgeIII’sdeath.Itwashopedthataviolent,suddenstatementwouldplungethegovernmentintoanarchyandgivethelowerclassestheopportunitytoreorderBritishsocietytotheiradvantage.TheprimarytargetwasLordLiverpool,theprimeminister,whommanyblamedforthemassacreandsubsequentrepressivemeasures.HavingmetregularlyinanapartmentonCatoStreet,theaffairwassoondubbedtheCatoStreetConspiracy.Itsleadersweresoonarrested,andafterthetrialfourofthemweresentencedtodeath.

AstheseeventswereplayingoutinLondon,unrestgrewinBritain’sclosestdomain,Ireland.AlthoughthenortherncountiesofUlstertendedtobePresbyterian,mostofIreland’spopulationwasmadeupofCatholicpeasantfarmers.TheyrentedtheirlandsfromasmallminoritygroupofChurchofEnglandProtestants.ManyoftheselandlordsdidnotliveinIreland,butratherinEngland.Overthecourse

Known as the Peterloo Massacre, peaceful assemblers met in St. Peter’s Square to protest widespread hunger and limited political involvement of the masses in England. Eighteen lost their lives and hundreds sustained injuries at the hands of government guards.



ofthenineteenthcentury,theselandownershadincreasinglyexploitedtheIrishfarmers,evenasthelatter’spopulationgrewrapidly.Irishpeasantsweresustainedbythepotatocropandcametodependuponitsharvestfortheirsurvival.Thisharvestvariedsignificantlyfromoneyeartothenext,whichaddedanelementofuncertaintytothelivesofthepeasants.Unlikewithothercrops,potatofarmerscouldnotdetectearlyfailuresandthusplantothersintime,norcouldpotatoesbestockpiledforanygreatlengthoftimeagainstpotentialdisaster.Thissubsis-tence economyinIreland,whichlackedthegoodroadsandinfrastructuretotransportanddistributeotherfoodstuffsintimesofcrisis,meantthatthepotentialforfaminewaseverpresent.Theyear1845sawadisastrouspotatofailure,whichensuredfoodshortagesandleftthoseintheIrishcountrysidevulnerabletostarva-tion.Theyears1846,1848,and1851sawarepeatofthebadharvestandfurthertroubles.Moreover,Europeatlargeexperiencedsimilarpotatocropfailures.

ForIreland,theGreatFaminewascharacterizedbydevastatingfoodshortages,whichledtohighfoodprices,widespreadstarvationandsickness,andfrequentsocialdisturbances.Blight,afungus,attackedcropsandrottedthetubers.Weakenedbylackofnutrition,manypeasantssuccumbedtofever,whichsoonmanifesteditselfinwidespreadepidemics.ThenetresultwasahugepopulationdecreaseinIreland.Between1845and1851,roughlyonemillionemigrantsleftIreland.MostmadetheirwaytotheUnitedStatesorGreatBritain.Meanwhile,asmanyas

subsistence economy an economy in which people, due to a variety of factors, are able to produce only the bare minimum required for their own survival and are therefore incredibly vulnerable to natural disasters, such as crop failures

This rural woman and her children live with the devastating consequences of a poor potato harvest in 1845. The Irish refer to this period of famine and misery as the Great Hunger.



1.5millionpeoplediedasresultofthefamine.SomepeopleinBritainattemptedtomitigatetheeffectsofthedisasterwithreliefaid,buttheBritishgovernmentultimatelydidlittletostopthesuffering.AsthoughIrishstarvationandsicknesswasn’tenough,theBritishParliamentcontinuallybackedthelandownersagainstthetenantsinanydispute,oftenwitharmedforce.Whenrentswentunpaid,landownersevictedtheirtenantsandburnedtheirhomes.Suchtreatmentmadeitclearthat,toBritain,IrelandremainedlittlemorethanaconqueredterritoryoftheBritishEmpire.Ireland’spoorfarmersgainedlittlefromtheliberalexperimentsandreformsofLondonorfromtheBritishIndustrialRevolution.Indeed,toalargeextent,Britain’sempirewasbeingbuiltuponthebacksofIreland’speasants.

InBritain,theCornLawsremainedacontroversialpieceoflegislationthatthreatenedtosparkunrestamongthelowerclasses.ThroughtheagencyoftheToryParty,Britain’slandowneraristocratshadcreatedtheCornLawstomaintainhighpricesforBritishgrain(corn)bycreatingimportdutiesagainstcheaper,foreigngrain.TheCornLawsweretypicalofanewlegislativetrendthatsawtheendofBritain’saristocracyactingasapaternalisticprotectorofthelowerclasses.Thisnewattitudefromabove,coupledwiththepost-wareconomicmeltdown,ledmanyofBritain’spoortoquestionthewisdomofthenation’sleadersandtoseriouslycallforpoliticalreform.Soonmassmeetingswereheldwithparliamentaryreformthechieftopic,andreformclubsbegantoappear.WilliamCobbett’sPolitical Registrarandlike-mindedradicalnewspapersaddedtheirvoicestothechorusofreformers.Britain’srulingelitesviewedindustrialworkersandagriculturalpeasantsasdomesticversionsofFrance’sdreadedSans-culottes.Theyfearedthesepotentialrevolution-arieswerewaitingfortheirchancetobeginexecutingthearistocracywithasmuchfervorastheirearlierFrenchideologicalcousins.ManyinthegovernmentviewedWilliamCobbett(1763–1835)andotherleadingradicalagitatorslikeMajorJohnCartwright(1740–1824)andHenry“Orator”Hunt(1773–1835)asvirtualdema-gogueswhoplannedtoseduceBritain’slowerclassesawayfromthenaturalorderofBritishsociety.Repressionbecamethetoolthatthegovernmentusedtocombattheseradicals.InDecember1816,anunrulymeetingofradicalsnearLondonatSpaFieldsprovidedParliamentwithapretextforrepressivelegislation.PassedinMarch1817,theCoercionActsallowedforthetemporarysuspensionofhabeas corpusandstrengthenedpriorlegislationthatallowedcrackdownsongatheringsdeemedseditious.TheSixActsofDecember1819followedthePeterlooMassacreandfurtherstrengthenedthegovernment.Theactsweredesignedtoempowerthegovernmenttocombatradicalsentimentwhereveritwasfound.Radicalleaderswerepreventedfromagitatinginpublicandfounditnolongercost-effectivetoprint.

TheBritishParliamentoftheearlynineteenthcenturywasnotademocraticinstitutioninthemodernsenseoftheword,andwascertainlynotatrulyrep-resentativebody.Parliamentoperatedwithtwohouses—anupperhouse,theHouseofLords,andalowerhouse,theHouseofCommons.TheHouseofLordswasmadeupentirelyofhereditarynobilityandbishopsintheChurchofEngland.Occasionally,theBritishmonarchwouldinvoketherighttocreateanewnoble-man,whowasthenallowedtositintheHouseofLords.TheHouseofLordsheld

1SeLf-CheCK

What were the Six Acts,

and how were they

intended to crack down

on radical movements

in Britain?

demagogues figures who were perceived to rile up the masses against established authority and order

habeas corpus from the Latin, literally mean-ing “where’s the body”; due process of law



vetopoweroverlegislationproposedbytheHouseofCommons.Wealthycountrygentlemen,alsoknownasthegentry,aswellassuccessfulbusinessmenandurbanprofessionals,madeuptheHouseofCommons.PropertyqualificationsforvotingensuredthatonlyasmallportionofadultmalesinBritainenjoyedsuffrage.SeveralotherpracticesmadecertainthatParliamentwasnottrulyrepresentative.Rotten boroughsweresmalltownswhosepeoplewerefrequentlybribedandinfluencedtoselectcertaincandidates.Pocket boroughsweretownswheretherepresentativewasnotchosenbythecitizensbutbythelocalnoblelandowner.ThenewindustrialcenterswiththeirboomingpopulationsenjoyedlittleornorepresentationinParliament.ThevictorofWaterloo,ArthurWellesley,theDukeofWellington(1769–1852),servedasprimeministerfrom1828to1830.AlthoughwidelyhailedandrespectedforhismartialqualitiesagainstNapoleon,WellingtonwasacommittedTorywhosereactionarypoliciesbrookednocompromisewiththereformers.In1830,afterabitterlycontestedgeneralelection,theWhigscametopower.Thefollowingyear,Charles,thesecondEarlGrey(1764–1845),theWhigprimeminister,succeededinsecuringabillforparliamentaryreform.ThisbillwasquicklyvetoedbytheHouseofLords.LaterthatyeartheprocesswasrepeatedastheCommonspassedanotherbillandtheLordsrejecteditagain.Greyfoundsympathywiththenewking,WilliamIV(r.1830–1837).ThekingagreedtocreatenewpeerstositintheHouseofLordsandnullifytheirreformveto.Withthethreatofhavingtheirranksinfusedwithsympatheticreformers,theHouseofLordsagreedtowithholdtheirvetowhentheCommonspassedathirdreformbillin1832.Dramaticchangemarkedthepoliticallandscapeafterthepassageofthe1832ReformBill.OnehundredelevenseatsintheHouseofCommonswereeliminatedaftertheir56rottenandpocketboroughswerereformed.Thirty-twootherboroughs,whichbysizeonlywarrantedoneseatintheHouseofCommons,losttheirsecondseat.Intotal,143seatswerereorganizedtobetterrepresentthevotersofGreatBritain.Additionally,virtuallyallmiddleclassmaleswereawardedtherighttovote,althoughworkingclassmengenerallystillfellshyofpropertyqualifications.DespiteitsfailuretoenfranchiseallBritishcitizens,theReformBillof1832settheBritishpoliticalsystemonanewcourse.Nolongerwouldgovernmentbedominatedbyanarrowfewwholookedtotheirowninterestsfirstandthenation’ssecond.Rather,greaterpoliticalparticipationbythemiddleclassensuredthatreformwasjustbeginning.

Indeed,reformbegatreform.Agitatorssoonappearedwhowantedfurthercon-cessionsfromthegovernmentandgreaterpoliticalparticipationforthelowerclasses.ThisnewsentimentgaverisetotheChartistmovement.TheChartistscalledfortruepoliticaldemocracyinBritainandtheruleofthepeople,believingthistobethebestpossiblesystemforjustsociety.In1838,severalworkingclassreformerscreatedadocumentthecalledthePeople’sCharter,whichinsisteduponsixdemands:

• UniversalsuffrageforallBritishmales• Asecretballotratherthanpublicvotinginmeetingstoprohibitvoter

intimidation• TheeliminationofpropertyrequirementstositintheHouseofCommons

suffrage the right to vote

rotten boroughs small towns in Britain whose population was regularly manipulated through bribery or otherwise into voting for certain representatives to the House of Commons

pocket boroughs small towns where the local landowner, not the citizens, appointed the representative to the House of Commons

whig opposition party to the Tories; were instrumental in the pas-sage of the parliamen-tary reform bill

Chartists working class citizens who agitated for true democracy in Britain; to this end they demanded six key reforms



• SalariesformembersofParliament,toensurethatmiddleandworkingclasscitizenscouldserveandstillprovidefortheirfamilies

• Equalizationofelectoraldistricts,whichmeantthateachmemberoftheHouseofCommonsshouldrepresentroughlythesamenumberofcitizens

• AnnualelectionstotheHouseofCommons

IntellectualreformersandurbanworkersalikesupportedtheaimsoftheChartists.Thecauseofuniversalmalesuffragewasfurtheredbywidespreadpeti-tionsigningthatgarneredhundredsofthousandsofnames.In1839,theChartistslaidbeforethegovernmenttheirdemands,confidentinthesupportofthelowerclasses.Parliamentultimatelyignoredthepetitionasthenewlyenfranchisedmiddleclasseswereskepticaloftheabilityofthelowerclassestoeffectivelyparticipateinthepoliticalprocess.TheChartistsagainpresentedpetitionsbeforeParliamentin1842and1848,andagaintheywereignored.Eventually,alloftheChartistsdemandswereenactedbyParliamentwiththeexceptionofannualelections.TheChartistmovementprovedanimportantlessonandprecedentforBritain’sworkersinthefieldofmasspolitics.

Chartists gathed to advocate reform for the working and middle classes. They fought for universal male suffrage and the abolition of property qualifications for members of the British Parliament.



Withitsnewpower,themiddleclasssoughttorepealthehatedCornLawsandthestrugglehighlightedtheirincreasinginfluence.TheAnti-CornLawLeaguewasestablishedin1839andactivelycampaignedagainsttheCornLaws.Althoughtherepealofthislegislationwasitschiefcause,thisgroupalsowidelycampaignedfortheliberalidealoffreetrade.Britain’slargelandownershadmuchtolosebytheeffortsoftheAnti-CornLawLeague,asthelawprotectedtheirmarketandensuredtheirwealth.Still,manyprominentvoicessteppedforwardtofightthisinjusticethatkeptgrainpricesartificiallyhigh.LeadersoftheleagueincludedRichardCobden(1804–1865)andJohnBright(1811–1889).Thesetwomenagitatedunceasinglyamongtheworkingclassesandusedtheirfieryspeechestodramatizetheissueandwinconvertstothecause.CentraltotheircausewastheideathattheloweringoffoodpriceswouldleadtoariseinthestandardoflivingforBritain’spoor.Also,theyargued,lowerrawmaterialcostswouldincreaseindustrialprofitability.Finally,inanappealtoBritain’sburgeoningindustrialists,theystatedthatlowerfoodpricesmeantthatthefactoryownerscouldpaytheirworkersless.

Thewinterof1845–1846hitIrelandparticularlyhard,andthefailureofthepotatocropensuredahorrificfamine.Typhusandcholeraaddedtoadeathtollalreadymonstrouslyhighbecauseofstarvation.WithapproximatelyonemillionIrishpeopledeadandmorethanonemillionIrishmen,women,andchildrenemigratinginsearchofnewlivesabroad,mostnotablyintheUnitedStates,thefamineinIrelandservedasadramaticexampletoBritainoftheneedforlowfoodprices.In1846,theToryprimeminister,RobertPeel(1788–1850),extendedanolivebranchtotheWhigsandtogetherthetwopartiesrepealedtheCornLaws.UrbandwellersnowconstitutedthemajorityoftheBritishpopulationandsawintherepealoftheCornLawsamajorvictory.Overthenextfewyears,Britainvotedtostrikedowntradebarriersandembraceapolicyoffreetrade.TheToriesalsosoughttowinsupportamongBritain’sworkingclasses.Tothisend,theypassedtheTenHoursActof1847,legislationthatlimitedwomento10-hourworkdaysinfactories.Childrenbetweentheagesof13and18hadtheirworkdayslimitedto10 hoursonweekdaysandeighthoursonSaturday.Byconsiderablycuttingbackonthetimewomenandchildrencouldbeexpectedtowork,thelawsallowedfamiliesmoretimetogether.Thefactoryhadlongcompetedforitsworkers’timeagainsttheneedsoffamily,andthislawwasintendedtofosterthedomesticfamilyunit.Bythemid-1840s,themaleroleasfamilybreadwinnerwasfirmlyestablishedintheBritishfactorysystem.Reformers’concernsforwomen’sworkingconditionsinfactoriesandminescoincidedwithagrowinggeneralbeliefamongtheBritishthatawoman’splacewasinthehome,notinindustrialoragriculturalwork.Revertingtotheirformerroleaspaternalisticprotectorsofthepoor,Toryaristocratscontinuedtocallforreformsintheindustrialworkplace.Thisplayedagainstthebackdropoftheircompetitionwiththenewlyenfranchisedmiddleclassesforlowerclasssupport.ThispoliticalcompetitionbetweenthestilldynamicaristocracyandtheincreasinglypowerfulmiddleclassprovedtobeoneofthekeyelementsinBritain’speacefulpoliticalevolution.Fortheirpart,theworkingclasscouldplaythetwooffofeachotherwithtemporarysupporttomeettheirdemands.

2SeLf-CheCK

How was the system for

electing members to

the House of Commons

mired in corruption?



WhiletheGreatReformBillofferedmorepoliticalparticipationthaneverbeforeandgreatlyenlargedtheBritishelectorate,itwasnotatitsheartatrulydemocraticmove.Despitethefactthatover200,000citizensweregiventhevote,nearly50percentofthepre-billtotal,rigidpropertyqualificationsandtheunspokengenderqualificationremainedinplace.Insomerarecases,work-ingclasscitizenswhohadenjoyedlong-standingfranchiserightsforyearsactuallylostthemwiththepassageofreformlaws.AndthoughcitieswerealsogivenagreatervoiceinParliamentasnewurbanboroughswerecreated,thepassageofreformdidnotnecessarilyconstituteavictoryforBritain’smiddleclasses.Evenasnewurbanvotingdistrictsappeared,sotodidanequalnumberofruralvotingdistricts.Thosenewruralvotingdistrictsweredominatedbythetraditionalaristocracyandtheircommitmenttoconservativevalues.Ultimately,thebillenabledalargerdiversityofpropertiedintereststogainrepresentationinParliament.Thismeantthatpropertyownersincitieswerenowonequalpoliticalfootingwithpropertyownersinthecountry.Commercialpolicy,thechurch,andmunicipalgovernmentwouldallbenefiteventuallyfromthesystemoforderlyreformestablishedatthistime.Whenmorecitizenswereallowedtovote,theyweregivenastakeinthepoliticalprocess,andradi-calforcesbegantoseerevolutionasunnecessary.Instead,byopeningupParliamenttoagreaternumberofcitizens,peoplebegantoseethatchangewaspossiblethroughorderlymeans,whichensuredthecontinuityofgovernmentalinstitutionsevenasmorepeoplehadasayinthem.

Extensions• ReadRichardCobden’spamphletEngland, Ireland and America, by a

Manchester Manufacturer.HowdoesCobdenarguethatfreetradewillpromotepeaceandprosperity?

• ReadLiamO’Flaherty’s1937novelFamine.HowdoesO’Flahertyportraytherelationshipbetweenthewealthylandlordsandthepoverty-strickenfarmers?

SummaryBritainwassparedthehorrorsofrevolutionthatsweptthecontinentin1848.ThislargelyresultedfromBritain’sabilitytoreformitsowncorruptsystemandexpandpoliticalparticipationthroughoutthenation.Createdtoensureprotectedmarketsforwealthylandowners,theCornLawswerewidelyunpopular,andeventuallythelawswereoverturnedthroughpeacefullegislation.Unfairelectionpracticeslikerottenboroughsandpocketboroughswerelikewiselegislatedoutofexistence.Reform,notrevolution,createdmuchneededchangeinGreatBritain.Atthesametime,famineplaguedIreland’scountryside.SuccessivepotatocropfailuresandBritishneglectresultedinlittlefoodfortheisland’spopulation,andsoonstarvationanddiseasewereclaiminglivesonawidescale.ThemajorityofthosewhodidnotdieleftIrelandtoseektheirfortunesinAmericaandelsewhere.Alltold,Ireland’spopulationfellbymorethan2millionpeoplebecauseoftheGreat

electorate voters

franchise a right or privilege bestowed upon a person or group by the government (usually referring to citizenship or voting rights)

3SeLf-CheCK

Who passed the Ten

Hours Act, and how was

this act supposed to win

working class support?



1. The Peterloo Massacre motivated parliament to pass the Six Acts. These laws punished people who gathered for training or drilling purposes, strengthened the power of local governments to search private property for weapons, and instituted strict punishments for newspapers with seditious content. Those who promoted the legislation hoped that these regulations along with other stipulations in the acts would preclude the rise of radical and potentially revolutionary groups.

2. The system was mired in corruption because of unethical boroughs. Pocket boroughs were voting

districts in small towns were the local landowner, not the citizens, chose the representative to Parliament. Rotten boroughs were small voting districts where the voting citizens were easily bribed or influenced to vote a certain way.

3. The Tory Party, made up of the aristocracy, passed the Ten Hours Act, which stated that women and children could not work more than 10 hours a day, which allowed families to spend more time together. It was hoped that this would bolster support for the Tories among the poor at the expense of the middle class Whig Party.

SeLf-CheCK ANSweRS

Famine.Meanwhile,aspoliticalreformcontinuedinLondon,themajorpoliti-calpartiesbegantocompeteforthesupportofthenation’sworkingclasses.ThiscompetitionensuredagreaterstandardoflivingandgreaterpoliticalparticipationforBritain’spoor.

Looking AheadAsEuropecontinuedtoindustrialize,citiesbecamemuchdenser.Asaresult,livingconditionsgrewworseandmoreunsanitary.Bythe1870s,scientistswerebegin-ningtounderstandthatmicroscopicorganismscarrieddisease.ScientistslikeLouisPasteur,RobertKoch,andJosephListerallcontributedgreatlytothis“BacterialRevolution.”Atthesametime,Georges-EugèneHaussmannembarkedonagreatrenovationofParisunderLouisNapoleonBonapartewithaneyetobeautifyingthecity,whilealsomakingstreetrevolutionlesspractical.Familylifealsoevolvedinthisperiodasmensawgreatereconomicopportunities,whileexpectationsforwomencorrespondinglydiminished.


unit 13, lesson 1 the age of metternich - welcome to jboss...

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