unit 2 indian education

WWW.KVRMATERIALS.COM

BED 1ST SEMESTER PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

UNIT 2

INDIAN EDUCATION A philosophical tradition refers to the beliefs, customs, ideas and ideals and ways of thinking

followed by the people of India from generation to generation. Indian philosophy has been,

however, intensely spiritual and has always emphasized the need of practical realization of

truth. In India the word 'philosophy' is equalized with the term 'darsana' means 'vision and also

the 'instrument of vision’. It stands for the direct, immediate and intuitive vision of Reality; the

actual perception of truth and also includes the means which lead to this realization

If we want to know about the education in India, it is important to analyze Indian thought. Indian

starts from the Vedas and it continues with Six systems if Indian Darshana's; the epics i.e.

Ramayana and Mahabharatha; the Prasthanatraya that are:

1. Upanishads

2. Brahma sutras

3. Srimad Bagavadgitha and the thoughts of contemporary Indian philosophers.

Indian Education can be historically divided into four parts. Those are:

1. Ancient Education

2. Medival Education

3. Modern Education or Before Independence period Education or British Education and

4. Contemporary Education or After Independence Education. In ancient education again can

seen Vedic or Tapovana education, Jaina education and Buddha education. Medieval education

purely during Islamic rulers' period existed education which also known as dark period. Modern

education is purely during British rulers existed education where English education was

introduced. And the Contemporary education is considered as after independence period

education

Indian education intensely spiritual and emphasized on practice of virtues and value based

education. However there may be no scientific techniques and method followed but here always

facilitated favorable environment through residential education system and achieved natural

growth in individuals with integral aspects.



EDUCATION DURING ANCIENT PERIOD

Ancient period, education was basically spiritual in nature. Education was considered as part of

worship. A residential system was implemented where both the guru (teacher) and disciple

(student) were living together and practicing worship to attain realization or enlightenment. An

external beauty (success in material life) as well as internal beauty (development of virtues and

spiritual growth) was developed in both the guru and disciple in natural manner. This system

fulfilled the needs and aspirations of the society and both were contributed for the welfare of

society.

EDUCATION DURING VEDIC PERIOD

The aim of Indian education was initially laid down by the Vedas. According to Vedic world view

the world is pervaded by divinity and the aim of every living being is to achieve liberation It is

understanding in India that the true education which gives liberation. Hence in India education

and knowledge is considered as "third eye' of man which gives him insight into all affairs and

teaches him how to act. In the spiritual sphere it leads to our salvation, in the mundane sphere it

leads to all round progress and prosperity.

The Vedas;

The Vedas are the oldest extent literary monument of the Aryan mind. The Vedas are the first

record of mankind and are considered as the oldest books in the world. Vedas are collective

wisdom": hence it is called “Apayrusheyas“ (No one person was written the Vedas. They are the

collective wisdom and the collections are done by Veda Vyasa"). Vedas are autherless and

eternal: The Vedas are also called "Shruthis" means the knowledge was acquired after hearing.

The Vedas are divided into four. They are:

1. Rkveda: "Rk means averse, largest number of verses (10,522). It is the Hymns in praise of

the Gods. Rkveda is the oldest among all the four Vedas

2. Sama Veda: Songs of the hymns in sweat musical tones to entertain and please the gods.

'Sama' means a 'song'. There are 1,875 verses in the Sama Veda.

3. Yajur Veda: 'Yajuh' means a prose or passage. There are 1,984 verses in the Yajur Veda.

4. Atharvana Veda: Later it was developed. There are 5,977 verses in the Atharvana Veda.

Four parts of Veda: Every Veda (Pragna) stands in four parts.

1. Mantra Samhita: Mantrs means a hymn added to some God or Goddess. The collection of

the mantra is called Samhitha. Rksamhitha is regarded as the oldest and also the most

important.

2. The Brahmanas: Mantras are written in prose. They are the elaboration of the complicated

ritualism of the Vedas. They deal with the rules and regulations laid down for the performance of

the rituals and the sacrifices. The name 'Brahm' is derived from the word 'Brahman' which

originally means a 'prayer'.



3. Aranyakas: The appendages to these Brahmanas are called Aranyakas. Mainly because they

are composed in the calmness of the forests. The Aranyakas are the transition from the

ritualistic to the philosophic thought. We find here a mystic interpretation of the Vedic

sacredness.

4. Upanisads: The concluding portions of the Aranyakas are called the Upanishads. These are

intensely philosophical and spiritual and may be rightly regarded as the cream of the Vedic

philosophy.

The Mantra samhita and the Brahmanas are called the Karma Kanda or the portion dealing with

the sacrificial actions. The Aranyakas and Upanishads are called the Jnana-Kanda or the

portion dealing with knowledge. Some people include the Aranyakas in the Karma Kanda but

really speaking Aranyakas represent a transition from the Karma-Kanda to Jnana-Kanda.

Basic Principles of Vedas:

The Vedic philosophy is for all mankind. It is the fountain head or repository of all knowledge

and wisdom. The sages find their source of bliss.

The philosophy of Vedas may be summed up under following:

1. The concept of one God and one world.

2. God is one and only one .He is all pervading, Omniscient, Omnipotent and Omni present ile is

the Supreme Spirit.

3. There are three entities in this Universe God, Soul and Matter.

4. Ultimate aim of life is to obtain salvation (moksha) in union with God

5. Actions are followed by their results. The Law of Karma' is an important teaching of the

Vedas .The Law of Karma is nothing else but it tells cause and its effect.

6. The theory of rebirth; is a necessary corollary of the law of karma and immortality of the soul.

7. This Universe is formed by God.

8. The universe is real. It is not an illusion or dream.

9. Universal fraternity should be promoted and harmony

10. Justice should be done to all creatures and we should live in peace

11. There are four Asramas which everybody should lead proper way in the life. They are

Bramacharya asrama (it is the age for learning), Gruhastha asrama (it is the age for expressing

gratitude to society and God), Vanaprastha asrama (It is the age sharing knowledge to others)

and Sanyasa asrama (It is the age for salvation, realization or union with God);

12. There are four Purushartas which everybody should acquire proper manner in the life.

Purusharta is a value or action which an individual seeks or does for the realization of a desire

or an end. They are:

i)Darma (Righteousness): Darma' is an instrument of regulating life. Darma denotes right

conduct or right action. It has ethical and social values. "Yatho Abyudaya nisreya sa dharma'

means Darma is that which helps in success of material life as well as success of spiritual life.

ii. Artha(Wealth or material things): "Artha is only helpful as a means of satisfying one or the

other desire of human life.



iii. Kama (Desire): "Kama includes physical as well as psychological satisfaction of the natural

urges of an individual. "Artha' is an instrument value as it is a means to the realization of karma.

iv. Moksha (liberation or Salvation): It is self-realization. It is the state of spiritual bliss

Educational Implications of Vedic or Tapovana Education:

Vedic education was purely residential education where the students stayed at tapovanam

i.e.,the resident of guru and observed the conduct of the teacher, receive inspiration and in to

live accordingly What one has learnt and acquired would be reflected in one's action. Education

was given an independent status in the Indian Guruklul system. It is teacher centered. In the

Tapovana education system, students were devoted to the preceptors (guru) and the preceptor

was devoted to students. Both the preceptor and students were devoted to knowledge and

knowledge was devoted to service. Such was the education in Tapovan system. That is called

education which makes the person courageous.

i. The Concept of Vidya: The term "vidya comes from the root of "vid which means 'te know.

'knowledge', learning. There are two kinds of vidya. Those are:

a) Para (Higher) Vidya: It is the knowledge of the self or that of the self realization. It is

knowledge of the imperishable One.

b) Apara (Lower) Vidya: It is consists of all the empirical sciences, arts and also of such sacred

knowledge as related to things and enjoyments that are perishable.

ii. Upanayana Samskara:

In vedic age the children were sent to Gurukula or the homes of the Acharya for education just

after the "Upanayana ritual they were called "Antevasin or 'Gurukula waste. Upanayana' means

'near the guru'. It is the sacred ceremony where the children go to the near the guru and begins

their education. Now they led a life of chasity and purity, serving the Acharya and gaining

knowledge. Only the Brahmacharis' were allowed in gurukulas'. The gurukulas were free from

the government control and influence.

Dr. A.S.Altekar remarked. The Gurukula system which necessitated the stay of the student

away from his home at the home of the teacher or in boarding house of established reputation,

was one of the most important features of ancient Indian education.

" iii. Aims and Ideals of Education:

1. According to Rkveda, Education should make man self reliant and self less

2. According to Upanishads, "San vidhya yaa vimuktaye" education is for liberation. Knowledge

is a means for freedom

3. Physical, mental and spiritual development of individual is the aim of education

4. Acquiring the ethical and social values is should be the aim of education. Development of

character is the aim of education.

5. Imparting skills in individual by giving the vocational training is the aim of education.



iv. The Curriculum:

In the Vedic education, the curriculum was not narrowly conceived. It was a broad based one.

1.Curriculum covered from lowest to highest knowledge.

2. The lower knowledge consisted of all the empirical sciences and arts as also of such sacred

knowledge as related to things and enjoyment that perish.

3. The higher knowledge refers to the imperishable one.

The study of four Vedas was a must. Shad Angas (Shiksha, Kalpa. Vyakarna, Jyotis, Chand

and Niruktha), Shad Darshanas (Sankaya. Yoga, Nyaya, Vaishasika, Purva Mimamsa and

Utthara Mimamsa), Dharma Sastra, Mimamsa. Tarka sastra and 18 Puranas etc. were part in

curriculum

v.Methods of Teaching:

In that time there was no scientific method available for teaching. The following were traditional

methods of ancient education:

1. The nature based environment was provided in the gurukulas and nature based education

was as one of the methods of teaching followed in Vedic education.

2. Oral instruction: A special stress was laid on pronunciation of the words. The people of Vedic

age believed the incorrect pronunciation of the hymns caused sin. The teacher whatever orally

says that can be listen in a proper manner and repeat again and again.

3. Meditation: The word 'Mantras' means 'born of meditation Thus meditation helped

preservation of the meanings of the *Mantras" and development of the sound of the disciple.

The disciple tried to understand the sense and the echo of the sense by meditation of every

word of the hymns. Thus they realized the spiritual elements and their experience. By the self

meditation of the disciple made the knowledge as his own. There are three steps in meditation:

a. Sravanam: Listen properly. Teacher teaches and listens silently. Read Upanishads under

proper guidance.

b. Mananam: Constant contemplation of the one Reality in accordance with the ways of

reasoning aiding in its apprehension. It is a beginning stage of meditation.

c. Nididhyanam: This is continued meditation which leads to final wisdom. Concentrated

contemplation of the truth as to realize it. It is realization and experience.

Monitorial System: Intelligent students were offered opportunities to monitor the other co-

students. In order to make personal supervision effective the co-operation and help of advanced

students were enlisted in the cause of education. This method had a great educational value.



5. Explaining Method also found in the Vedic education system.

6. Graduated series of Question and answers as a method in those days. Kenopanishad is best

source where we can see the series of question and answers.

7. Discussion method: There was khndan-mandan (logical or tarka system) pratha pravaled in

Vedic education. Orderly and systematic discussion between students under the guidance of

teacher can see in those days,

vi. The Teacher and Student:

Teacher in the Vedic age were men of the highest caliber from the point of view knowledge and

spiritual progress. They possessed the influence like fire (Agni) and chivalry like 'Indra'. They

emerged in high reputation. Living in their Ashramas they paid attention to the spiritual

development of student's thoughts. They kept them like their sons. They managed for their food

and lodging. They helped them in need. Thus, the teachers owned every responsibility of the

taught. Gurus always tried to develop the qualities of his students to make them higher than

himself.

Following were the duties of the students who lived in gurukula:

a) A student had to do the service of the Guru' and necessary jobs of the 'Gurukula'. He had to

keep the Gurukula tidy. He also prepared the necessities for the rituals (Yagnus) and grazed the

cows of the gurus.

b) He had to go out for alms. This created the spirit of ineckness and generosity in them.

c) Living in ‘gurukulas', the student slept on the ground, took simple food and obeyed the guru in

all respects.

d) His main duty was to study and they very gently learnt and attended to the instructions of the

guru. Thus, it is clear that while living in 'Gurukula' the student life was of an ideal student, a

simple and well regulated life

The relationship between the teacher and student was regarded as close relation and the

teacher should be role model for students. He was the spiritual father for his students. And was

morally responsible for their drawbacks. A guru house was sacred to a student. In the

*Tapovana system the students were devoted to preceptors and the preceptor was devoted to

students. Both the preceptor and students were devoted to knowledge and that knowledge swas

devoted to service.

vii. Discipline:

A special stress was laid on moral earnestness on the part of the student. Students were to

observe strict celibacy even in speech and thought.



viii. Language:

Samskrutam is the mother and official language in the ancient education. The four Vedas were

taught in Sanskrit language.

Merits of Vedic Education:

1. Teacher centered education. The student feels guru as Lord Brahma, Vishnu, Maheshvara.

Respect to guru common feature in Vedic education.

2. Development of Virtues like humbleness, truthfulness etc. was given emphasis in Vedic

education. Every day systematic and disciplined pattern of life, good hnbits were very much

helpful for self control.

Demerits of Vedic Education:

1. No place for secular education

2. Given more emphasis for spiritual education.

3. Only one language Sanskrit used in the process of education.

EDUCATION DURING BUDDHISM

The Buddha system of philosophy arose out of the teachings of Gautama Buddha, the well-

known founder of Buddhism. Buddha's real name was Siddhartha, born in a Royal family of

Kapilavastu (on the foot-hills of the Himalayas, north of India) in the sixth century B.C. After

sights of live incidents i.e. born baby, beggar, diseased person, old age, Dead body felt very sad

with the idea that the world was full of suffering He spent years in study, penance and

meditation to discover the origin of human sufferings and means to overcome them. At last

received enlightenment and that can be taught with his disciples.

Buddha taught mainly two things and from that the disciples developed very much. Those are:

Four Noble Truth (catvari aryasatvani):

There is a Suffering:

According to Buddha, Suffering is real and it is truth. Existence of suffering or misery is admitted

by all in some form or other. Buddha with his insight saw that suffering is not simply causal but it

is ordinarily present in all forms of existence and in all kinds of experience. Even what appears

as pleasant is really a source of pain at bottom

Cause of Suffering:

Budda found that there is a cause for every suffering. He points out that the existence of

everything in the world, material, is caused by some other things. The origin of life's evil is

explained by Buddha in the light of his special conception of natural causation known as Pratitya

Samutpada Vada (The theory Chain of dependent origin). According to it, nothing is

unconditional, the existence of everything depends on some conditions. Briefly speaking, then

1. Suffering in life is due to birth.



2. Both which is due to will to born.

3. The will to be born, which is due to our mental clinging.

4. Our mental clinging due to thirst or desire for objects.

5. Our thirst or desire is due to sense experience.

6. Sense experience which is due to contacting the senses with objects.

7. Sense object-contact due to the six organs cognition.

8. These organs are dependent on embryonic organism (compound of mind and body).

9. It is again could not develop without some initial consciousness.

10. Which again hails from the impressions of the experience of past life.

11. The impressions of the experience of past life is due to ignorance of truth.

12. Ignorance of truth cause for all sufferings.

iii. Cessation of suffering:

According to Buddha. The causes of sufferings can be ceased. As suffering like other things,

depends on some conditions. It must cease when these conditions are removed. This is the

third truth about cessation of misery.

iv. The Path to Cessation of Suffering i.e. Astanga Marga (Eight fold path);

Lord Buddha showed the path as a fourth noble truth which leads to cessation of all our

sufferings. It consists of eight steps or rules. This gives in a nutshell the essentials of Buddha

Ethics. This path is open to all, monks as well as laymen. These eight steps remove ignorance

and desire, enlighten the mind and bring about perfect equanimity and tranquility. Thus misery

ceases completely and the chance of rebirth also is stopped. The attainment of this state of

perfection is nirvana.

Astanga Marga or Eight fold Path: The noble path consists in the acquisition of the following

eight good things!

1. Right Views (Sammaditthi or Samyak Drsti):

As ignorance, with its consequences, namely, wrong views (mithya drsti) about the self and the

world and it are the root cause of all our sufferings. It is natural that the first step to moral

reformation should be the acquisition of right views or the knowledge of truth. Right view is

defined as the correct knowledge about the four noble truths. It is the knowledge of these truths

alone, and not any theoretical speculation regarding nature and self, which, according to

Buddha, helps moral reformation and leads us towards the goal-nirvana.

2. Right Resolve or Determination (Sammasankappa or Samyak Sankalpa):

A mere knowledge of the truths would be useless unless one resolves to reform life in their light.

The moral aspirant is asked, therefore, to renounce worldliness (all attachment to the world), to

give up ill-feeling towards others and desist from doing any harm to them. These three

constitute the contents of right determination.

3. Right Speech (Sammavaca or Samyak Vak):

Right determination should not remain a mere pious wish but must issue forth into action. Right

determination should be able to guide and control our speech, to begin with. The result would

be right speech consisting in abstention from lying, slander, unkind words and frivolous talk



4. Right Conduct (Sammakammanta or Samyak Karma): Right conduct is very important in

ceasing the sufferings from the life. Right conduct includes the Panca-Sila, the five vows for

desisting from killing, stealing, sensuality. Living and intoxication.

5. Right Livelihood (Samma-jaiva or Samyak Jiva):

Renouncing bad speech and bad actions, one should earn his livelihood by honest means. The

necessity of this rule lies in showing that even for the sake of maintaining one's life One should

not take to forbidden means but work in consistency with good determination.

6. Right Effort or Endeavour (Sammavayama or Samyak Vyayama):

A person tries to live a reformed life, through right views, resolution, speech, action and

livelihood. he is constantly knocked off the right path by old evil ideas which were deep rooted in

the mind as also by fresh ones which constantly arise. One cannot progress steadily unless he

maintains a constant effort to root out old evil thoughts, and prevent evil thoughts from arising a

new. Moreover, as the mind cannot be kept empty, he should constants’ endeavor also to fill the

mind with good ideas, and retain such ideas in the mind. This fourfold constant endeavor,

negative and positive is called right effort.

7. Right Mindfulness (Sammasati or Samyak Smrti):

The necessity of constant vigilance is further stressed in this rule. which lays down that the

aspirant should constantly bear in mind the things he has already learnt. He should constantly

remember and contemplate the body as body, sensations as sensations, mind as mind. and

mental states as mental states. Buddha was given detailed instructions about how such

contemplation is to be practiced. If we are not mindful, we behave as though the body, the mind,

sensations and mental states are permanent and valuable. Hence there arise attachment to

such things and grief over their loss, and we become subject to bondage and misery. Hence,

there is a necessity of constant mindfulness about truth.

8. Right Concentration (Sammasamadhi or Samyak Samadhi): One who has successfully

guided his life in the light of the last seven rules and thereby freed himself from all passions and

evil thoughts is fit to enter step into the four deeper and deeper stages of concentration that

gradually take him to the goal of his long and arduous journey cessation of suffering. He

concentrates his pure and unruffled mind on reasoning (vitarka) and investigation (vicara)

regarding the truths, and enjoys in this state, joy and ease born of detachment and pure

thought. This s the first stage of intent meditation (dhyana or nhana).

When this concentration is successful, belief in the four fold truth arises dispelling all doubts and

therefore, making reasoning and investigation unnecessary. From this results the second stages

of concentration, in which there are joy, peace and internal tranquility born of intense, unruffled

contemplation. There is in this stage a consciousness of this joy and peace too.

In the next stage attempt is made by him to initiate an attitude of indifference to be able to

detach him even from the joy of concentration. From this results the third deeper kind of



concentration, in which one experiences perfect equanimity, occupied with an experience of

bodily ease. He is yet conscious of this case and equanimity, through indifferent to the joy of

concentration.

Lastly, he tries to put away even this consciousness of ease and equanimity and all the sense of

joy and elation he previously had. He attains thereby the fourth state of concentration, a state of

perfect equanimity, indifference and self possession without pain, without ease. Thus he attains

the desires goal of cessation of all suffering, he attains the desires goal of cessation of all

suffering, and he attains to arhatship or nirvana. There are then perfect wisdom (pragna) and

perfect righteousness (sila).

Educational Implications:

The Buddhist Sangh was parallel to the Gurukula of the Hindus It was the centre of Buddhist

system of education. As R.K. Mookerjee has pointed out. “The Buddhist system is practically

that of the Buddhist order or Sangha. Buddhist education and learning centered round

monasteries as Vedic culture centered round the sacrifice. The Buddhist world did not offer any

educational opportunities a part from or independently of its monasteries. All education, sacred

as well as secular was in the hand of monks".

Rules of Admission and Pabbajja ceremony:

Admission into Buddhist monasteries were based more or less on the rules and regulations

observed by Gurukulas in Vedic period. Like Upanayana' samskara in Vedic period, in

Buddhism there is a *Pabbhajja' ceremony performed in the monasteries. At eight years pf age,

one could go to any 'Vihar' or 'Sangh' with own will, head shaved and a yellow cloth in hand he

went to the principal monk and requested him for admission in ‘sangh'. He thus surrendered

himself fully. The monk caused him to put the yellow cloth on and said the Saranttaya' or three

words of shelter in a loud voice:

"Buddham Sharanam Gachami”, - I go into the shelter of the Buddha,

Dammam Sharanam Gachami - I seek the shelter of Dharma,

*Sangham Sharanam Gachami' - I enter the shelter of the Sangh.

After taking the above three vows, one became entitled to admission. No one could get a

admission into the 'Sangh' without the consent of his parents. Patients of infectious diseases

like T.B, Leprosy etc, and Government servants, slaves and soldiers were not allowed to be

admitted into 'Sanghs'. However there was no discrimination of any kind on the basis of caste or

creed.

Upasampada Ceremony:

After completing the education twelve years (means at the age of 20 years), the Monk' had to

undergo the “Upasampada', ritual at the age of twenty years and then he become the

permanent member of the * Sangh'. There is also evident that only such monks who had

enough of spiritual knowledge were taken in 'sangh". They were directly given Upasampada'.

Their Pabbajja' and 'Upasampada' both the ritual med simultaneously



The method of performing 'Upasampada was slightly different from Pabbajja'. It was similar to

'Vedic Samavartan' ritual with some different. After samavartan in Vedic period the brahmachari

entered into family life but after 'Upasampada' he became a full-fledged monk, having no

concern with family life. While - Pabbajja' was a ritual for a limited period bur where as

'Upasampada" was permanent.

Rules for the Students:

Admitted student was called Sammer". He had to follow the following rules:

1. Not to kill any living being,

2. Not to accept anything given to him.

3. Live free from the impurity of character.

4. Not to tell a lie.

5. Not to use any intoxicating thing.

6. Not to take food at improper time.

7. Not to speak ill of any body.

8. Not to take any interest in music, dance, play show etc.

9. Not to use luxurious and scented things.

10. Not to accept the gifts of gold or silver etc.

The ten rules were essentially observed by the new monk, The *Upajsaya' i.e., the

teacher took all his responsibilities up to the age of 20 years. When he become mature and

capable for accepting *Upasampada". For the teacher, he was “Sadvi Biharak'Lord Buddha

himself taught that the teacher should recognize his taught (Sadvi Biharak) as his son and the

taught (Sadvi Biharak) should recognize the teacher (Upajsaya) as his own father.

In Buddhist education also like Vedic education, the eligibility and the competence of the entrant

was taken into account.

A candidate could not be admitted into 'Sangh' in the following conditions:

1. Without the permission of his parents.

2. Patient of any infectious of serious disease.

3. Convict of any serious moral sin.

4. Under any legal responsibility and who was not free from legal bondage.

5. Not found generous and laborious during the probation period, which some time was four or

five days.

The Qualifications of the Teacher:

In Buddhist educational system much stress was laid on the efficiency of the teacher. This has

been described as follow:

1. High Moral Order: The teacher. himself must have spent at least ten years as a monk. He

must have the purity of character, purity of thoughts and generosity, etc.

2. High Mental Order: Essentially the teacher was expected to be of a high mental order, so that

he might teach his disciple the religion and nobleness and he may also successfully combat the

wrong religious notions.

Duties of the Teacher:

In Buddhist education, the teacher was responsible for the proper education and upkeep of the



disciple. He had to fulfill the needs of the disciple, during the education period. He had to treat

them affectionately. He had to supply his disciple with all the necessary materials. He was

responsible for their physical and mental development. At the time of sickness he would attend

to the treatment and care of his students. The teacher taught them through question answer.

explanation and such other methods, so that the student might gain full knowledge and realize

"Niravan.

Daily Routine of the Disciple: Regular service of the guru (teacher), was essential in the

Buddhist system. In morning the student would arrange for water, due tonic, etc., for the teacher

He would also look after his meal. He would cook the food, feed the teacher and clean the

utensils. He would go out for alms with the teacher. After bath the students would get ready for

the education. The teacher would impart education, according to the system of the day. Thus

the disciple had to serve the teacher and keep the place tidy. His daily routine depended on the

orders of the teacher. He was not bound to obey anyone else except his teacher. He could not

take any service from any other person, nor could he go anywhere without permission of the

teacher. Thus, the disciple uses to live under the disciplinary control of their teachers.

Teacher and student relationship:

In Buddhist period, like Vedic period the relation of the teachers and the taught was close,

affectionate, pure and good. Their duties were fixed and they used to fulfill them well. The

teachers used to lead a very simple life. They had limited needs. Being learned men of high

character, knowing themselves and having self-control, they put the same ideals before their

taught. Famous Historian Huentsang wrote that the teachers living in Buddha Vharasſ were

great and eminent scholars. They put inspiring ideals before the students. They were paid very

little for their personal expenditure. The teacher took every care of his student. To quote A.S.

Altekar, "The relations between the novice and his teacher were final in character; they were

united together by usual reverence, confidence and affection."

The Curriculum:

Like Vedic education Buddhist education was mainly religious. Its aim was to attain Nirvan

(Salvation). Most of the monks were carrying on the study of teachings of Buddha and

Dharmashastras. Sutta, Vinaya and Damma etc., were the main subjects of their studies. They

educated people in spinning and weaving, painting, tailoring, writing, Arithmetic and printing etc.

In primary education reading, writing, and arithmetic were taught. In Higher education, Religion,

Philosophy. Ayurveda, Military training, etc., were included. Everyone was free to choose his

subjects without any restriction. viii. Methods of teaching:

Following were the methods of teaching:

1. Verbal education. Though the art of writing had been well developed to the Buddhist period,

yet due to shortage and nonavailability of writing materials, verbal education was prevalent as it

was in the Vedic age. The teachers used to give lessons to the novices who learnt them by

heart . The teacher used to put questions on the previous lessons so that the students may take

interest in learning the lesson by heart.



2.Discussion: In order to win in discussion or Shastrartha and impress the general public. It

was necessary to improve the power of discussion.

3.Evidences: To establish the disputed point the following evidences of eight kinds were

required:

1. Theory (Siddhanta)

2. Cause (Reason)

3. Example (Udaharan)

4. Parallelism (Sadharmya)

5. Contradiction (Vardharmya)

6. Evident (Pratyaksh)

7. Argument (Anuman) and

8. Influction (Agama).

It was laid down that the debaters must be well-versed in their subjects and fluent in speech so

that they could influence the audience well.

4. Prominence of Logic: The importance of discussion encouraged the logic in the Buddhist

period. The controversial matters could not be decided without logical arguments. Logic also

useful in the development of the mental power and knowledge. Thus, in later. period, logic

began to be used for the sake of logic and lost its proper utility

5. Tours: The main aim of Buddhist monks was to propagate Buddhism. Hence, some Acharyas

like Sariputta, Mahayuggava, Aniruddha, Rahula, etc., gave importance to tours for educating

people. After the completion of education, the students were encouraged to undertake long trips

to gain the practical and real form of the theoretical knowledge gained by them.

6. Conferences: Conferences were arranged on every full moon and 1" day of the month

(Purnima and Pratipada) in the Buddhist Sangha. The monks of different Sanghs assembled

and put forward their doubts freely.

7. Meditation in Solitude: Some Buddhist monks were more interested in isolated spiritual

meditation in lonely forest and caves. Only those monks were considered fit for lonely

meditations who had fully renounced the worldly attraction and had spent enough time in the

sanghs and had gained the efficiency for solitary meditations.

ix. Medium of instruction:

The medium of instruction was the common language of the people. Lord Buddha himself gave

his teachings in local languages. Pali language was used. Higher education was given in

Sanskrit language. And general education was given in local language.

X. Examination:

The student had to prove their practical ability before Royal audience at prominent places.

xi. Merits of Buddhist Education:

1. Well organized centers: Education was imparted in well organized centers, Monasteries and

Vihars which were fit places for the purpose.



2. Cosmopolitan: Buddhists education was free from communal narrowness.

3. Simple and Austere: Bhikshus led a life of austerity and simplicity.

4. Total Development: Buddhist education laid much emphasis on the physical, mental and

spiritual development of the students.

5. Disciplined life: Both the teacher and taught led disciplined life.

6. No Politics: Politics was not allowed in monasteries and Viharas. These were fully controlled

only by Upadhyayas and Gurus.

7. Ideal teacher-taught relationship: The relation between the teacher and the taught was ideal.

The teacher considered the student as his son and the student considered him as his father.

8. No Corporal Punishment: Corporal punishment was absolutely forbidden.

9. Both Sanskrit and local language was used: Higher education was given in Sanskrit

language. And general education was given in local language.

10. International Impact: Buddhist education helped India to gain international importance. It

also developed cultural exchange between India and other countries of the world.

xii. Demerits of Buddhist Education:

1. One sided: Being mainly religious, Buddhist system could not give proper attention to the

occupational, industrial and technical education so it may be called one sided.

2. Blow to Family: It gave a severe blow to the social development, because it derided family

ties. Devoted whole life for Sangh.

3. Neglect of Military Training: Non-violent Buddhist education neglected the military training

and use of weapons.

4. Loose Atmosphere: The control and discipline of the monasteries began to vanish in the

name of democracy. As a result the places of religion turned into the centers of recreation for

the Bhiksbus.

5. Escapism: Buddhist education neglected the physical development. Struggle for life was

substituted by spiritual meditation and so it's all round progress was barred. People began to

escape from worldly duties!

EDUCATION DURING JAINISM

The word “Jaina' means a conqueror. Those who are conqueror they showed the right path

known as Jainism. There were 24 Tirthankaras (the 24 sacred teachers) had conquered their

passions and thus sought their liberation. Tirthankaras were considered as Jina means attained

individual. Rishabanatha, who was the first Tirthankara called as father of Jainism.

Parshwanatha who was 23rd Tinthankara and Vardhamana Mahaveera, who was the last and

24th tirthanklara and he was developed the Jainism.

Jainism evolved because of extremeness in Hinduism. It is against with Hindu orthodox thought.

But the philosophical and educational aspects it accepted many things from Vedas and

Hinduism.

Fundamental Principals of Jainism:



1. The Jaina does not believe in Veda and also in God. They believe in only teachings of the

theerthankara s (prophets).

2.They were accepted the law of karma Siddhartha and law of rebirththeory.

3. The Concept of Soul or Jiva: Soul is taken as a conscious substance. Consciousness is the

essence of the soul. The consciousness is always present in the soul, though its nature and

degree may vary. The lowest are the imperfect souls which inhabit bodies of earth, water, fire,

air. Midway between the highest and the lowest have two to five senses like warms, ants, bees

and men. Perfect souls (highest soul) are that have overcome all karmas and attainment

omniscience!

According to Jaina, Jiva means, the suffering individual or bounded individual called jiya or

living. Soul means conscious substance. The soul is inherently perfect.

4. The concept of Bondage of the soul: The jiva infected with passions takes up matter in

accordance with its karma. The bondage or the fall of the soul begins in thought. There are two

kinds of bondages.

1. Internal or ideal bondage i.e. the souls bondage to bad disposition (Bhava bandha)

2. Its effect, material bondage i.e. the soul eternal association with matter (Drvya-bandha).

5. The Concept of God: The Jains rejects the existence of God as the creator of the world. One

should worship the liberated or the perfect souls. The liberated soul is called a victor and hero

(jina). They believe in speeches of Theerthankara’s, but not in the existence of God.

6. Every Jain should attain Tri-Ratna's (Three Jewels). They are:

i. Samyak Darshanam (Right Faith)

ii. Samyak Jnana (Right Knowledge),

iii. Samyak Charitham (Right Conduct).

7. Every Jain should follow the Panch Maha Vratha's (Five Vows). They are:

i. Ahimsa (non-violence),

ii. Satyam (Truth)

iii. Astheyam (non-steeling)

iv Brhmacharyam (Abstinence from self indulgence)

v Aparigraha (Abstinence from all attachment).

Educational Implications:

I. Aims of Education:

1. The samvara is the aim of education. The process of stoppage of a flux is known as samvara.

And by this process of stoppage of flux, the soul must liberate with the matter.

2. The nirjara is the aim of education. The process of wearing out of karma in the soul is known

as nirjara. By this process one has to completely eliminate the matter with which the soul is

already mixed up.

3. Obtaining right knowledge is the aim of education. By this remove the ignorance about real

nature of soul.



4. Studying the sacred teachings of the Theerthankara’s is the aim of education.

5. Attaining Tri-Ratnas (Three Jewels) i.e. Right faith (Samyak Darshanam), Right Knowledge

(Samyak Jnana), and Right Conduct (Samyak Charitham) is the aim of education.

6. Adaptation of Five Vows (Pancha Maha Vratha's) is the aim of Education. They are:

i. Ahimsa (non-violence)

ii. Satyam (Truth)

iii. Astheyam (non-steeling)

iv. Brhmacharyam (Abstinence from self indulgence)

v.Aparigraha (Abstinence from all attachment).

Age for Studies:

Education begins when the child at the age of five (5) years at Jaina Ashramas. Acharya or

teacher starts the education to children. Higher education must taken by child from the Jaina

Viharas.

III. Curriculum:

There was no systematic curriculum followed. Jaina teachers taught Vedas, Upanishads,

Various Darshana's, Puranas, Jatakas (the stories related Jaina Theerthanakara's). Natural

sciences, Chemistry and philosophy were as a part of curriculum.

IV. Methods of Teaching:

There may be no systematic methods of teaching seen in the Jainism. But it can be assumed

that the following methods of teaching can used in the Jaina Viharas. They are:

1. Oral Method

2 Imitation

3.Repetition and Memorization

4. Following the Five Vows,

5.Experimental Method

6. Individualized teaching method.

7.Discussion

8.Self-study.

V The Teacher:

Jaina Education also known as teacher centered education. More and more respect to teacher

was given in the Jaina education. Teacher should always ideal in front of their students.

Teacher should follow the five vows and jaina rules. He was right guide for their students.

Teacher always practice worship for salvation or liberation which is known as Nirvana

VI. The Student:

Students should achieve the Three-ratna is in the life. They are: ):

i. Right faith (Samyak Darshanamtheir sacred teachings is necessary. The right faith means

respect and interest (Sradha) towards truth. Perfect falith helps in get perfect knowledge.

2. Right Knowledge (Samyak Gnanam): Right knowledge is that detailed cognition of the real

nature of the ego and non-ego, and is free from doubt, error and uncertainty.

3. Right Conduct (Samyak Charitham): Jainism is given special stress in right conduct. It



means, one should refrain from what is harmful and to do what is beneficial. A practical code of

conduct has been given below.

i. Take the five great vows (Pancha Mahavratha ). Ahimsa (Nonviolence). satyam vruth).

Asthexam (Non-stealing). Brahmacharyam (Abstinence from sell indulgence) and Aparigraha

(Abstinence from all attachment). The Ahimsa ought to be practiced not in theory but in thought,

speech and action.

ii. Extreme carefulness in walking, speaking, doing so as to avoid any harm to any life.

iii. Practice restraint of thought, speech and bodily movements.

iv. Practice ten different kinds namely forgiveness, humility, straightforwardness, truthfulness,

cleanliness, self-restraint, austerity, sacrifice, non-attachment and celibacy.

V Meditate on cardinal truths regarding the self and world.

vi. Conquer through fortitude, all pains and discomforts that arise from hunger, thirst, heat and

cold.

VII. The Discipline:

According to Jainism, discipline is compulsory. A student had to lead a highly disciplined life.

Jainism is given more preference for self discipline.

VIII Merits of Jainism:

1. It is highly disciplined and proposed value based education

2. It is proposed residential based education,

3. It is also teacher centered education.

4. It is given more emphasis in ahimsa,

IX Demerits of Jainism:

1. It is given more emphasis on discipline which cannot be possible to practice.

2. It is atheistic system. No faith in God.

3. More emphasis on values which may be impractical

MEDIEVAL PERIOD - ISLAMIC & INDIAN PTASHALAS

The period under review covers the system of education in India from about the 10th century

A.D. to the middle of the 18th century, i.e. before the British rule. India witnessed a large

number of Mohammedan invasions in the beginning of the eighth century A. D. Mahmud of

Ghazni invaded India and looted wealth, later on established permanent empire in India. During

the period of Muslim rulers, they introduced a new system of education. This period was known

as Dark Age in the history of India.

Medieval period witnessed a radical transformation in the Indian subcontinent. The country was

invaded by various foreign rulers and several traders from around the world came and settled in

the country. The tradesmen and the invaders brought with them their own cultures and

intermingled with the people of the each district of the state. In fact, the education during the

Muslim period was much inferior than that of the Hindu period. No Muslim ruler except Akbar did



commendable works in the field of education. Education in medieval India flourished mostly

during the Mughal rule from the beginning of 1526 until the end of Mughal political presence in

1848

However, before the advent of the Muslims in India, there was a developed system of

education, but Education in medieval India was shaped with the founding of the institutions of

learning. Muslim rulers promoted urban education by bestowing libraries and literary societies.

They founded primary schools (maktabs) in which students learned reading, writing, and basic

Islamic prayers, and secondary schools (madrasas) to teach advanced language skills In India.

Several Madrasahs were set up by Sultans, nobles, and their influential ladies. The main

objective of these Madrasahs was to train and educate scholar who would become eligible for

the civil service as well as performing

Itutmish was the first to establish a madrasah at Delhi naming it "Madrasah-e-Muizzi", after the

name of Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori. Balban, the Chief Minister of Sufran Nasiruddin

Mahmud, founded “Madrasah Nasiriyya" after the name of his master. Minhajus Siraj, the author

of "Tabaqat Nasiri, was appointed its principal. Gradually many madrasahs came into being. In

Muhammad Tughlag's period there were 1000 madrasahs only in Delhi. Sultan Firoz Shah

founded “Madrasah Firoz Shahi on the southern side of the Hauz Khaz in Delhi. There were

many Madrasahs in small and big, rural and urban areas. However, the important scholars were

only in the madrasah of important centers.

CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSLIM EDUCATION

1) Patronage of the rulers: The rulers helped in the spread of education. They built educational

institutions and universities. They endowed them with the funds. Big landlord also provided

financial help for the spread of education. The rulers patronized the men of learning,

2) Religion dominated education: In the words of S.N. MUKERJI, *The whole educational

system was saturated with the religious ideals which influenced the aim, the contents of study,

and even the daily life of the pupils." The pupils acquired knowledge as a religious obligation

3) Aims of Education: The foremost aim of education during the Muslim period was the

extension of knowledge and the propagation of Islam. During this period education was

imparted for the propagation of Islamic principles, laws and social conventions. Education was

based on religion and its aim was to make persons religious minded. It further aimed as the

achievement of material prosperity.

Aims of education:

a) Developing love for Muslim culture and religion.

b) Enabling the individual for Islamic life.

c) Preparing the students for the next world.

d) Equipping the students for a vocation.



e) Preparing individuals for running administration.

4. Organization of Education: Education was organized in *Maktabs' and 'Madarsas' Primary

education was given in Maktabs' and higher education was given in 'Madarsas”.

Age of admission and Bismillah Ceremony:

At the age of four years, four months and four days, "Maktab ceremony or 'Bismillah was

performed to indicate the beginning of the child. This was considered as an auspicious moment

for initiation or starting education. Good wishes were offered to the child. “Surahl-Iqra' a chapter

from the holy Quran was recited on this occasion.

ii. Maktabs :

Maktab (Arabic):

(Other transliterations include Mekteb, Mektep, Meqteb. Maqtab), also called kuttab (Arabic

school), is an Arabic word meaning elementary schools. Primary education was imparted

through the ‘Maktab which were attached with mosque or were independent of the mosque

Khanquahs of the saints also at some places served as centers of education. Several learned

men also taught students at their residences. Most of the Maktabs were either patronized by

rulers or had endowment. They were dependent on the charity of the philanthropists. The

‘Maktabs' were run under the guidance of the learned Maulavis'. They were supposed to be very

pious.

Maktabs' children were made to remember the "Ayats' of Quran'. They also

imparted the education of reading, writing and the primary arithmetic's. When the children had

learn the Arabic script. they were given the education in Persian language and script. The

stories of Prophets and Muslim -Fakirs were also told to the children. Though it was primarily

used for teaching children in reading, writing, grammar and Islamic subjects (such as Qur'an

recitations). other practical and theoretical subjects were also often taught.

History of Maktab:

In the medieval Islamic world, an elementary school was known as a Maktab, which dates back

to at least the 10th century. Like Madrasah (which referred to higher education), a Maktab was

often attached to a Mosque. In the 10th century, the Sunni Islamic jurist Ibn Hajar al-Haytami

discussed Maktab schools. In response to a petition from a retired Shia Islamic judge who ran a

Madhab elementary school for orphans, al-Haytami issues a fatwa outlining a structure of

Maktab education that prevented any physical or economic exploitation of enrolled orphans.

Buildings: In general, the students sat on the ground in the rows under the shade of a tree and

the reacher used mat or dear-skin to sit at. He also attended to the students while standing

ii. Madarsas:

Madrasah is the Arabic word literally means "a place where learning and studying are done. The

Hebrew cognate Midrasha also connotes the meaning of a place of learning the related term

Midrasha literally refers to study or learning, but has acquired mystical and religious

connotations. However, in Bangla, the term Madrasah usually refers to the specifically Islamic

insuctions

The children were sent to Madarsas áfter completing the primary education. There were



separate teachers for different subjects. Special emphasis was given to the education islam

Religious and secular subjects also taught in Madarsas, The religious education included the

study of Quran, Mohammed and his conventions, Islamic laws and Islamic history etc. The

secular education included the study of Arabic literature grammar, history, philosophy,

mathematics, geography, politics, economies, Greek language and agriculture etc. The

Madrasahs imparted secondary and higher education. Often these Madrasahs were attached to

mosques The term Madrasahs' is derived from Arabic word dars(a lecture) and means a

place where lecture is given. There was difference in principles’ between the Madrasa and other

mosques. When a particular room was set apart in a mosque for the teaching purposes it was

called a Madrasah. Sometimes it was quite close to a large mosque It functioned as college of

higher education where eminent scholars taught different subjects by using the lecture method

supplemented by discussions. Management was usually private supported by state grants and

endowments. There was provision for both secular and religious education in the Madrasha.

The total duration of the course was ten to twelve years.

5. Curriculum: Curriculum and Mode of Instruction in the Maktab:

1)During those days there were no printed books for the beginners. Wooden books (taktis) were

used,

ii) The Quran: After alphabets, words were taught to students

iii)Stress on Calligraphy beautiful and fine handwriting was an important element of instruction

iv) Teaching of Grammar was taught as it was considered very valuable in teaching the

languages

v. Religious Instruction imparted in the "Maktabs' was religious through and through

vi. Books other than Quran: After the Quran, the Gulistan" and the "Bostan poems of poet

Firdausi were taken up.

VIi) Paharas: Students also learned "Pahars" (multiple of numbers). Students memorized these

while uttering collective in a loud voice.

b. Curriculum in the Madarasas:

The medium of instruction was Persian, but the study of Arabic was made compulsory for the

muslim students Religious education comprised deep study of the Quran. Mohammed and his

conventions, Islamic laws and Islamic history and Sufism etc. The secular education included

the subjects Arabic Grammer. Logic Prose, Literature, Law, Philosophy. Astrology, Arithmetic,

History, Geography, Medicine, Agriculture etc. The muslims generally followed in the field of

handicrafts and architecture the traditional Indian system

6.Methods of Teaching:

There was oral method followed during primary education. Children were made to remember

the Ayats of Quran Recitation Quran Ayats was the method of teaching Lecture method and

monitorial method used in the Madarasas to teach children.



Norms of conduct

: Adequate stress was laid on well-defined norms of behaviour, pattern of thought, building up

personality and character of the pupils.

Teacher-pupil relationship:

In the Muslim period also the teacher was respected. There was intimate relationship between

the teacher and the pupil. Teachers took to teaching for love of learning. They were held in high

esteem. Prof. S.N. Mukerji has observed, Learning was prized for its own sake and as a mark of

the highest human development and teaching was never handicapped by examination

requirements". In the modern civilization nature of relationship between the teacher and the

taught does not count. But in Islamic scheme of education it holds a very crucial position. It

considers the teacher as guide (murshid), and the student as seeker (Laulib). Both are to be

sincere in their attitude towards each other. The relationship between the two is to be governed

by certain Qur'anic principles

Since the Prophet is the role model for Muslims, he is to be followed by the teacher in his

teaching profession. The teacher has to interact with his students in the way their biological

fathers treat them. A father loves his children and is always concerned about their welfare, he

wants to see them developing from all angles, physically, emotionally, morally, and intellectually.

The teacher has also to feel concerned about how to ensure his students growth, mentally as

well as morally. It is clear that the secret of the Prophet's success, among other things, was his

gentle and kind approach to his disciples. A teacher who has the mission of imparting

knowledge to his students has to act in the same manner so as to ensure success in his task.

The social status of teacher was high and they are men of character, though their emoluments

were small the commanded universal respect and confidence. A teacher was never confronted

with any serious problem of discipline. Pupils were humble, submissive and obedient owing to

the high honour and prestige of teachers in society.

A Muslim teacher's conducted, whether in public or in privacy, should correspond to his

assertions. If the teacher's person does not reflect Islamic character, students may not be

expected to be sincere to him in learning from him. This disturbance of relationship between the

teacher and the taught may disturb the whole process of education, causing students to feel

confused) Learned teachers: Teachers took to teaching for love of learning. They were held in

high esteem. The number of students with the teacher was limited, he paid individual attention

to each students. Although a teacher did not have many pupils to teach yet, still the teacher

would take the help of senior and advanced students to teach the younger or the junior.

9. Women education in India during the medieval period

Education for girls was the exception rather than the rule for Muslim girls of affluent families

studied at home Koranic exegesis, prophetic traditions. Islamic lax (sharia), and related

subjects. Often attached to mosques, Islamic schools were open to the poor but were

gender segregated, often only for boys Muslim girls of affluent families studied at home, if they

received and education beyond learning to recite the Koran. Although there was Pardah system



during the Muslim period yet Islam did not oppose the education of women. These two contrary

factors influence the education of women in two ways. The girls were entitled to receive

education equal to that of the boys up to a definite age but thereafter their education was

stopped. However, the girl to higher classes used to continue their studies at home.

10. Discipline:

Punishments were quit severe. Truants and delinquents were caned on their palms and slapped

on their faces. A strange mode of punishment was to make the children hold their ears by taking

their hands from under their thighs while sitting on their tiptoes.

11. Individualized instructions:

Since the number of students with the teacher was limited, he paid individual attention to each

student.

12. Monitorial system:

I Although a teacher did not have many pupils to teach yet, still the teacher would take the help

of senior and advanced students to teach the younger or the junior.

13. Vocational education:

Provision was also made for vocational. technical and professional education. Emperor Akbar

took considerable interest in education as in evident from the passage of from the Ain-in-Akbar".

The passage makes interesting reading and provides valuable information on the system of

instruction, i.e.. curriculum, methods of teaching etc.

14. Language:

Arabic and Persian languages were mostly compulsory. For getting high government posts. one

had to learn these languages.

15. Fees:

There were several village schools where the students were required to pay their instructions,

not in cash but in kind.

16. Orphanages:

The state set up some Orphanages where the children received education free of charge. Vast

endowments were made for these orphanages.

17. Education of sons of Nobles and Rulers:

The Muslims nobles as well as rulers engaged tutors to teach their children at home.

Merits of Education during Islamic Period:

Education was compulsory, especially for boys.

ii. There was proper co-ordination between religious values and material values or to live well in

the world.

iii. Great stress was laid on character building.

iv. There was a personal touch between the teacher and the taught.

V. The education during the Muslim rule was mostly free.

Demerits of Education during Islamic Period:

i Unsuitability was characteristic of the institution of education.

ii. Education of the Hindus was neglected.

iii. There was no provision for universal education.



iv. There was too much emphasis on teaching of Arabic and Persian. Given more emphasis on

Islamic education.

V. There was evil effect of corporal punishment.

vi. Curriculum was defective.

vii. Oral and verbal method of teaching did not help the consolidation of knowledge.

viii. Indifference towards women education.

ix. The teacher and taught relationship was not ideal.

X. No place for all-round development of the personality.

xi. It was considered as dark period for development of education.

INDIAN PATASHALAS DURING THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

Chief features of Hindu system of Education in India during the medieval period

Lack of state support:

With the advent of the Muslim rule, the state support for the Hindu system of education almost

ended. Now it depended upon the rich people, scholars and village communities. Of course

where there were no Muslim rulers, it received state support. Gradually there remained a few

such areas..

ii. Religion Oriented Education:

The system of education, by and large was dominated by religion. Elementary education was

imparted in pathshalas" which existed both in villages and towns.

iii. Pathshalas:

Usually pathshalas were held in the verandah of some house or under trees. There were also

separate houses for pathshalas. Specific type of buildings for them did not exist. Premises of

the temples were also used. The 'Pathshalas : Elementary education was imparted in

*pathshalas' which existed both in villages and towns.

iv. Fees:

No regular fees were charges from the students. The parents gave presents to the teachers.

Students were required to render personal service to the teachers. Sometimes teacher also

engaged themselves in part time work to supplement their income.

Instructional Methods at the Elementary Stage:

There were four stages of Instruction at the elementary stage. In the first stage writing letters of

the alphabet on sand was taught to students. In the second stage, the teacher wrote on palm

leaves and the students traced over them with red pen and charcoal ink These could be rubbed

very easily.

In the third stage, the student wrote and pronounced compound components. Excessive

practice was given to the students in this regard. Common names of persons were used for this

purpose. At this stage also, the student was taught to use the words in the formation of

sentences. He was also taught to make a distinction between written and colloquial languages.

The students were taught to rules of arithmetic and multiplication tables repeated by the entire

class. In the fourth stage, students were taught to use paper for writing.

vi. Curriculum at the elementary stage:

Knowledge of weights and measures was considered essential therefore; arithmetic was a

compulsory subject at the elementary stage. Literature was included in the curriculum, real



literature taste was not cultivated. Moral and religious instruction also had a secondary place in

these schools. In some schools, salutation to Goddess Saraswati (the Goddess of learning) was

learnt by heart by the students. Instruction in mythology and sacred love of the Hindus was also

given in some schools.

MODERN PERIOD. BRITISH PERIOD

The introduction of modern education was an event of great historical significance for India. It

was definitely a progressive act of the British rule. Three main agencies were responsible for the

spread of modern education in India: the foreign Christian missionaries, the British government

and progressive Indians. Christian missionaries, who did extensive work in the sphere of spread

of modern education in India, were inspired mainly by a proselytizing spirit to spread Christianity

among the people. These missionaries started educational institutions which along with

imparting modern secular education also gave religious instructions in Christianity. The British

Government was, however, the principal agent in disseminating modern education in India. It

established a network of schools and colleges in India which turned out educated Indians well-

versed in modern knowledge.

The introduction of modern education in India was primarily motivated by political and public-

administrative and economic needs of Britain in India. However, they were convinced that the

spread of British culture would bring about a social and political unification of the world. Modern

education is beneficial in India, specifically if obtaining a Master of Public Administration, which

offers essential and advanced knowledge for forthcoming elected and appointed officials at all

levels of government. Persons like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Keshab Chandra Sen, Rabindra Nath

Tagore, Ishwar Chander Vidyasagar, Ranade, Dayanand Saraswati, Ramakrishna Vivekanand,

etc. worked towards the establishment of modern education. Modern education had

fundamentally different orientation and organization as compared to traditional education. Thus,

with the introduction of the Western system of education both the meaning and content of

education underwent significant changes.

British Empire and its history in India are considered one of the most remembering and

remarkable historical periods in Indian history With the advent of British ships on Indian coasts

in early 16th century, things did not remain the same any more. Distinct features of each age

and century underline British rule in India, starting with the British East India Company and

ending with Lord Mountbatten and transfer of power in 1947.

Though the years within the late 17th and early 18th centuries were not the serious education

years, development of education under British regime was first witnessed in late 18th and early

19th centuries. According to S.S. Mukarji, "the Portuguese people who first started modern

education system in India by establishing the missionary schools".

EDUCATION UNDER EAST INDIA COMPANY

The East India Company was a private company which, after a long series of wars and

diplomatic efforts, came to rule India in the 19th century. The British East India Company arrived

in India in the early 1600s, struggling and nearly begging for the right to trade and does



business and spread the Christianity in India. Chartered by Queen Elizabeth I on December 31,

1600, the original company consisted of a group of London merchants who hoped to trade for

spices at islands in present day Indonesia. Ships of the company's first voyage sailed from

England in February 1601. After a series of conflicts with Dutch and Portuguese traders active

in the Spice Islands, the East India Company concentrated its efforts on trading on the Indian

subcontinent. By the late 1700s the thriving firm of British merchants, backed by its own army,

was essentially ruling India. In the 1800s English power expanded in India, as it would until the

mutinies of 1857-58. East India Company works can see at Madras, Bombay and Bengal.

CHARLES GRANT

Charles Grant was born at Aldourie, Inverness-shire, Scotland, and went to India in 1767 in a

military role. Later through a variety of friends and acquaintances, he rose to the eminent

position of superintendent over all of the East India Company's trade in Bengal. Returning to

Britain in 1790. Grant became a leading British statesman prior to his death in Russell Square,

London, October 31, 1823. One of Grant's accomplishments included acquiring a large fortune

through walk manufacture in Malda, India, which resulted in Governor-General Cornwallis

appointing Grant as a member of the East India Company's board of trade in 1787. Later in

1805, Grant became the chairman, Court of Directors, East India Company. In Grant's politics

Elected to Parliament in 1802 from Inverness-shire. Grant served as an MP until failing health

forced him to retire in 1818. While in India and later in the British Parliament, Grant extended

much influence in the areas of education, social and public policy, and Christian missions.

Politically, Grant opposed Governor-General Wellesley's war policies against native Indians,

and Grant supported the Parliamentary move to impeach Wellesley

Grant in his “Observations sided with Wilberforce in 1813 as the two successfully sought to

increase education and Christianity's presence in India alongside the East India Company's

commercial interests. In 1792, Grant wrote "Observations on the State of Society among the

Asiatic Subjects of Great Britain. Although this was a “drainpipe” study of Hindu India this work

acquired the status of a Government White Paper. It became a much publicized plea for the

toleration of educational and missionary activities India. Being presented to the Company's

directors in 1997 and to the House of Commons in 1813, the Commons ordered its printing in

1813 within the context of the Charter Renewal. Grant argued that the method for civilizing India

in regard to society, morality, and religion would be for the Company to allow Christian

missionaries into India along with Christianity's legal establishment. Ironically Grant's thesis was

at odds with the long-held position of the East India Company, which had attempted to prevent

Christian missionary work in India. Key figures in the opposition to missionaries in India were

Major Scott Waring and the Rev. Sydney Smith. The essay provides a Christian rationale of

Empire

Grant saw Indian society as not only heathen, but also as corrupt and uncivilized. He was

appalled by such native customs as exposing the sick, burning lepers and sati. He believed that

Britain's duty was not simply to expand its rule in India, and exploit the continent for its

commercial interests, but to civilize and Christianize. In effect, this also meant to "Westernize,



though this was not a prime motivation.

The essay urged that education and Christian mission be tolerated in India alongside the East

India Company's traditional commercial activity. It argued that India could only be advanced

socially and morally by compelling the Company to permit Christian missionaries into India. This

view was diametrically opposed to the long-held position of the East India Company that

Christian missionary work in India conflicted with its commercial interests and should be

prohibited.

In 1797. Grant presented his essay to the Company's directors, and then later in 1813, along

with the reformer William Wilberforce, successfully to the British parliament.

CHARTER ACT 1833

The territorial boundary of East India Company was gradually expanding so it became essential

for her to issue another notification. In 1833 was issued the notification concerning education in

India which was known as Charter Act 1833.

Following facts were notable in the Charter Act1833:

1. The Missionaries of all the countries were given the facility of preaching their religion India.

2. The Governor of Bengal was made superior to the Governors of other Provinces and his

policies were to be followed by others.

3.Any Indian or natural citizen of the emperor territory was not to be appointed to any service or

post on the basis of caste, creed or some other consideration.

4. Education grant was raised to Rs. 1,00,000/- from 10.000.

5 In the Council of the Governor-General a fourth member i.e. Law member was added.

6. In due course of time, the provision of this Charter influenced the education in India to a very

great extent. This Charter of 1833 occupies a very important place in the History of Indian

Education. In 1813, the East India Company was compelled to accept responsibility for the

education of Indians. Charter Act of 1813 made a provision for an annual grant of a sum of not

less than one lakh of rupees for the promotion of learning in India.

ORIENTALISTS AND ANGLICISTS CONTROVERSY

The charter Act of 1813 did not specify the methods to secure the objects of "revival and

improvement of literature', 'the encouragement of learned natives of India and the introduction

and promotion of a knowledge of sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories in

India. There were two groups emerged with different views among the officials of the East India

Company regarding how to spend the One lakh rupees provision for promotion of education in

India.

Orientalists Argument:

Orientalists such as Warren Hastings, H.T. Princes, Lord Minto and H.H. Wilson etc. who



wanted to promote traditional Indian Education. H.T. Princes was the president for the

committee on how to spend the provision of one lack rupee for promotion of education India

According to them Indian languages and Indian culture is greater than with westerner languages

and western culture. And Indians are unable to understand the English language hence it is very

important to continue the education in Indian languages only. Orientalists who wanted to spend

one lakh rupees for promote Indian education through the medium of Sanskrit, Arabic and

Persian.

East India Company was given importance for views of Orientalist till 1813. They established

Madarsa at Calcutta and Banaras Sanskrit College at Varanasi, Westeren literature were

translated in Indian languages i.e. Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian. They have given scholarships for

Indian students. They introduced English language as a medium of instruction for them those

who are showing interest in learning English.

Anglicists Argument:

This view was strongly argued by Lord Macaulay and some of English favor Indians such as

Raja Ram Mohan Ray. During this violent controversy Lord T.B.Macaulay came to India as a

Law Member of the Governor General's Executive Council . Lord Macaulay was appointed

President of the General Committee on Public Instruction by Lord William Bentinck, the

Governor General of India. He was a learned scholar of English literature and very fluent orator.

The Government wanted the advice of Macaulay on the implications of the Clause 43 of the

Charter Act of 1813. Lord Macaulay was argued that British culture and English language is only

the greatest culture and language and Indians are uncivilized Hence it is very important that the

provision of one lakh rupees should spend for developing the English language and western

culture in India. Macaulay presented his lengthy minute to Lord Bentinck in 1835. In the minutes

he advocated education of the upper classes in India and made a vigorous plea for spreading

western learning through the medium of English.

Macaulay thought that it was possible only through English in education to bring about a class of

persons. Indian in blood and color, but English tastes, in opinions in morals and intellect. This

minute was accepted by Bentinck and it opened a new chapter in the educational history of

India.

Lord Macaulay's Address to the British Parliament on 23 February 1835, "I have

travelled across the length and breadth of India and I have not seen one person who is a

beggar, who is thief. Such wealth 1 have seen in this country, such high moral values. people of

such caliber, that I do not think we would ever conquer this country, unless we break the very

backbone of this nation, which is her spiritual and cultural heritage and therefore. I propose that

we replace her old and ancient education system, her culture, for if the Indians think that all that

is foreign and English is good and greater than their own, they will lose their self esteem, their

native culture and they will become what we want them, a truly dominated nation".



LORD MACAULAY'S MINUTE ON INDIAN EDUCATION

Lord Macaulay was appointed Law member of the Governor General's Council. And He was

appointed the Chairman of Society of Public Instructions of Bengal by Lord William Bentinck.

The Government demanded his advise on the following two issues as a Law Member:

1.Could the granted money of Rs. One lack be spent in any other way also besides the oriental

education? What was the actual meaning of articles of the order of 1813?

2.Macaulay did not take part in any of the policy laying of the Government of India. Nor did he

ever participate in the meeting of the society. He presented the recommendations on 8°

February 1835. And Macaulay in this minutes supported western education through English

medium in India. He said, "A single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native

literature of India and Arabia." He maintained that current Indian languages are mostly

incomplete, inefficient and lacking in scientific vocabulary hence, important books not translated

in those languages. In this way Macaulay was discarded the local languages and degrade these

literatures. Through English education Macaulay wanted to create, **At present we should

create such group of people who may work as a mediator between us and the Common people,

a class of person: " Indian in blood and colour but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in

the intellect.” He wants to create a group of WOGS (Western Oriented Gentlemen) who would

always co-operate with British rulers in exploitation of Indians.

Changes Enforced in Indian Education:

1. European literature and science will be propagated among the Indians.

2. Funds will be employed only for encouraging English education.

3. Future allocation of funds to oriental students and teachers will be stopped.

4 No funds will be available for printing of oriental works.

5. The medium of education will be English.

Of course, Macaulay policy was succeeded to a great extent. Lord William Bentinck was

accepted the Macaulay policy. In a letter to his father in 1836, Macaulay wrote, “Our English

Schools are increasing with leaps and bounds and now the condition has reached to a position

that it has become difficult to accommodate the students.... Hindus are much influenced with

education. There is no Hindu, who may keep real faith in his religion after studying English. I

have full confidence that if our education policy succeeds then no Idolater will be left in Bengal.

All this will be done naturally without any religious preaching and interference

" Down Ward Filtration Theory:

In India Christian Missionaries calculated that lower classes of the people generally follow the

ideas of higher classes. Hence, if some people of higher classes could be converted to

Christianity, the people of lower classes will follow them. Therefore, efforts were made for

spreading English education through Mission schools.

Meaning of Filtration Theory:

Filtration theory means “Education is to be filtered to the common people. Drop by drop. the

education should go to the common public so that at due time it may take the form of a vast

stream which remained watering desert of the society for long times and high class of people



should be educated and common people gain influence from them". The policy evolved

between 1780 and 1833. According to this policy, "an attempt was made to educate only the

higher classes, so that education filters down from the classes to the masses."

Causes of Filtration Theory:

1. Need of Government Services: The company government needed various types of workers to

run the business of government. They wanted to have cheep servants who work in different

capacities. This aim could be fulfilled only by an educated higher class of people of India. So,

the government started the policy of education of higher class.

2. No enough money to take the responsibility of educating the masses.

WOOD'S DESPATCH (1854)

In 1853, the directors of the East India Company decided to lay down a definite policy in regard

to educational matters of India. Charles Wood was the chairman of the Board of Control. A

parliamentary committee was appointed to survey the educational progress in India. I he

committee studied the issue thoroughly. It heard the ideas of the persons like Traivelion Pairy,

Marshman, Wilson, Halide, Cameron and Dull, etc., the committee members who had thorough

knowledge of Indian education. The committee reported that the question of Indian education

would not be ignored any longer and its development will not be in only case harmful to British

Empire. The committee suggestions were accepted by the Board of Control under the

chairmanship of Charles Wood and the declaration was known as "Wood's Educational

Dispatch” though it was written by John Stuart.

The main recommendations of the Wood's Despatch:

1 The Despatch clearly accepted the responsibility of British Government for education in India.

2 To raise intellectual fitness and moral character of the students was laid down as aim of

education.

3 Mr. Wood recognized the usefulness of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian and recommended them

as subjects of study in regular institutions. He also recognized the usefulness of western

knowledge for Indians.

4 Due to dearth of books in Indian languages, the medium of education should be English. But

this should be used by those people who have proper knowledge of English. Those who are not

able to understand the English language for them sake Indian language only as the medium of

education.

5. Department of public Instruction should be setup in all the provinces. Its highest official

should be designated as the Director of Public Instruction. He should be assisted by Deputy

Education Educator, Inspector and Deputy Inspector of Schools.

6. The universities should setup at Calcutta. Bombay and Madras and if necessary at other

places too.



7. The Despatch emphasized establishment of the graded schools as follows:

i. Universities.

ii. Colleges

iii. High Schools

iv. Middle Schools

v Primary Schools.

8. The Despatch said, the filtration theory was failed and suggested to increase in the primary,

middle and high schools. Suggested to implement scholarships and other schemes.

9. Despatch suggested Grant-in-aid system for the institutions which fulfilled certain

qualifications. He also suggested that the rules and regulations for grant-in-aid. It should be

framed on the lines practiced in England.

10. Despatch expressed the desire of opening training schools in every province of India.

11. Despatch threw light on women education and praised the persons engaged in this pious

work,

12. Mr. Wood said that Muslims are too backward in education. They should be encouraged to

gain education.

13. Schools and colleges should be setup at suitable places for vocational education.

Merits:

British Parliament for the first time made an attempt to decide the educational policy of India and

gave it in legal form. According to H.R.James, The Despatch 1854 climax in the History of

Indian Education.

HUNTERCOMMISSION-1882

On February 3, 1881. Lord Rippon came to India. He was the Governor General of India. He

appointed the first Indian Education Commission, with Mr. William Hunter as the chairman. He

was a member of the Viceroys Executive Council. Therefore, it came to be popularly known as

"Hunter Commission Nous dispatch in 1854 had recommended that greater attention should be

paid to the education of the people at large, but the Government had failed to do so. Therefore,

"Hunter commission was appointed mainly to look into the condition of primary or elementary

education in India. The commission was to make the following enquiries

1. To know the condition of primary education,

2. To find out the methods of expansion of primary education,

3 To know the position of State institutions and its importance

4 To know the position of missionary institutions in general.

5. To decide the attitude of government towards private enterprises.

Recommendations of Hunter Commission:

1. Primary Education:

Primary education should aim at spreading public education and also the preparing the students

to enter into higher education.

2. Primary education should be helpful to students to stand on his legs and helpful for practical

life.

3 The medium of primary education should be Indian languages or vernaculars



4 Government should make a constant effort for progress, expansion and development of

primary education,

5 The commission suggested, the provincial government shall give grant for primary education

to the extent of 1 1/2of the local fund for education or one-third of the entire expenditure on this

item.

6. Commission also suggested, establishment of the training institutions. The teachers should

be properly trained.

II. Indigenous Education:

The institutions or Pathashalas that are run by Indians according to Indian tradition of education

called as indigenous institution. The following suggestions were given by Hunter commission:

1. No restrictions should be imposed for admission to such institutions

2 Government should encourage indigenous institutions which management is under Indians.

3) Government should not interfere in their curriculum in any way.

4. Government should grant the aid.

5. Proper arrangement should also be made for the training of the teachers of these institutions,

6. Poor students in these institutions should be given stipends and scholarships

III. Secondary Education:

1. The government through the system of grant-in-aid should give the administration and

organization of secondary education into the hands of ancient and able Indians.

2. The government may open secondary schools at such places where it is not possible for the

public to run.

3. The curriculum of secondary education should be split up into two parts. There should be a

curriculum and "B' curriculum, A curriculum was to have subjects that were to be useful for

higher study. Curriculum "B" was to have vocational, occupational and practical subjects.

4. Medium of instruction in this secondary school stage should continue the English as medium

of instruction.

IV. Higher Education:

1 Meritorious and promising students may send to foreign countries for higher education on

government scholarships.

2. While appointing teachers such Indians should be given prefer who have received education

in European Universities.

3. Provide the human religion related books for moral development of the students.

4. Local needs number of the teachers and expenditure of college should kept in mind while



giving grant-in-aid to the colleges. 51 Varied and vast curricula should be arranges to colleges

and the must have the subjects where the students can select based on the choice.

V Education Department:

The number of inspectors in every province should be raised and as possible as should appoint

Indians as inspectors in every provinces,

VI. System of Grant-in-aid:

Changes and reforms should be made in the role of grant-in-aid system, keeping in view the

conditions and requirements of all the institutions of State

Vii Education of Women:

Pointed the commission about pitiable condition of the women. They recommended:

1. Arrangement for Public Funds

2 Liberal grant-in-aid,

3. Public co-operation

4. Free education!

5. Lady Inspectresses,

6. Special arrangement for education of parda observing ladies.

7. Transfer of the girls institutions from local bodies.

8. Decent arrangements of the hostels.

9. Different curriculum for girls.

VIII. Muslim Education:

The commission felt that the education of the Muslims was not getting sufficient and proper

attention. They recommended:

1 Every effort should make popularize the Muslim education.

2 Special funds should allocate for it.

3 The teaching of Hindustani (urdu) and Persian should be given for majority locates Muslims

4 Scholarship also given them.

Education of Harijans and Backward classes and Tribes:

All the schools should be directed to admit children of Harijans und Buck ward students

Special schools should be open wherever objects them to admit in the school

It was mandatory on the part of schools teachers and inspectors to make judicious

efforts to remove caste prejudices.

For tribe students no charge will be taken. Free education is given do tribe students.

X Religious Education:

1 Religious education of any sort should not be given in the public

2 Religious education may be imparted in the private institutions. The Hunter commission was

appointed manly to study the problems and development of primary education. But this

Commission also made its suggestions in regard to the secondary, higher, women and modern

education. The commission made important suggestions regarding the expansion of education

at different stages. It was on the basis of suggestions of the Commission that the network of the



primary schools was spread throughout the country and the secondary and higher education

received a great impetus.

HARTOG COMMITTEE-1929

The British Government was promised that after world was to give freedom to the nation. But

when the war came to an end the British Government did not keep their promise. This made

Indian people restless. In order to meet this situation the government passed ‘Government of

India act 1919 With this act central government take administration with their hands. This is

created a different situation for the progress of education. Seeing the dissatisfaction of the

Indian people about the Government of India Act 1929'. Simon Commission was appointed on

November 8" 1927. N order to satisfy the Indian people Simon commission was felt that it is

necessary to give due importance to education. With this aim in view. Simon Commission

appointed an Auxiliary Committee under the Chairmanship of one of its members, named Sir

Phillip Hartog to inquire into the conditions of education in India. Sir Phillip Hartog had served as

a member of the Sadler Commission. He had also been a Vice-Chancellor of the Dacca

University in 1921. Since he was the chairman of the committee, the Committee was known as

Hartog Committee.

Main objectives of the Hartog Committee:

Το inquire into the condition of education in India.

To solve the unrest among the people of India during the time of after world war.

To survey the growth of education in British India.

To devote for more attention to mass education than secondary and University education.

Views on Primary education:

Defects or difficulties in the path of progress of Primary Education in Indian Society

Hartog committee realized that the progress of primary education has not been satisfactory

Difficulties in the path of progress under followed:

1. Rural Background: Real India is we can see in rural villages. Hence, primary education is

more a rural problem than an urban one.

2. Poverty and Illiteracy: Due to poverty and illiteracy of parents it is clear that unable to provide

the favorable and suitable environment.

3. Unfavorable circumstances: No transportation for rural villages and due to poverty the

parents were not willing to send their children to schools.

4. III-Health: As villages did not have hygienic conditions, epidemic diseases often spreading.

5. Caste, religion and communal feeling were serious barriers in the path of spread education.

6. Wastages and Stagnation: Wastage meant the premature withdrawal of children from schools

at any stage before the completion of primary course. Stagnation meant retention in lower class

of a child for a period more than what was needed for that class. Due to illiteracy, poverty, lack

of trained teachers, defects of education act and unsatisfactory distribution of schools can see

the wastages and stagnation in rural India.



Recommendations:

1 Planning to make primary education compulsory.

2 Government should themselves undertake the responsibility of inspection and control of the

primary schools.

3 Concentrate on qualitative development,

4 Four years should be devoted to primary education.

5 The time-table should

Views on Secondary Education:

Defects or difficulties in the Education in Indian Society: path of progress of Secondary

1 It was found that secondary education was so examination oriented. Secondary education

was very much dominated by matriculation examination. There were a lot of failures at the

matriculation examination. This indicated the huge waste of human talents, time and resources.

Recommendations:

1 Re modeling of middle examinations,

2. Committee suggested that industrial and commercial courses should be introduced in high

schools,

3. Examination should be held at the complete of the middle stage.

4. Improvements in the quality of training colleges. Modem methods should adopted in training

college, and refresher courses organized.

5. Better working conditions for teachers: The salaries and service conditions of the teachers

should be improved.

Views on Higher Education:

Defects or difficulties in the path of progress of Higher Education in Indian Society:

1. Low standards.

2. The purpose of higher education just earning. But purpose should be inculcating the taste for

learning in the students and to prepare healthy individuals in the society

3. Unhealthy competitions between Universities and (No standards) Low standard of English,

4. Inadequate libraries,

Recommendations:

1. Establishment of affiliated Universities along with unitary, residential and teaching

universities. The appointment of teachers in affiliated colleges should be by the universities

only.

2. Each University should provide and maintain libraries.

3. Rise in the standard of secondary exam.

4. Education of Harijans. women and minorities also given importance

Merits of Hartog committee:

1. In 1921. Established CABE (Central Advisory Board of Education)

2. In 1937 Gandhiji was discussed Basic education Demerits of Hartog committee.



Recommendations were not successfully implemented due to economic crisis.

SARGEANT REPORT-1944

After the Second World War the attention of the government of India was drawn towards the

plan for development of the Indian life in its various phases. To meet these requirements. The

CABE officers of the executive council deputed John Sargeant, the education advisor to the

government of India to draw up a memorandum for the development of Indian education in the

Post War Reconstruction period.

John Sargeant submitted his memorandum before the "Central Advisory Board of Education'n

1944. And the board accepted it in 'toto' and recommended its enforcement. The scheme was

known as “Sargeant Scheme of Education', "Report by the Central Advisory Board of Education

1944' and also known as “Post-war Educational Development in India'.

Suggestions:

1.Pre-Primary Education: Nursery schools should be started for the success of National

Scheme of Education. Children from 3-6 years of age should be admitted in these schools. Pre-

primary education should be free.

2. Primary Education or Basic Education: The committee recommended, Free and compulsory

primary or basic education should be provided to children of the age group 6-14. This education

should be based on some foundational craft. In this regard committee agreed with scheme of

basic education. But it did not agree with the idea that things manufactured by the students

should meet the expenses of the education.

Basic Schools were divided into two categories:

I. Junior Basic Schools: In these shall study the children from 6-11 years of age. Education in

these schools shall be compulsory for all.

ii. Senior Basic Schools: Shall study children of 11-14 years of age. Only such students should

be sent to Senior Basic Schools who cannot continue their studies for High Schools. .

iii. Secondary education should be the following division:

1. Academic

2 Technical.

Academic: Classical languages and civics shall also be taught along with other subjects. For

the girls there should be provision for Home science

Technical

1. Wood Craft.

2. Metal Craft.

3. Elementary Engineering.

4. Drawing.

5. Commerce.

6. Shorthand.

7. Type-writing



8. Accounting

9. Book-keeping

10. Business Method, Etc.

Both the primary and secondary education shall have certain subjects in common. Such as:

1. Mother Tongue.

2. English.

3. Modern Language.

4. History .

5. Geography

6. Mathematics.

7. Science.

8. Economics.

9. Agriculture.

10. Art.

11. Music.

12. Physical Education.

4.University Education: Sargeant report has suggested that a three years degree course. It was

suggested that the Intermediate classes should be done away with 11th class should be added

to the High School and while the 12th class should be added to Three Year Degree Course.

5. UGC and Other Schemes: The Sargeant report has suggested for the appointment of

University Grants Commission for improvement of University Education.

6. Sargeant report made recommendations in regard to the education of uneducated adults from

10-40 years.

7. The report also suggested that there should be an army of trained teachers for the rapid

progress of education and the successful execution of the plans of education,

8. Under the control of education department a number of employment bureaus should be

established.

9. Universities should have their own employment bureaus.

10. All the educational activities and administration should be run under the guidance of

Provincial Government. But the activities of the University and higher, technical educational

bodies should be co-ordinate on All-India basis.

11. In every province there should be Education Advisory Board.

Merits of Sargeant Scheme of Education:

First Comprehensive Scheme: This scheme of education presented a comprehensive

picture of the problems and requirements of Indian Education. This scheme has

discussed from primary education onwards till university education. Prof.K. G Saiyadain



said "It is the first comprehensive scheme of national education”.

The report said 40 years of time require for implementation of this scheme of education.

Criticism:

1. This scheme was severely criticized. It was not an original report. It was only a patch-

work of the recommendations of different committees and commissions on education.

2. The recommendations of primary education contained only gist of Wardha Scheme of

Basic Education.

3. It shall be wrong to call it a National Scheme of Education. It was only a copy of the

pattern practiced in England which cannot serve as a model of India. Because the social,

political and economic conditions in the two countries are so vastly different.

CONTEMPORARY PERIOD-POST INDEPENDENT INDIAN EDUCATION

On the Fifteenth of August, 1947 India got her Independence. India was a poor nation at that

time. Majority of population was illiterate. English education system was in vogue. Very few rural

boys receive this education. When we become an independent nation we had some

pathashalas and maktabs but they were in a very bad condition. The only system of education

prevalent during those days was English education system. The policy of education was clear

that which should produce clerks to run the government machinery. There was no relevance of

education with life. There was big task in front of our national leaders and educationists when

we got independence. There was a need of right policy to remove illiteracy and achieve

education for all. After independence India entered a new phase of national life. The central and

state governments are fully conscious of their educational responsibilities and numerous

commissions and committees have been set up for suggesting suitable schemes for reforming

the entire educational system. After independence there were mainly three commissions were

setup and after their studies given recommendations.

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION

(OR)

INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION

(OR)

RADHAKRISHNAN COMMISSION

After independence, the first significant step taken by the Government of India in the field of

education was the appointment of the University Education Commission in 1948 under the

Chairmanship of Dr. Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, a distinguished scholar and former vice-

chancellor of Banaras Hindu University and who became the second President of India. The

Commission was appointed by the Government of India to go into the problems and prospects

of Indian University Education and to suggest improvements and extensions that might be

considered desirable to suit the present and future requirements of the country. The

Commission was appointed in November, 4* 1948 and it submitted its report in August, 1949.

The Report of the Commission is a document of great importance as it has guided the

development of university education in India since independence. The Inter-University Board of



Education and Central Advisory Board of Education recommended to the Government of India

that an All India Commission on Education should be appointed to inquire into the requirements

of the higher education in India and to put forward the recommendations for the re-organization

of the University Education system in the light of the requirements of the country and its

traditions. Because of the fact that Dr. Radhakrishnan was the Chairman of the Commission it is

known as “Radhakrishnan Commission'. There were 10 members in the commission.

Dr Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, was -

A distinguished scholar.

Former Vice-Chancellor of Banaras Hindu University.

Second President of India.

Chairman, University Education Commission (1948-49).

Spalding Professor of Eastern Religious and Ethics at the University of Oxford.

The main objective of commission was, "to report on Indian University Education and suggest

improvements and extensions that may be desirable to suit present and future requirements of

the country*. The commission toured the country extensively. It prepared a questionnaire which

was sent over to about 600 persons who mattered in the field of education. It interviewed

administrators, organizations of students and educationist. It tried to gather information in regard

to almost all the aspects of University education. The commission was given report in a two

volumes. The first part contains 18 chapters and about 747 pages and the second volume

contains the statistics in regard la institutions and other educational problems and the evidence

tendered by the witness examined by the commission. The decision was due to the realization

that a reconstruction of university education was essential for a national - cultural resurgence as

well as for meeting the requirements of scientific, technical and other man India needed for its

socio-economic development in the wake of the independence in 1947.

Recommendations of the Radhakrishnan commission:

Universities are the seats of higher learning from where the society sets its leaders in Science,

Arts and various other fields of national life. University education in India aims at providing

knowledge and wisdom which are necessary attributes of a well developed personality.

1. Aims of University Education:

Aims of university education as laid down by the Commission:

To produce able citizens who can take up national responsibilities successfully in various fields.

Produce able administrators and suitable workers in various occupations and industries. Provide

leadership in the various walks of life in the best interest of the nation. The aim of a university

should be to maintain a high standard in general, professional and vocational education by

inspiring the students to search for a new knowledge and good effort that must be authentic in

nature. The university has to help the students to imbibe the good aspects of their culture and to

accept new values for an all-round development. The university has to develop the spirit of

universal brotherhood and internationalism in the students. One of the main functions of

universities is to bring about the spiritual development of students. Education should discover

the innate qualities of a person and develop them through training.

2. Faculty in Universities:



The University Education Commission has emphasized that the teacher plays a vital role in the

education system; therefore, an adequate faculty with required qualifications are necessary to

discharge many types of duties in a university or in a college. The university Education

Commission recommended that proper care should be taken in the selection procedure of a

teacher for the appointment as a professor, reader, lecturer and an instructor as well as for his

or her salaries. Each university should have some research fellows. Besides theses, definite

rules regarding the Provident Fund, leave and hours of work should be followed by a university.

3. Teaching Standards:

The most important duty of a university is to maintain the highest standard of its teaching and

examinations. The standard of admission to the university courses should correspond to that of

the present intermediate examination, i.e. after the completion of 12 years of study at a school

and an intermediate college. That in each province a large number of well-equipped and well

staffed intermediate colleges (with classes IX to XII or XI to XII) be established. That in order to

divert students to different vocations after 10 to 12 years of schooling, a large number of

occupational institutes be opened. Refresher courses are organized by the universities for high

school and intermediate college teachers. The university libraries should be greatly improved.

That the laboratories be improved in building, fittings, equipment, workshops and technicians.

4. Course of study:

According to the recommendations of Radhakrishnan Commission, the general as well as

specific interest of the students should be taken care of when the courses will be designed for

the courses of the university level. Master Degree should be given to honour students after one

year's study beyond the bachelor's degree. Literature for general education courses should be

developed which will give the students an acquaintance with and mastery of the contents and

methods of thinking and working in each field.

5. Research and Training:

The regulations for Master of Arts and Master of Science should he uniform in all universities of

India. The admission procedure as well as the process for enrolling in Ph.D. degree should be

arranged on an all India basis. D.Litt. and D.Sc. Degrees should be awarded on published work

of outstanding quality. A large number of Scholarship should be provided for the research work

to the university by the Ministry of Education. Fundamental research should be the primary step

for a u university.

6. Professional Education:

The University Education Commission has made some recommendations regarding

professional education and has divided it into the five aspects of education as Agriculture

education, Commercial Education, Engineering and Technology, Legal Education and Medical

education

Regarding Agriculture education, the Commission emphasized that agriculture education should

be recognized as an important national sue and the study of the subject of agriculture should be



introduced in all stages of education i.e. primary, secondary and higher level. The existing

agriculture colleges and institutions should be improved and research centers should be

established.

On the aspect of the Commercial Education, the Commission recommended that commercial

education should be made more practical and the graduates should be encouraged to

specialize in a particular branch. On the subject of Education, the faculty of training colleges

should be recruited for giving training to the people who have firsthand experiences of school

teaching. In assessing students' performance, more stress should be given to practice only,

Regarding Engineering and Technology, the Radhakrishan Commission recommended the

inclusion of the general education and basic physical engineering science in the engineering

courses. Besides these, the Commission also suggested that the number of engineering

schools and colleges should be increased the existing engineering colleges' should be

upgraded for post graduate training and research in selected subjects and they should be

closely associated with the universities.

In the context of Legal Education, the commission suggested that the law colleges should be

thoroughly re-organized. Students pursuing degree courses in law should not be permitted to

carry on other degree courses simultaneously.

Regarding Medical Education, the commission recommended that the maximum number of

admission should be 100 and that all the departments of the study which require hospital

facilities should be located in a single campus. There should be 10 beds for each student. Post-

graduate training should be offered in certain well staffed colleges.

7 Religious Education:

The University Education Commission 1948 who recommended religious education in the

colleges that

"all educational institution start work with a few minutes for silent meditation.11

That in the first year of the degree course the lives of great religious leaders like

Gautama the Buddha, Confucius Zaroaster, Socrates, Jesus, Sankara, Ramanuja,

Madhava, Mohammad, Kabir, Naik, Gandhi be taught.

That in the second year some selections of a universalistic characted from the scriptures

of the world be studied. That in the third year, the central problems of the philosophy of

religion be considered.”

8. Medium of Instruction:

According to the recommendation of the University Education Commission, higher education

should be imparted through the regional language with the option to use the federal language as

the medium of instruction either for some subjects or for all subjects. All provincial governments

should take step to introduce the teaching of the federal language in all classes of Higher

Secondary Schools, in Degree Colleges and in the Universities. English Should be studied in

the Higher Schools and in the Universities for keeping the students in touch with the living

stream of ever-growing knowledge.



9. Examination or Evaluation System:

The University Education Commission criticized the present system of examination and stress

was given to introducing the objective type questions in the examination. Following are the basic

ideas and suggestions of the University Education Commission in 1948-49 in this regard.

The commission suggested the techniques in devising and constructing objective test for

the class examination in colleges and universities.

The Government should not insist on university degrees for the administrative services.

According to the University Education Commission, Credit should be given for the class

work and one third of the mark allotted to each subject should be reserved for work done

during the course of instruction.

The standard of success at the various examinations should be uniform in all

universities.

The Commission divided the rank after passing the examination as getting 70% or more

marks should be given the rank of first class, 55% to 69% for the rank of second class

and at least 40% for a the rank of third class.

The system of grace marks should be abolished.

Viva-voce examination should be employed only for professional and post graduate

degrees.

The essay type of questions should continue with the objective type questions but the

type of question, method of examination should be thoroughly changed with a view to

making it more valid and reliable.

10. Students' Activities and Welfare:

Regarding the students' activities and their part in the wellbeing of the nation, the Commission

suggested the following recommendations:

The students should undergo thorough physical examination at the time of admission

and at least once a year thereafter. All universities must have hospital and health

service.

Sanitary inspection of the campus buildings, hostels, dining rooms, kitchens and off-

campus residences must be undertaken in a university

Competent staff should be provided for compulsory physical training and a regular time

should be assigned for the purpose.

All students should receive N.C.C. training,

Social service should be encouraged and it should remain on a completely voluntary

basis.

Students union should be free-form he political motives and activities.

An office of the Dean of Students should be set up in colleges and universities.

11. Women Education:



Regarding the women education, the Commission suggested for providing the same facilities to

the women colleges and universities as provided to men's colleges and universities. The

curriculum should also be prepared for them, considering them as both women and citizens.

12. Administration and Finance of a University:

The university Education Commission considered the regulations and control capacity of a

university in the followings ways:

The university education should be placed on the concurrent list.

Regarding the finance, co-ordination of facilities in special subjects, adoption of national

policies, ensuring minimum standards of efficient administration and providing liaison

between universities and national research laboratories and scientific surveys etc., the

Central Government must have the responsibility towards the universities.

For the allocation of grants to the universities a central Grants Commission should be

established.

There should be no university of the purely affiliating type. The governing bodies of the

colleges should be properly constituted.

The aim of an affiliated college should be to develop into a unitary university and later

into a federative one.

Regarding finance, a University Grant Commission should be set up for allocating grants to the

universities. The State should also take the responsibility for the financing of higher education.

The organizational set-up of a university should be as follows:

a) The Visitor.

b) The Chancellor.

c) The Vice-Chancellor.

d) The Senate (Court).

e) The Executive Council; (Syandicate)

f) The Academic Council.

g) The Faculties.

h) The Boards of Studies.

i) The Finance Committee.

j) The Selection Committee.

SECONDARY EDUCATION COMMISSION 1952-53

After achieving the independence in 1947, both the public and the Government began to take

keen interest in the development of secondary education. Although the number of secondary

schools and its enrolment began to significantly increase even before India's attaining

independence, the quality of education imparted was unable to meet the changing socio-

economic needs of the country. As such, the need for reform was strongly felt. The university

Education Commission also remarked that our secondary education remained the weakest link

in our educational machinery and it needed urgent reforms. Meanwhile with the attainment of

independence. the political situation of the country also underwent a complete transformation.

Education also needed a fresh look, calling for a new outlook which was appropriately voiced by

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the then Education Minister in his presidential address to the

Central Advisory Board of Education in 1948. The Central Advisory Board of Education at its



held in January 1948 recommended the appointment of a commission to examine the prevailing

system of Secondary Education in the country and to suggest measures for its reorganization

and improvement. There were other considerations 'also before the Government of India for

setting up a commission for Secondary Education.

In view of these considerations, the Government of India set up, the Secondary Education

Commission by Resolution dated 23rd September, 1952, under the Chairmanship of Dr. A.

Lakshmana Swami Mudaliar, the Vice-Chancellor of the Madras University. Therefore this

commission is also known as Mudaliar Commission. The Commission was inaugurated on 6th

October, 1952. It submitted its Report on June 1953.

1. Terms of Reference:

The terms of reference of this Commission are as follows:

a) To enquire into and report on the present position of Secondary Education in India in all its

aspects.

b) To suggest measures for its re-organization and improvement in Secondary Education in

India.

2.Method of Enquiry:

The Commission prepared a questionnaire dealing with the various aspects of secondary

education. This was sent out to various educational experts, teachers and educational

institutions of India. On the basis of the replies received a good deal of information was

collected. The members of the Commission took an extensive tour of the various parts of India

and acquired first-hand knowledge of the various educational problems and presented its report

running on August 29, 1953.

3. Defects of the Existing System:

The Commission pointed out the following defects of the existing system -

First, the education given in our schools is isolated from life. The curriculum as

formulated and as presented through the traditional methods of teachings does not give

the students insight into the everyday world in which they are living.

Secondly, it is narrow and one sided and it fails to train the whole personality of the

student.

Thirdly, too much importance has been given to English. Students who did not posses

special linguistic ability were, therefore, greatly handicapped in their studies.

Fourthly, the method of teaching generally practiced failed to develop in the students

their independence of thought and initiative in action.

Fifthly, the increase in size of the classes has considerably reduced personal contact

between the teachers and the pupils. Thus the training of character and inculcation of

proper discipline has been seriously undermined.

Finally, the dead weight of the examination has tended to curb the teachers initiative, to

stereotype the curriculum, to promote mechanical and lifeless methods of teaching, to

discourage all spirit of experimentation and to place the stress on the wrong, or unimportant

things on education.



4. Recommendations of Secondary Education Commission:

I: Aims of Secondary Education:

The Commission has made the following recommendations in regard to its aims of Secondary

Education

Development of democratic citizenship

Since India has decided to make itself a democratic republic, the citizens have to be trained to

uphold and practice the values of the democratic social order. This can be possible only when

the qualities of discipline, tolerance, patriotism, co-operation, equal opportunities for thought,

speech and writing, the essence of the world citizenship are inculcated and developed in the

students. Secondary education, according to the Mudaliar Commission, should develop all

these qualities in the students. Citizens with these qualities can grow into ideal - citizens

capable of making Indian democracy a success. In short, the aim of secondary education

should be to develop ideal democratic citizens in the country.

Improvement of Vocational efficiency:

One of the urgent needs of the country is to increase the productive efficiency of its people and

to increase the national income. For this. education must aim at increasing the productivity or

vocational efficiency of the young students. To achieve this goal, the Secondary Education

Commission recommended for fostering the dignity of manual labor and for the promotion of

technical skills for the advancement of industry and technology through secondary education.

Therefore, secondary education is to be freed from purely theoretical education system and

emphasis is to be placed on agricultural, technical, commercial and other practical courses.

Education for leadership:

Secondary education is a terminal point for majority of the students. Therefore, at the end of the

school education, each pupil must be able to enter into various professions independently. “A

special function of the secondary school, in the context, is to train persons who will be able to

assume the responsibility of leadership- in social, political, industrial or cultural fields - in their

own small groups of community or locality."

Development of personality:

The secondary education must aim at the development of the personality of the students. It

should be so organized that the creative energy in the students should find proper expression.

They should also be trained to appreciate their cultural heritage and acquire constructive and

valuable interest. They should also be trained to preserve and conserve their cultural heritage.

An all-round development of the personality of the student is an essential aim of secondary

education.

ii. Re-organization of Secondary Education:

Regarding the organizational pattern of secondary education, the Secondary Education

Commission recommended that secondary education should be a complete stage by itself. This

stage of education is most important for the students in their preparation for life. To raise the



standard of school education the Commission proposed the following organizational pattern:

The duration of secondary education should be 7 years. It should cover the age of group

of11-17

Under the new organizational structure secondary education should commence after 4

or 5 years of primary or junior basic education. The middle or senior basic or lower

secondary stage should cover a period of 3 years.

The higher secondary stage should cover 3 years.

The commission also suggested abolition of the present intermediate classes. The 12th

class should be attached to the university and the 11th class should be added to the

high school. Thus it pleaded for u one year pre-university and 3 year degree courses.

The commission recommended that technical schools should be started in large number

and central technical institutes should be established in large cities.

Multi-purpose schools should be established, which would provide terminal courses in

technology, commerce, agriculture, fine arts and home sciences. The object of these

institutions was to direct students into different walks of life at the end of the secondary -

course and this will reduce the pressure upon university entrance.

iii. Curriculum in Secondary Schools:

The Secondary Education Commission has discussed at length the secondary education

curriculum. First it pointed out the defects of the existing curriculum, discussed in detail the

principle of curriculum construction and finally the curriculum of different stages of secondary

schools.

Defects of the Existing Curriculum:

The Commission has pointed out the following defects in the existing curriculum:

The present curriculum is narrow.

It is bookish and theoretical.

It is overcrowded and does not provide rich and significant contents.

There is no adequate provision for practical and other kinds of activities that should find

place in any curriculum at this stage of education. Hence, the curriculum is not able to

bring about the education of the whole personality of the child.

It does not cater to the various needs and capacities of the adolescents.

Technical and vocational subjects are very much needed for India today, but the

curriculum does not find room for these subjects. Curriculum is too much dominated by

the examination.

The Basic Principles of Curriculum Construction

The Secondary Education Commission has recommended some principles to be followed in the

construction of curriculum.

Principles of totality of experience:

According to the Secondary Education Commission, "The curriculum does not include only the

academic subjects traditionally taught in the school but it includes the totality of experiences that

a pupil receives through manifold activities that go in the school, in the classroom, library,

laboratory, workshop, playground and in numerous informal contacts between teachers and

pupils." All types of experiences in the school or planned by the school should be included in the



curriculum.

Principles of variety and elasticity :

The Curriculum should be elastic and include varieties of subjects and activities to meet the

needs of the various types of pupils. The curriculum should be adaptable to meet the needs and

interests of the students.

Principles relating to community:

The curriculum should be related to the community. There should be community - oriented

programmes in the curriculum so that a child can feel that he is an integral part of the local

community. The -curriculum should bring the child and the community closer.

Principle of training for leisure:

The Curriculum should be designed to train the students not only for work but also for leisure.

For this purpose there should be a number of activities, social, aesthetic, sporting etc. which

should be included in the curriculum. These activities will train the students to use their leisure

time properly.

Principle of integration and correlation :

The curriculum should not be merely a bundle of subjects and activities. The activities and

subjects should be integrated and well correlated. The curriculum should provide a broad field

‘units having direct bearing on life. The Commission has laid down the following different

curriculum for these two stages in the secondary education.

Curriculum for the Middle Schools:

1)The Commission has recommended the inclusion of the following subjects. by c) General

Science.

a) English

b)Social Studies.

d) Mathematics.

e) Art and Music.

f) Craft.

g) Physical Education.

2) The Curriculum for High and Higher Secondary Schools:

For this stage of education, the commission has suggested that there should be a diversified

course..

a) Compulsory subjects or main subjects; and

b) Compulsory Subjects:

A) The Compulsory subjects shall include the following:

I. Mother tongue or regional language or composite course of the mother tongue and a

classical language.

II. One other language to be chosen from among the following:

III. I)Hindi for those whose mother tongue is not Hindi.

IV. ii)Elementary English (for those who have not studied English in the middle stage).



iii) Advanced English (for those who have studied English at the earlier stage).

iv) A Modern Indian Language (other than Hindi).

v ) A modern foreign language (other than English).

vi) A classical language.

3. Social studies - General course (for the first two years only).

4.General science, Including Mathematics - General course (for the first two years only).

5. One Craft to be chosen out of the list given below: Needle Work and Embroidery ix) Modeling

Spinning and weaving

Metal Work

Gardening

Typography

Workshop Practice

Wood Work

Tailoring

Sewing,

B) Optional Subjects : Three subjects from one of the following groups:

Group-1 (Humanities):

a) A classical language or a third language from A (2) not already taken:

b) History;

c) Geography

d) Elements of Economics and Civics

e) Elements of Psychology and Logic

f)Mathematics

g) Music

h) Domestic Science.

Group-2 (Sciences):

a) Physics

b) Chemistry

c) Biology

d) Geography

e) Mathematics :

f) Elements of Physiology and Hygiene; (not to be taken with Biology).

Group -3 (Technical)

a) Applied Mathematics and Geometrical Engineering

b)Applied Science

c) Elements of Mechanical Engineering

d) Elements of Electrical Engineering.

Group - 4 (Commercial):

a) Commercial Practice

b) Book-keeping

c) Commercial Geography or Elements of Economics and Civics

d) Shorthand and Typewriting.



Group - 5(Agriculture):

a) General Agriculture

b) Animal Husbandry

c) Horticulture and Gardening

d) Agricultural Chemistry and Botany

Group - 6 (Fine Arts):

a) History of Art

b) Drawing and Designing

c) Painting

d) Modeling

e) Music

f) Dancing

Group - 7 (Home Science):

a) Home Economics

b) Nutrition and Cookery

c) Mother Craft and Child Care

d) Household Management and Home Nursing

INDIAN EDUCATION COMMISSION OR KOTHARI COMMISSION 1964-66

Kothari Education Commission, 1964-66, which was the sixth commission in the history of

commission in India. The Five Years Plan, started after independence helped the growth of the

country in many areas. However, the execution of these plans expresses the inherent weakness

due to which the expected success was not being achieved. Education appeared to be one of

areas which indicated many problems that needed our efforts for immediate solutions. The

recommendations of first two commissions could not be succeeded in its full implementations.

Consequently, the defects in the area of education persisted. In order to remove theses defects,

the government had to appoint a new education commission to advise the government on

national pattern of education along with general principles and policies for the development of

education at all stages.

The Commission was appointed under provision of a resolution of the Government of India,

dated 14th July, 1964. Prof. D.S. Kothari, Chairman, University Grants Commission, New Delhi

was appointed as the Chairman of the Commission. The Commission included eminent

educationists in diverse fields from India and abroad. It consisted of total 17 members, where 14

members, I member - secretary, 1 Associate Secretary and Dr. D.S. Kothari, chairman of the

U.GC. was appointed as the chairman of the commission. Therefore, it is also known as the

Kothari Commission. Among the members of the commission 5 educationists were from

England, America, France, Japan and Russia. J.P. Naik was appointed as number secretary of

the commission and J.F McDougall as associated secretary.

The unique features of the Education Commission (1964-66) were:

i) All the earlier commissions did not deal with education as a whole but focused attention on

different levels of education. But this commission was not to limit its enquiry to specific sectors

or aspects of education, but to have a comprehensive review of the Entire Educational System.



ii) Another unique feature of the Commission was its conviction that education is the most

powerful instrument of the national development. The crucial role of education in national

development appears in all its vividness on every page of the report.

iii) The international composition of the commission is also significant. Education in India must

necessarily emerge from Indian experience, through, culture and local conditions. But as

education remains the common quest of mankind, it was found profitable to draw upon the

experience and thinking of educationists and scientists from other countries and to take

advantage of the latest developments in the educationally advanced countries. As such the

commission included 7 Indian members and 5 others; I each from Japan, France, U.K., U.S.A.

and USSR. Besides, 20 consultants from different countries of the world were available.

1. Terms of Reference:

The Commission will advice the Govt. on national pattern of education and on the general

principles and policies for the development of education at all stages and in all its aspects. It

need not, however, examine the problems of medical or legal education, but such aspects of

these problems as are necessary for its comprehensive enquiry may be looked into

2. Recommendations of Kothari Commission:

i. Aims of Education: Education has a very extensive role to play in changing the men and

society. It has to be entirely reformed and related to the life, needs and aspirations of the people

so that it may serve as a powerful tool of social, economic and cultural transformation.

In order to relate education, the commission recommended the following objectives

1. Increase in Productivity.

2. Promoting social and National Integration

3. Education and Modernization

4. Developing social, moral and spiritual values.

1. Increase in Productivity:

The Commission suggested that education must be related to productivity to increase national

income. In order to link education and productivity the Indian Education Commission made the

following recommendations.

Science is the basic component of education and culture; so it should be made an

integral part of school education.

To inculcate the value of manual work the commission recommended the introduction of

work experience in school education

To meet the increasing needs of technical personnel in Industry, agriculture and trade

the IEC recommended to introduce vocational subjects in school curriculum.

It also opined that the vocationalisation will bring education into closer relationship with

productivity.

2. Promoting social and National Integration:

National and social integration is the precondition for the progress and development of a

country. According to the commission, Social and National Integration is an important objective

of a national system of education. The commission made the following recommendations for



strengthening social and national integration through education.

To make education a powerful instrument of national development, common school

system of public education should be adopted.

Bridge the gulf between the educated and the uneducated. intellectuals and masses,

social and national service should be made an integral part of school education.

A language is a firm adhesive for social and national integration, suitable provisions

should be made for teaching mother tongue. Hindi and other Modern Indian languages

in schools.

3. Education and Modernization :

The present society is the science - based society. The present century has made tremendous

advancement in scientific and technical knowledge as a result of explosion of knowledge. In

such a situation one of the main functions of education is to keep pace with this advancement of

knowledge. Another feature of modern society is the rapid social change. In the situation of

change, the school must always be alert if it is to keep abreast of significant changes. An

education system which does not renovate itself continuously, becomes out-dated and puts

hindrance to progress. To keep pace with modernization the IEC is of the opinion that "greater

emphasis must be placed on vocational subjects, science education and research."

4. Social, moral and spiritual values :

i)The national system of education should emphasis on the cultivation of social, moral and

spiritual values among students. For this purpose the commission made the following

recommendations:

ii) In order to develop social, moral and religious values, some periods should be provided in the

time table. Instruction of this type should be given by general teachers.

iii) The Central and State governments should adopt measures to introduce education in moral,

social and spiritual values in all institutions under their direct control on the lines recommended

by the University Education Commission on religious and moral instruction, I

iv) The University departments should be especially concerned with the ways in which these

values can be taught wisely and effectively and should undertake preparation of the special

literature for use by students and teacher.

v) Commission recommended a new structural pattern of education. The new educational

structure should be as follows

One to three years of pre-school education.

A primary stage of 7 to 8 years divided into a lower primary stage of 4 or 5 years and a

higher primary stage of 3 or 2 years.

A lower secondary stage of 3 or 2 years of general education or ! to 3 years of vocational

education.

A higher secondary stage of 2 years of general education or I to 3 years of vocational

education, 50% of the total would be under vocational education,

A higher education stage of 3 years or more for the first degree course followed by



courses of varying durations for the second or research degrees. The structural pattern

thus recommended by the commission is commonly known as 10+2+3. Pre-school

education from 1 to 3 years should also be given.

General education should last for a period of 10 years -

4 years of lower primary,

3 years of higher primary

3 years of lower secondary education.

Higher secondary education should be fixed for 2 years.

Degree course should be of 3 years.

The age of admission to class I should not be less than 6+. The first public external examination

should come at the end of the first 10 years of schooling. Secondary schools should be of two

types: higher schools providing a 10 years' course and higher secondary schools providing a

course of 11 or 12 years. A new higher secondary course consisting of classes XI and XII

should be introduced. The pre-university courses should be transferred from Universities and

added to the secondary schools. The Commission has been suggested the reorganization of the

university stage. At this stage, the three year degree has been favored by the Commission.

NATIONAL POLICY OF EDUCATION 1968

The National Policy of Education 1968 is based on the recommendations of the Commission of

1964-66. The Commission recommended that the Government of India should issue a

statement on the National Policy on Education which should provide guidance to the state

Governments and the local authorities in preparing and implementing educational plans. In 1967

the Govt. of India constituted a committee of Members of parliament on Education to prepare

the draft of a statement on the National Policy of Education. The Committee brought together

the leading members of almost all the political parties in the country and prepared a draft which

was considered by the Central Advisory Board of Education. I general consensus on the

National Policy on Education emerged in the use of the Board's deliberations.

In its policy declaration the Government of India stated that the Government is convinced that a

radical reconstruction of education on the broad lines recommended by the education

commission is essential for economic and cultural development of the country for national

integration and for realizing the ideal of a socialistic pattern of society. This will involve a

transformation of the system to relate it more closely to the life of the people, effort to expand

educational opportunity, effort to raise the quality of education at all stages, emphasis on

development of science and technology and cultivation of moral and social values. The

educational system must produce young man and women of character and ability committed to

national service and development. Only then education will be able to play it vital role in

promoting national progress, creating a sense of common citizenship and culture and

strengthening national integration. Only then education will be able to play its vital role in

promoting national progress.

Resolution Adopted on National Policy on Education:



Let discuss the resolutions that have been included National Policy of Education, 1968. These

resolutions can be considered as the follow up programme of the recommendations of the

Kothari Education Commission.

1. Free and Compulsory Education:

Strenuous efforts should be made for the early fulfillment of the Directive Principle under

Article 45 of the constitution seeking to provide free and compulsory education for all

children up to the age of 14.

Suitable programmes should be developed to reduce the prevailing wastage and

stagnation in schools and to ensure that every child who is enrolled in school

successfully completes the prescribed course,

2. Status, Emoluments and Education of Teachers:

Of all the factors which determine the quality of education and its contribution to national

development, the teacher is undoubtedly the most important.

Teachers are accorded an honored place in the society. Their emoluments and other

service conditions should be adequate and satisfactory having regard to their

qualifications and responsibilities.

The academic freedom of teachers to pursue and publish independent studies and

researches and to speak and write about significant national and international issues

should be protected. Teacher education, particularly in-service education, should receive

due emphases.

3. Development of languages:

Regional Languages: The energetic development of Indian languages and literature is a

sine qua non for educational and cultural development. Unless this is done, the creative

energies of the people will not be released, standards of education will not improve,

knowledge will not spread to the people, and the gulf between the intelligentsia and the

masses will remain static if not widen further. The use of regional languages should not

be only at the primary and secondary stages, but urgent steps should be taken to adopt

them as media of education at the university stage.

Three-Language Formula: At the secondary stage, the state Governments should adopt

and vigorously implement the three language formula which includes the study of a

modern Indian language, preferably one of the southern languages, along with regional

languages, Hindi and English.

Hindi: Every effort should be made to promote the development of Hindi as the link

language. Due care should be taken to ensure that it will serve as provided for in the

Article 351 of the constitution, as a medium of expression for all the elements of the

composite culture of India.

Sanskrit: Considering the special importance of Sanskrit to the growth and development

of the Indian languages and its unique contribution to the cultural unity of the country,

facilities for its teaching at the school and university stages should be offered on a more

liberal scale.

International Languages: Special emphasis needs to be laid on the study of English and

other international languages.

4. Equalizations of Educational Opportunities :



Strenuous efforts should be made to equalize educational opportunity.

Regional imbalances in the provision of educational facilities should be corrected and

good educational facilities should be provided in rural and other backward areas.

To promote social cohesion and national integration in the common school system as

recommended by the Education Commission should be adopted.

Effort should be made to improve the standard of education in general schools

All special schools like Public schools should be required to admit students on the basis

of merit and also to provide free studentships to prevent segregation of social classes.

The education of girls should receive emphasis, not only on grounds of social justice but

also because it accelerates social transformation.

More intensive efforts are needed to develop education among the backward classes

and especially among the tribal people.

Educational facilities for the physically and mentally handicapped children should be expanded

and attempts should be made to develop integrated programmes enabling the handicapped

children to study in regular schools.

5. Identification of Talent:

For the cultivation of excellence, it is necessary that talent in diverse fields should be identified

at as early and is as possible, and every stimulus and opportunity given for its full development.

6. Work-experience and national Service:

The school and the community should be brought closer through I suitable programmes of

mutual service and support. Work experience and national service including participation in

meaningful and challenging programmes of community service and national reconstruction

should accordingly become an integral part of education. Emphasis in these programmes

should be on self-help, character formation and on developing a sense of social commitment.

7. Science Education and Research:

With a view to accelerating growth of the national economy, science education and research

should receive high priority. Science and mathematics should be an integral part of general

education till the end of the school stage.

8. Education for Agriculture and Industry:

Special emphasis should be placed on the development of education for agriculture and

industry

There should be at least one agricultural university in every state. These should be

single campus Universities and they may have constituent college on different

campuses. Other Universities may also be assisted to develop strong departments for

the study of one or more aspects of agriculture. In technical education, practical training

in industry should form an integral part of such education. Technical education and

research should be related closely to industry. There should be provision for continuous

cooperation between the two

9. Production of Books :



The quality of books should be improved by attracting the best writing talent. Immediate

steps should be taken for the production of high quality text books for schools and

universities.

Frequent changes of textbooks should be avoided and their prices should be low enough

for all to buy them.

The possibility of establishing autonomous books corporations on commercial lines

should be examined and efforts should be made to have a few basic text books common

throughout the country.

Special attention should be given to books for children and to university level books in regional

languages.

10. Examinations:

A major goal of examination reforms should be to improve the reliability and validity of

examinations and to make evaluation a continuous process, it should aim at helping the student

to improve his level of achievement rather than at ‘certifying the quality of his performance at a

given moment of time.

11. Secondary Education :

Educational opportunity at the secondary (and higher) level is a major instrument of social

change and transformation. Facilities for secondary education should accordingly be extended

to areas and classes which have been denied these in the past.

There is need to increase facilities for technical and vocational education at this stage. Provision

of facilities for secondary and vocational education should conform broadly to requirements of

the developing economy and real employment opportunities. Facilities for technical and

vocational education should be suitably diversified to cover a large number of fields, such as

agriculture, industry, trade and commerce, medicine and public health, home management, arts

and crafts, secretarial training, etc.

12. University Education :

The number of whole-time students to be admitted to a college or university department

should be determined with reference to the laboratory, library and other facilities and the

strength of the staff.

Considerable care is needed in establishing new universities. They should be started

only after an adequate provision of funds and due care should be taken to ensure proper

standards.

Special attention should be given to the organization of postgraduate courses and to the

improvement of standards of training and research at this level.

Centres of advanced study should be strengthened and a small number of 'Clusters of

centres' aiming at the highest possible standard in research and training should be

established. There is need to give increased support to research in the Universities. The

institutions for research should as far as possible, function within the fold of universities

or in intimate association with them.

13. Part-time Education and Correspondence Courses:



Part - time education and correspondence courses should be developed on a large scale at the

university stage. Such facilities should also be developed for secondary school students, for

teachers and for agricultural, industrial and other workers. Education through part - time and

correspondence courses should be given the same status as full-time education. Such facilities

will provide opportunities to the large number of people who have the desire to educate

themselves.

14. Spread of Literacy and Adult Education:

The liquidation of mass illiteracy is necessary not only for promoting participation in the working

of democratic institutions and for accelerating programmes of production, especially in

agriculture, but for quickening the tempo of national development in general. Employees in large

commercial, industrial and other concerns should be made functionally literate as early as

possible. A lead in this direction should come from the industrial undertakings in the public

sector. Teachers and students should be actively involved in organizing literacy campaigns.

15. Games and Sports :

Games and sports should be developed on a large scale with the objective of improving the

physical fitness and sportsmanship of the average student as well as of those who excel in this

department.

16. Education of Minorities :

Every effort should be made not only to protect the rights of minorities but to promote their

educational interests as suggested in the statement issued by the Conference of the Chief

Ministers of states and Central Ministers held in August 1961.

17. The Educational structure:

It will be advantageous to have a broadly uniform educational structure in all parts of the

country. The ultimate objective should be to adopt the 10+2+3 pattern, the higher secondary

stage of two years being located in schools, colleges or both according to local conditions. The

National Policy on Education was welcomed in every part of the country

This policy passes some special features as well as a few drawbacks. We are giving here an

evaluation of the policy as whole.

It was an important historical event for education in Independent India because this was

the first, when an attempt was made to give some sense of direction to the country's

educational system.

The three language formula proposed in this policy was very important from the point of

view of national integration.

Ensuring equality of educational opportunity was praiseworthy,

Through the policy since 1968 accountability of the Central Government with regard to

education has been fully recognized.

Raising the standard of education at all stages has been fully recognized.

The policy is criticized on the ground that it is very vague, giving important on too many

things at a time.

Policy has given important on creating educational facilities for minorities. But as long as

the word 'minority is applied, it will continue to hamper their progress and they should be



regarded as ordinary citizens.

The three language formula is criticized as 'political compromise". It is said that no one

has accepted it in his heart and the students them. will accept the third language merely

as a burden thrust upon them

NATIONAL POLICY OF EDUCATION 1986 AND PROGRAMME OF ACTION (POA) 1992

In 1968, when the National Policy of Education was formulated for improving the educational

scenario in our country, there it was envisaged that it would be followed by a 'five yearly review

to progress and working out of new policies and programmes.' Regarding this statement at the

time of formulation of every new Five-Year plan, a review has been made to assess the

drawbacks or shortcomings as well as achievements of education and finally to decide on some

plans or programmes for the coming Five Years. It is through making the policies and

programmes that every country seeks to develop its system of education to express and

promote its unique socio-cultural identity and also to meet the challenges of the times. The

National Policy of Education of 1986 is the result of the reviews which was discussed and

adopted during the budget session of1985 when Rajiv Gandhi was the prime minister of India.

Again, a committee was set up under the chairmanship of Acharaya Rammurti in May 1990 to

review National Policy of Education (NPE) and to make recommendations for its modifications.

The Central Advisory Board of Education, a committee set up in July 1991 under the

chairmanship of Shri N. Janadhana Reddy, Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh; considered some

modifications in NPE taking into considerations the report of the Rammurti Committee and other

relevant development having a bearing on the policy: This Committee submitted its report in

January 1992, which is known as National Programme of Action of 1992. This policy aimed to

promote national progress, a sense of common citizenship and culture, and to strengthen

national integration. It laid stress on the need for a radical reconstruction of the education

system, to improve its quality at all stages, and therefore gave much greater attention to science

and technology, the cultivation of moral values and a closer relation between education and the

life of the people.

Objective of the National Policy of Education of 1986 and Programme of Action, 1992:

The main objective of the National Policy of Education of 1986 and Programme of Action, 1992

was to establish a national system of education implies that all students irrespective of caste;

creed, sex, and religion have access to education of a comparable quality. Actually, the

objectives of this policy had been divided into the several aspects. In relation to Elementary

Education, followings are the major objectives of National Policy of Education 1986 are mainly:

Universal access and enrolment

Universal retention of children up to 14 years of age and

A sustainable improvement in the quality education to enable all children to achieve

essential levels of learning.

Regarding Secondary Education, National Policy of Education stressed on the

improvement of the quality of secondary education. Effort to be made to provide

computer literacy in as many secondary level institutions to make the students equipped

with necessary computer skills.



Regarding higher education, National Policy of Education and Programme of Action of

1986 and 1992 emphasized that higher education should provide to the people with an

opportunity to reflect on the critical social, economic, cultural, moral and spiritual issues.

Thus, the basic objectives of the National Policy of Education of 1986 and Programme of

Action of 1992 emphasized that education must play a positive and interventionist role in

correcting social and regional imbalance, empowering women, and in securing rightful

place for the disadvantaged and the minorities. Government should take a strong

determination and commitment to provide education for all, the priority areas being free

and compulsory education, covering children with special needs, eradication of illiteracy,

education for women's equality and special focus on the education of S.C. s (Scheduled

caste) and S.T. s(Scheduled tribes) and Minorities.

The educational policy as highlighted in the N.P.E. also emphasized on enhancing and

promoting the vocationalisation of education, adult education, education for the mentally

and physically challenged persons, non-formal education, open universities and distance

learning, rural university, early childhood care and education. Delinking degrees from job

was also one of the basic objectives of National Policy of Education of 1986.

Various Recommendations of National Policy of Education 1986 and POA 1992:

The recommendations of the policy have been under following:

Early Childhood Care and Education

: Integrated Child Development service, Balwadis, Pre-Primary schools of the State government

and Municipalities, Day-care centers and training institutes of teachers and the existing facilities

of pre-primary education should be strengthened and should receive increased attention from

the Government. Besides these, the system of monitoring and evaluation should be

strengthened.

Elementary Education, Non-Formal Education and Operation Blackboard:

National Policy of Education and its modified policy emphasized on elementary education as

Universal enrolment and universal retention of children up to 14 years of age and

A substantial improvement in the quality of education. Besides these, this policy also

calls for drive for a substantial improvement of the primary schools and provision of

support service. Even some measures have been proposed for securing participation of

girls and of children from the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes families, other

educationally backward section and minorities.

In the context of operational blackboard, the policy envisaged the following facilities that should

be kept for implementing the operational blackboard:

1. Two reasonably large rooms that are usable in all weather

2. Necessary toys and games material

3. Blackboards.

4. Maps

5. Charts, and

6. Other learning materials,



Modern technological tools-such as solar packs for provision of power in non-formal education

centers, audio-visual aids, radio-cassette players should be used to improve the learning

environment of non formal education centers, as well as to enhance the quality of non formal

education.

Secondary Education and Navodaya Vidyalayas:

Regarding Secondary education, the National Policy of Education of 1986 implied extension of

the school system in the un served areas consolidating the existing facilities and providing

special arrangements for the gifted children and high achievers. The arrangements should

require:

Programme to ensure access to secondary education being widened to cover unserved

areas.

Programme of consolidation in other areas

Programme of setting up Navodaya Vidyalayas. Besides these, as a short term

measure the State Government should be persuaded to open secondary schools in un

served areas taking blocks as a unit having a lower ratio than 1:2:5 duly considering the

present distance of habitation from the nearest secondary school and population in the

un served habitation,

Vocationalisation of Education: From classes 1 to 5, Socially Useful Productive Work/ Work

Experience creates an integral part of the curriculum in many states. At the middle stage, the

work experience programme should aim at developing confidence and sufficient psychomotor

skills to students through certain occupational training courses.

Higher Education: The National Policy of Education of 1986 and its revised policy which is

known as Programme of Action of 1992 had laid importance on higher education, particularly on

graduate, postgraduate and research work. It suggested that Autonomous Colleges should be

established according to UGC directives. Technical institutes like medical, engineering,

agriculture universities etc. should be set up and development of Vocational skill was to be

stressed upon. Followings are the necessary strategies that should be kept up for improving the

innovations in higher education.

Consolidation and expansion of institutions

Development of Autonomous colleges and departments

Improvement in efficiency

Redesigning courses

Training of teachers

Strengthening research

Creation of structures for co-operation at the state and national levels,

Mobility.

Besides these, the AICTE (All India Council of Teacher Education) had laid down norms and

standards for diploma, degree and Post Graduate courses in the various fields. Guidelines were

laid down for admission to technical institutions on merit to be followed by all concerned. The

National Technical Manpower Information System had been set up by the Government of India

with a view to generating strong data base in order to monitor the supply and utilization of

engineering and technical manpower at the national and individual state level so as to ensure a



planned development of technical education.

Open University and Distance Education: Open University and distance education have been

designed to promote the accessibility of education at higher stage as well as making higher

education as flexible as is required by the learners. The Central Open University which is known

as Indira Gandhi National Open University has been assigned the responsibility to coordinate

the distance learning system in the country and determine its standards in order to develop and

strengthen the Open University system. The National Policy of Education and its Revised Policy

have to develop some conditions relating to the Open University system and distance mode of

learning which are as follows:

1. The Indira Gandhi National Open University should initiate action for its academic

programme.

2. The courses should be structured on a modular pattern with the facility for the

accumulation of the credits. Provision will be made 1 for transfer of the credits from the

formal to the non-formal system and the vice-versa,

3. Standards should be prescribed to determine the minimum level of learning at every

stage of education and criteria will be evolved to objectively assess this level of

attainment so that the opportunities should be provided to all including housewives,

agricultural and industrial workers and professionals to continue their education.

4. State Governments should ensure that Open Universities will be established after very

careful planning and requiring available resources and facilities,

Rural Universities and Institutes: The National Policy of Education of 1986 and its Revised

Policy of 1992 envisaged that the rural universities and institutions should be developed in rural

areas after studying the needs of such pattern of educational institutions in rural communities as

well as also strengthening the programme of Gandhian Basic Education.

Content and Process of School Education: Regarding the content and process of school

education, NPE and POA made the followings points:

Access to education of a comparable quality for all irrespective of caste, creed, location

or sex.

Introduction to the norms of minimum levels of learning for different stages and

provision of threshold facilities so that learning becomes a more enjoyable experience

even for the slow learners.

. Articulation of a national system of education with a common structure, national

curricular framework which contains common core.

. Examination reforms and introduction of evaluation as an ongoing process in schools

for the improvement of teaching and learning.

Development of culture specific curricular and instructional material for the tribal people

and educationally deprived minority groups keeping in view their rich cultural identity.

Overhauling of the system of teacher education and strengthening that of the technical

and resource support structures, including the establishment of District Institutes of

Education and Training.

Decentralization of educational administration, creation of a spirit of autonomy for

educational institutions with greater role assigned to the institutional heads and

development of professionalism among teachers.

. Promotion of non-governmental and voluntary efforts and people's participation for



giving impetus to innovative ideas and practices and mobilization of resources.

Evaluation Process and Examination Reforms: The Policy visualized integration of the

assessment of performance with the process of learning and teaching, and utilizing the process

of evaluation to bring about qualitative change in education. In order to ensure the student's

performance, the assessment methods must be valid and reliable.

The following short term measures had been proposed by the NPE and POA:

i. Public examinations will continue to be held only at the levels of classes X and XII,

ii. Decentralization of the operation involved in the conduct of examinations to make the system

work more effectively.

iii. School boards in certain States have set up a number of sub centres to decentralize the

conduct of examinations. Adoption of similar measures by other States will be pursued.

iv. At the university level continuous institutional evaluation will be introduced at the post

graduate level, to begin with, in unitary universities, deemed universities and autonomous

colleges.

v. Students' performance will be indicated through letter grades, and assessment of overall

performance will be on the basis of cumulative grade point average.

vi. Modifications in the qualifying recruitments for admission in the universities and colleges will

be examined to accelerate the process of change in the level of examinations.

Youth and Sports: The NPE and POA stressed the following formulation

i) Integration of sports and physical education in the learning process and evaluation of

performance and

ii) Involvement of youth in national and social development and sports and games etc.

particularly, through educational institutions at the level of higher learning.

Language Development: The NPE and POA elaborately discussed about the concept of

language development and emphasized the adoption of regional languages as the media of

instruction at the university stage. Regarding language development, the NPE and POA

discussed and proposed many efforts and initiatives such as implementation of

Three- language formula, improvements in the linguistic competencies of students at the

different stages of education.

Provision of facilities for the study of English and other foreign languages, and

Development of Hindi language as a link language etc.

Cultural development: While the formulating the national policy, the basic emphasis was given

to interlinking education with culture. By interlinking education and culture, the stress was given

in the development of child's personality, particularly in terms of helping the child to discover his

inner talent and to express it creatively.

Media and Educational Technology: The NPE and POA emphasized that in order to avoid

structural dualism; modem educational technology should be reached out to the most distant

areas and to the deprived sections of beneficiaries simultaneously with the areas of comparative



affluence and ready availability.

Teacher and their Training: The new programmes of teacher education should emphasize

need to continuing education and also the need for teachers to meet the thrusts envisaged in

this Policy. District Institutes of Education and Training (DIET) should be established with the

capability to organize pre-service and in-service courses for elementary school teachers and for

the personnel working in non-formal and adult education. As DIETs get established, sub-

standard institutions should be phased out. Selected Secondary Teacher Training Colleges

should be upgraded to complement the work of the State Councils of Educational Research and

Training. The National Council of Teacher Education should be provided the necessary

resources and capability to accredit institutions of teacher-education and to provide guidance

regarding curricula and methods. Networking arrangements should be created between

institutions of teacher education and university departments of education.

Management Education: According to the NPE and POA, educational planning should be

linked to manpower planning. For this, such mechanism should be set up that can link the need

based requirement of the society with what it has at present.

NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAME WORK (NCF) 2005

Curriculum designing has a special place among the diverse responsibilities envisaged in the

charter of NCERT. As an apex national agency of education reform, NCERT is expected to

review the school curriculum as a routine activity, ensuring the highest standards of rigor and

deliberative openness in the process. The NPE, 1986 and the PoA 1992 assign a special role to

NCERT in preparing and promoting a National Curriculum Framework. The present exercise of

reviewing the NCF was initiated following the statement made by the Honorable Minister for

Human Resource Development in the Lok Sabha that NCERT should take up such a revision.

This was followed by a decision in the Executive Committee in its meeting in July 2004 to revise

the national Curriculum Framework Subsequent to this meeting a letter from Education

Secretary to the Director NCERT reiterated the necessity to review the National Curriculum

Framework for School Education 2000 in the light of Learning without Burden (1993).

Accordingly, NCERT set up the National Steering Committee under the chairpersonship of Prof.

Yashpal. The National Steering Committee has 35 members, including scholars from different

discipline, principals and teachers, CBSE Chairman, representatives of well known NGOs and

members of the NCERT faculty. The National Steering Committee was responsible for

preparing the revised National Curriculum Framework document. The National Steering

Committee had the benefit of the position papers prepared by the 21 National Focus Groups.

The 21 National Focus Groups, also chaired by renowned scholars and practitioners, covered

many areas. The draft National Curriculum Document (NCF) has emerged from the wide

ranging deliberations of the above groups. The fact learning has become a source of burden

and stress among school children. Hence, to correct this distortion the NCF proposes five

guiding principles for curriculum reform and development. They are:



1. Connecting knowledge to life outside the school.

2. Ensuring that learning shifts away from rote memory.

3. Enriching the curriculum so that it goes beyond text books.

4. Making examination more flexible and integrating them with classroom life.

5. Nurturing an overriding identity informed by caring concerns, within the democratic polity of

the country.

THE SALIENT FEATURES OF THE REVISED NCF ARE AS FOLLOWS

Chapter 1: Perspective:

It provides the historical backdrop and the rationale for undertaking the revision of the National

Curriculum Framework. It discusses curricular reform efforts since Independence drawing from

Gandhiji's vision of education as a means of raising the nation's conscience towards injustice,

violence and inequality entrenched in the social order. It refers to the recommendations of the

National Commission on Secondary Education, 1952-53 (Mudaliar Commission) and the

Education commission, 1964-66 (Kothari Commission) and traces and development of

Curriculum Framework, 1975 as also the formulation of the National Curriculum Framework,

1988, following the adoption of the National Policy on Education in 1986. It refers to the report

entitled Learning without Burden (1993), which highlighted the problems of curriculum overload

which made learning a source of stress for children during their formative years. It refers to the

National Curriculum Framework for School Education introduced in 2000.

Chapter 1 reaffirms faith in the Constitutional vision of India as a secular egalitarian and

pluralistic society founded on values of social justice and equality. It proposes four guiding

principles for curriculum development, namely

a) Connecting knowledge to life outside the school

b) Ensuring that learning shifts away from rote methods

c) Enriching the curriculum so that it goes beyond textbooks

d) Making examinations more flexible.

It addresses the challenge of quality in a system that seeks to reach every child the exclusive

triangle of equality, quality and quantity This chapter looks at the social context of education and

the hierarchies of caste, economic status and gender relations, cultural diversity as well as

uneven development that characterize Indian Society, and deeply influence access to education

and participation of children in schools. It cautions against the pressures to commodity schools

and the application of market related concepts to schools and schools quality Finally, it

discusses educational aims as deriving from the Guiding Principles. Education should aim to

build a commitment to democratic values of equality, justice, freedom, concern for others' well

being, secularism, respect for human dignity and rights. It should also aim at fostering

independence of thought and action, sensitivity to others' well being and feelings, learning to

learn and unlearn ability to work for developing a social temper and inculate aesthetic

appreciation.

Chapter 2: Learning and Knowledge:



The Chapter focuses on the primacy of the learner. Child centered pedagogy means giving

primacy to children's experiences, their voices and their active participation. It discusses the

nature of knowledge and the need for adults to change their perceptions of the child as a

passive receiver of knowledge; rather the child can be an active participant in the construction of

knowledge by encouraging children to ask questions, relate what they are learning in school to

things happening outside, encouraging them to answer form their own experiences and in their

own words rather than by memorizing. It recognizes the need for developing an enabling and

non-threatening environment, since an environment of fear, discipline and stress is detrimental

to learning. Healthy physical growth is the pre-condition for development and this requires that

they benefit from nutrition, physical exercise and freedom from physical discomfort.

Development of self identity through the adolescent years, particularly in the case of girls who

are constrained by social conventions, is an important component. This chapter emphasizes

that gender, caste, class, religion and minority status or disability should not constrain

participation in the experiences provided in school. It points out that the diagnostic criteria of

'earning disabilities' is not well established. It is, therefore, entirely possible that learning

disabilities may arise from inadequate and insufficient instruction.

This chapter also highlights the value of interaction—with the environment, nature, things, and

people to enhance learning. Learning in school regretfully continues to be teacher-dominated

and the teacher is seen as transmitting knowledge-knowledge of ten being confused with

information. It points out that interaction with peers; teachers and older and younger people can

open up many rich learning possibilities. Learning tasks and experiences, therefore, need to be

designed to ensure that children seek out knowledge from sites other than the textbooks from

their own experiences, from experiences at home, community, from the library. Heritage sites,

therefore, assume great significance as sites of learning. The approach to planning lessons

must therefore move away from the 'Herbartian' lesson plan to preparing plans, activities that

challenge children to think and try out what they are learning.

Chapter 3: Curricular Areas, School Stages and Assessment:

It recommends significant changes in Language, Maths, Natural Science and Social Sciences

with a view to reducing stress and making education more relevant to the present day and

future needs of children. In Language, it makes a renewed attempt to implement the three

language formula with emphasis on mother tongue as the medium of instruction. India is a multi-

lingual country and curriculum should promote multilingual proficiency in every child, including

proficiency in English, which will become possible only if learning builds on sound language

pedagogy of the mother tongue. It focuses on language as an integral part of every subject,

since reading, writing, listening and speech contribute to a child's progress in all curricular areas

and therefore constitute the basic of learning.

This chapter also focuses on Mathematics and enhancing the child's ability to think and reason,

visualize and handle abstractions and formulate and solve problems. It recommends that the

teaching of Science should be recast to enable children to examine and analyze everybody

experiences. Environment Education should become part of every subject. In Social Sciences it



recognizes disciplinary markers with emphasis on integration of significant themes, such as

water. It also recommends a paradigm shift to study social sciences from the perspective of

marginalized groups. It recommends that gender justice and sensitivity to tribal and dalit issues

and minority sensibilities should inform all sectors of social science. The document draws

attention to four other areas, namely Art education, Health and Physical Education, Work and

Education and Education for Peace. Work should be recognized as a creator of new forms of

knowledge and promote the values necessary for democratic order. Work education must link

up with heritage crafts, especially in craft zones which need to be mapped, so that this important

source of cultural and economic wealth can be properly harnessed through linkage with

education.

Chapter 4: School and Classroom Environment:

The Chapter talks about the need for nurturing an enabling environment by bringing about

suitable changes in the school and classroom environment. It revisits traditional notions of

discipline and discusses the need for providing space for parents and community. It also

discusses curriculum sites and learning resources, including texts and books, libraries,

education technology, tools and laboratories, etc. This chapter addresses the need for plurality

of material, as also the need for teacher autonomy and professional independence.

Chapter 5: Systemic Reforms:

It covers issues of quality and the need for academic planning for monitoring of quality. It

reaffirms faith in Panchayati Raj and suggests the strengthening of Panchayati Raj Institutions

through systematic activity mapping of functions appropriate at relevant levels of panchayats,

while simultaneously ensuring appropriate financial autonomy on the basis of the funds-must-

follow-functions principle. This chapter also looks at issues of academic planning and leadership

at school level to improve quality. Teacher education for curriculum renewal focuses on

developing the professional identity of the teacher as also in-service education and training of

teachers. Examination Reforms is an important component of this chapter to reduce

psychological pressure, particularly on children in class X and XII. The NCF, therefore,

recommends changing the typology of questions so that reasoning and creative abilities replace

rote learning as the basis of evaluation. Finally, it encourages innovation in ideas and practice

through plurality of textbooks and use of technology and recommends partnerships between the

school system and other civil society groups.

RIGHT TO EDUCATION- ACT - 2010

Education undoubtedly is all children's birthright. Education is a very important aspect in

everyone's life. Education blossoms the knowledge of a man. It enables the man to understand

the world around him, which makes him to lead a comfortable and prosperous life. In this

situation, the purpose of every nation is to produce literate, well educated and intelligent

residents who are able to contribute to the proper development and progress of the whole

society. The Government if India by identifying this value of education has introduced Right of

children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009. Through this education has become a

fundamental right in the constitution of India. This can be called as a great milestone in the

history of India. Mahatma Gandhi said, “Educate one man, you educate one person, but



educate a woman and you educate a whole civilization”.

The right to education has been universally recognized since the Universal Declaration of

Human Rights in 1948 and has since been enshrined in various international conventions,

national constitutions and development plans. However, while the vast majority of countries

have signed up to, and ratified, international conventions (such as the UN Convention on the

Rights of the Child, 1989) far fewer have integrated these rights into their national constitutions

or provided the legislative and administrative frameworks to ensure that these rights are realized

in practice. In some cases the right exists along with the assumption that the user should pay for

this right, undermining the very concept of a right. In others, the right exists in theory but there is

no capacity to implement this right in practice. Inevitably, a lack of government support for the

right to education hits the poorest hardest. Today, the right to education is still denied to millions

around the world.

As well as being a right in itself, the right to education is also an enabling right. Education

creates the "voice" through which rights can be claimed and protected, and without education

people lack the capacity to achieve valuable functioning's as part of the living”. If people have

access to education they can develop the skills, capacity and confidence to secure other rights.

Education gives people the ability to access information detailing the range of rights that they

hold, and government's obligations. It supports people to develop the communication skills to

demand these rights, the confidence to speak in a variety of forums, and the ability to negotiate

with a wide range of government officials and power holders.

The landmark passing of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act

2009 marks a historic moment for the children of India. For the first time in India's history,

children will be guaranteed their right to quality elementary education by the state with the help

of families and communities.

Few countries in the world have such a national provision to ensure child-centered, child-friendly

education to help all children develop to their fullest potential. There were an estimated eight

million six to 14 year-olds in India out-of-school in 2009. The world cannot reach its goal to have

every child complete primary school by 2015 without india

HISTORY OF RTE ACT 2009

The right to education has been recognized since the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

(UDHR) in 1948. Article 26 of the Declaration proclaims that: ‘Everyone has the right to

education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages.

Elementary education shall be compulsory...education shall be directed to the full development

of human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental

freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among racial or religious

groups...'.

The right to education has been enshrined in a range of international conventions, including the

International Covenant on Economic, Social And Cultural Rights (ICESCR, 1966), The



Convention on the Elimination Of All Forms Of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW, 1979)

and more recently, The Convention On The Rights of The Child (CRC, 1989). It has also been

incorporated into various regional treaties. Many countries have also made provisions for the

right to education in their national constitutions.

In India first time Gopal Krishna Gokhale, famous educationist and freedom fighter felt that there

should be a provision of compulsory free education for all children. He made the resolution

moved in Imperial Legislative Council on 18th march, 1910 for seeking provision of *Free and

Compulsory Primary Education” in India, “I beg to place the following resolution before the

council for its consideration....the state should accept in this country the same responsibility in

regard to mass education that the government of most civilized countries are already

discharging and that a well considered scheme should be drawn up and adhered to till it is

carried out.. The well being of millions upon millions of children who are waiting to be brought

under the influence education depends upon it..."

Present Act has its history in the drafting of the Indian constitution at the time of Independence

but is more specifically to the Constitutional 86th Amendment was passed by Parliament in

2002 that included the Article 21A in the Indian constitution making Education a fundamental

Right. This amendment, however, specified the need for a legislation to describe the mode of

implementation of the same which necessitated the drafting of a separate Education Bill.

A rough draft of the bill was composed in year 2005 by UPA government. It received much

opposition due to its mandatory provision to provide 25% reservation for disadvantaged children

in private schools. The sub-committee of the Central Advisory Board of Education which

prepared the draft Bill held this provision as a significant prerequisite for creating a democratic

and egalitarian society. Indian Law commission had initially proposed 50% reservation for

disadvantaged students in private schools.

The bill was approved by the cabinet on 2 July 2009. Rajya Sabha passed the bill on 20 July

2009 and the Lok Sabha on 4 August 2009. The act was passed by the Indian parliament on 4

August 2009. It received Presidential assent and was notified as law on 3 Sept 2009 as The

Children's Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act.

The law came into effect in the whole of India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir from 1

April 2010, the first time in the history of India a law was brought into force by a speech by the

Prime Minister. In his speech, Manmohan Singh. Prime Minister of India stated that, “We are

committed to ensuring that all children, irrespective of gender and social category, have access

to education. An education that enables them to acquire the skills, knowledge, values and

attitudes necessary to become responsible and active citizens of India." And he said “I read

under the dim light of a kerosene lamp. I am what I am totally because of education. So I want

that the light of education should reach to all,"

Mr. Kapil Sibal, Minister, Union Human Resource Development was said, “But to think that we

have passed a law and all children will get educated is not right. What we have done is



preparing a framework to get quality education. It is for the entire community to contribute and

participate in this national endeavor,"

Describes the modalities of the provision of free and compulsory education for children between

6 and 14 in India under Article 21A of the Indian Constitution and Article 45 of Directive

Principles of the Constitution, “Having made it the duty of the State to provide free and

compulsory education to all children up to age fourteen in ten years (1960)"

RIGHT TO EDUCATION ACT 2009, IT'S STRUCTURE

Published authority “Ministry of Law and Justice

It was published by Govt. of India Press

Total 13 pages

Total seven (7) chapters & one schedule

Total 38 Points & 7 items in the schedule

CHAPTER-I: PRELIMINARY MEANING ABOUT TERMS

"Child”: a male or female child of the age of 6 to 14 years

“Elementary education": The education from first to eighth class

“School”: any recognized school imparting elementary education

"Capitation Fee”: any kind of donation or contribution or payment other than the fee

notified by the school

CHAPTER - II: RIGHT TO FREE AND COMPULSORY EDUCATION

Every child of the age of six to fourteen years shall have a right to free and compulsory

education in a neighborhood school till completion of elementary education

No child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses Provided that a

child suffering from disability shall have the right to pursue free and compulsory

elementary education

A child above six years of age either has not been admitted or admitted but could not

complete elementary education, then shall be admitted in a class appropriate to his or

her age

There is a no provision of completion of elementary education, then a child shall have a

right to seek transfer to any other school Where a child is required to move from one

school to another, either within a state or outside for any reason whatsoever, such child

shall have a right to seek transfer to any other school

For seeking admission, the Head-teacher or in-charge of the school shall immediately

issue the TC

Delaying issuance of TC shall be liable for disciplinary action

Delay in producing TC shall not be a ground for either delaying or denying admission in

such other school

CHAPTER-III: DUTIES OF GOVT. LOCAL AUTHORITY AND PARENTS

A. Duties of Government and Local authority:

Shall establish school within limits of neighborhood, within a period of three years from the

commencement of this act



It is the Central and State responsibility for providing funds for implementing the act

Responsibility of Central Government:

Develop a frame work of national curriculum with the help of academic authority

Develop the enforce standers for training of teachers

Provide technical support and resources to the State Government for promoting

innovations, researches, planning and capacity building

Responsibility of State Government:

Provide free elementary education to every child of the age of six to fourteen years

Ensure compulsory admission, attendance and completion EE by every child of the age

of 6 to 14 years

Ensure availability of a neighborhood school as specified

Ensure that the child belonging to weaker section and disadvantaged group are not

discriminated in pursuing and completing EE on any grounds

Provide infrastructure including school building, teaching staff and learning equipment

Provide special training facility

Ensure and monitor admission, attendance and completion of EE by every child

Ensure good quality EE conforming to the standers and norms specified in Schedule

Ensure timely prescribing of curriculum and courses of study for EE Provide training

facility for teachers

Government may make necessary arrangements for providing free pre-school education

for 3 to six years aged children

B. Responsibility of Parents:

It shall be the duty of every parent and guardian to admit or cause to be admitted their

children to an EE in the neighborhood school

CHAPTER-IV: RESPONSIBILITIES OF SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS

A. School Responsibilities:

Provide free and compulsory EE to all children admitted

Private education institutions shall admit in class I and complete till EE, to the extent of

at least 25% of the strength of that class, children belonging to weaker section and

disadvantaged students

Shall be reimbursed expenditure so incurred by it to the extent of per-child expenditure

incurred by the State

Every school shall provide such information as may be required by the appropriate

Government or local authority

No school or person shall collect any capitation fee while admitting a child and any

screening procedure for admission

Any school or person receives capitation fee or conducting screening procedure shall be

punishable

Punishable with fine which may extend to ten times the capitation fee charged and

subjects a child screening procedure, twenty-five thousand rupees for first contravention

and 50 thousand rupees for each contraventions

For the purposes of admission to EE , the age of child shall be determined on the basis

of birth certificate

No child shall be denied admission in the school for lack of age proof Provided that no



child shall be denied admission

Prohibition of holding back and expulsion from school till the completion of EE

No child shall be subjected to physical punishment or mental harassment No school to

be established without obtaining certificate of recognition

Any person who establishes or runs a school without obtaining certificate of recognition,

or continuous to run a school after withdrawal of recognition, shall be liable to fine which

may extend to one lack rupees and in case of continuing contraventions , to a fine of ten

thousand rupees for each day during which such contravention continues

Shall constitute a School Management Committee of the elected representatives of the

local authority, parents or guardians and teachers At least three-fourth of members shall

be from parents

Proportionate representation shall be given parents those who are belongs to

disadvantaged group and weaker section Fifty percent of the members shall be women

Qualified teachers should be appointed

Based on the need the Govt. may relax minimum qualifications not exceeding 5 years

Shall acquire such minimum qualifications within a period of 5 years The salary and

allowances payable to teachers shall be prescribed

Functions of SMC:

Monitor the working of school

Prepare and recommend school development plan

Monitor the utilization of grants

Perform such other functions as may be prescribed

B. Duties of Teachers

Maintain regularity and punctuality in attending school

Conduct and complete the curriculum within specified time

Assess the learning ability of each student And accordingly supplement additional

instructions

Hold regular meetings with parents about regularity in attendance, ability to learn,

progress made in learning and any other relevant information about the child

Perform such other duties as may be prescribed

No teacher shall be deployed for any non-educational purposes other than the census

duties, disaster relief duties or duties relating to elections.

No teacher shall engage in private tuition or private teaching activity

CHAPTER - V: CURRICULUM AND COMPLETION OF EE

Curriculum and Evaluation Procedure:

Conformity with the values enshrined in the constitution

All round development of the child Building up child's knowledge, potentiality and talent

Development of physical and mental abilities to the fullest extent

Learning through activities, discovery and exploration in child friendly and child-centered

manner

Medium of instruction shall be in child's mother tongue

Making the child free of fear, trauma and anxiety and helping the child to express views

freely

Comprehensive and continuous evaluation of child's understanding of knowledge and



his or her ability to apply the same

No child shall be required to pass any Board examination till completion of EE

Every child completing his EE shall be awarded a certificate

CHAPTER-VI: PROTECTION OF RIGHT OF CHILDREN

The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights constituted and the State

Commission for Protection of Child Rights constituted under the section 3 & 17, of the

Commissions for protection of Child Rights act ,2005

National Advisory Council shall constitute for advise the Central Govt. on implementation

of REAct and State Advisory Council shall constitute for advise the State Govt. on

implementation of RE Act

Chapter VII: Miscellaneous

THE SCHEDULE: NORMS AND STANDERS FORA SCHOOL

1. Number of teachers:

A ) For I class to V class:

1 Up to 60 - 2 teachers

2. Between to 61 to 90-3 teachers

3. Between to 91 to 120-4 teachers

4. Between to121 to 200-5 teachers

5. Above 150 children's 5 teachers + one Head teacher

6. Pupil - Teacher ratio (excluding Head-teacher) shall not exceed fourty

b) For VI to VIII:

1. At least one teacher per class so that there shall be at least one teacher each for- Science

and Mathematics ; Social Studies; Languages

2. At least one teacher for every 35 children

3. Above 100 students: one full time Head Teacher, Part time instructor for

a) Art Education

b) Health and Physical education

c) Work Education

2. Building:

i. At least one class-room for every teacher and an office-cum-store room-cum-Head teacher's

room.

ii. Barrier-free access.

iii. Separate toilets for boys and girls. to all children.

iv. Safe and adequate drinking water facility

V. A kitchen where mid-day meal is cooked in the school.

vi. Playground

vii. Arrangements for securing the school building by boundary wall or fencing.

3. Minimum number of working days/instructional hours in an academic year:

i. Two hundred working days for first class to fifth class.

ii. Two hundred and twenty working days for sixth class to eighth class.

iii. Eight hundred instructional hours per academic year for first class to fifth class.



iv. One thousand instructional hours per academic year for sixth class to eighth class.

4. Minimum number of working hours per week for the teacher:

forty-five teaching including preparation hours.

5. Teaching learning equipment: Shall be provided to each class as required

6. Library: There shall be a library in each school providing news papers, magazines and books

on all subjects, including story-books.

7. Play material, games and sports equipment: Shall be provided to each class as required.

THE RTE ACT PROVISIONS

1) All children will have the right to free and compulsory elementary education.

ii) It clarifies that compulsory education' means obligation of the appropriate government to

provide free elementary education and ensure compulsory admission, attendance and

completion of elementary education to every child in the six to fourteen age group. Free' means

that no child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent

him or her from pursuing and completing elementary education.

iii) It specifies the duties and responsibilities of appropriate Governments, local authority and

parents in providing free and compulsory education, and sharing of financial and other

responsibilities between the Central and State Governments.

iv) Enrolling all children in the school and monitoring of no of dropout is the responsibility of

government and parents. The children who are out of school should be joined in the appropriate

classes according their age and special training should be provided to those children.

v) Children who joined in particular class shall not be continued in the same class again and

they should not be expelled from the school.

vi) Children should not be harassed physically or mentally, if any committed severe action will

be initiated against those.

vii) Inception of schools, construction of school buildings, teaching staff, learning equipments

and essential infrastructure should be provided by the Government.

vii) All the schools must be provided basic infrastructure facilities. All the schools should abide

by the rules, regulations and standards mentioned in the act, the schools which fall to maintain

will loosen their recognition

ix) Except private schools all other schools should form school committees and these

committees should monitor the school funds and school functioning methods.

x) Teachers who fulfill basic eligibility norms should only be appointed. Sufficient number of

teachers should be appointed as mentioned in the act. Teachers should be punctual and must



complete the syllabus according the academic schedules; they should conduct regular parent

meetings.

xi) It lays down the norms and standards relating inter alia to Pupil Teacher Ratios (PTRs),

buildings and infrastructure, school working days, teacher-working hours.

xii) It provides for rational deployment of teachers by ensuring that the specified pupil teacher

ratio is maintained for each school, rather than just as an average for the State or District or

Block, thus ensuring that there is no urban-rural imbalance in teacher postings. It also provides

for prohibition of deployment of teachers for non educational work, other than decennial census,

elections to local authority, state legislatures and parliament, and disaster relief. xii) It prohibits

a) Physical punishment and mental harassment

b) Screening procedures for admission of children

c) Capitation fee

d) Private tuition by teachers and

e) Running of schools without recognition,

xiv) It provides for development of curriculum in consonance with the values enshrined in the

Constitution, and which would ensure the all-round development of the child, building on the

child's knowledge, potentiality and talent and making the child free of fear, trauma and anxiety

through a system of child friendly and child centered learning.

xv) To monitor the functioning of this act, a state level Child Rights Protection Commission

should be created.

To conclude, things will not change overnight. It is individuals like you and me who will have to

come forward and contribute. Let is make a vow to educate others in best ways we can.

Wherever you are, education can be shared and you can enjoy a peace of mind of giving to the

society. Educating the under privileged children will make a change for whole family and future

generations of country. Everybody shall take vow to contribute in achieving the aim of education

for all.

(i) RAVINDRANATH TAGORE 1861 - 1941)

Introduction:

Ravindranath Tagore was born at Kolkata in a rich dernier family in the year 1861. He was

taught Sanskrit, Indian philosophy and astronomy first by his father Devendra Nath Tagore He

became famous of his stories, novels and poems. He became the philosopher and a painter. He

translated his Geetanjali into english He received noble prize and worldwide recognition. He

established his famous Viswa Bharathi on 22 September 1931. The aim of this university was to

bring about a system between cast and the best

1. Philosophical Thought:

He was successful by incorporating idealism into Naturalism. He wanted to study nature by



observation and experimentation. Nature is very much reflected in his poetry, novels stories and

paintings. He was a humanist and regarded man as a reflection of God. According to

Rabindranath Tagore, child should enjoy complete freedom to develop according to one's own

nature. Nature is considered as an effective and powerful teacher of the child. It should prepare

the child to face the challenges of life. So the child should be educated accordingly.

2. Educational Thought:

The principles of Education of Ravindranath Tagore are:

1. Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction.

2. Child should be given full freedom during the process of education.

3. Child should be educated in the lap of nature which is away from the crowded environment of

towns and cities.

4. Foreign education can do nothing in awakening national spirit. Children will come to know

about national ideals, values and culture through national education.

5. Education should bring out all-round development of child's personality

6. Children should not be compelled to acquire bookish knowledge. Only knowledge acquired

from original sources is the best.

3. Meaning of Education:

Tagore said "Education is highest which not only imparts information and knowledge to us but

also promotes love and fellow feeling between us and other living beings of the world”.

4. Aims of Education:

1. Physical development of the child through education should be given the first priority.

Children should be motivated to participate in a variety of activities like swimming, climbing trees

and plucking flowers and fruits from trees, games and sports etc. He also prescribes healthy

diet to be given to all children.

2. Promotion of moral and spiritual development of the child is also necessary to realize the

superman-who is good.

3. In order to promote mental development of the child, their curiosity should be aroused

through activities, self experiences and self learning

4. Each child has so many creative powers. They should be developed by providing condusive

natural environment to the child.

5. Education should also develop international understanding and sensitivity among the

children. It is because individual child is a part and parcel of nature but not a part of particular

society or culture.

5. Method of Teaching:

Tagore was totally against the dull and mechanical methods of teaching prevailing at that time.

They should be based on real problems of life. Child should be given more and more

opportunities to understand the phenomenon by his own activities and experiences and gain



knowledge directly

Important methods prescribed by him are as follows.

1. Teaching while walking: If the children are sitting idly in the class, their minds will also be

passive and dull. On the other hand if they are slowly walking, their minds will be active and

alert. If something is taught to them while walking, they will easily grasp it.

2. Discussion Method: Education is that which solves the real problems of life. So problems

must be put before children for open discussion. They can think over the problems logically and

finally solve them.

3. Activity Method: activities must be incorporated is all subjects. Tagore advocated that

learning of handicrafts is necessary for all students. Physical exercises and games must be

made as a part of activities in the school set up.

6. Curriculum:

The curriculum should be wide and comprehensive. It should cover all aspects of human life-

physical, intellectual, moral & spiritual. Keeping in view, the spontaneous ‘Interest' of the child,

the curriculum was designed

Languages & literature, mother tongue, Indian languages & foreign languages like German,

Latin, French etc. Mathematics, Natural Science like Physics, Chemistry, botany, zoology,

general science & health education, Social Sciences like History, Civics, Geography, Economics

& Sociology, Agriculture & Technical subjects, Arts, Music, Dance etc. Religious, philosophy &

Psychology.

7. Discipline:

Child is given full freedom for one’s own activities and experiences without lowering down the

status of the teacher in the class. The teacher considers the children as innocent and behaves

with them with great love, affection and sympathy. He is not a dictator in the class to impose

bookish knowledge. Thus along with the students, the teacher is also all the time active in the

class or outside the class.

8. The Teacher:

Tagore gave much emphasis on the role of the teacher in educative process. The teacher alone

can create a creative atmosphere. He is the person who can knock on doors of mind.

Tagore says “They only deserve to be teachers who are patient and tolerant.” “Only he can

teach, who can love."

The real teaching is a gift - It is a sacrifice, it is the fulfillment of knowledge of the teacher

himself.

9. The Student:



A school becomes complete only through the students. A child should be treated as a child and

not as an adult. The sub conscious Mind of the child is more important than the active mind of

child. The main principles advocated by Tagore for child's education are Freedom; Fullness and

nastness.

10. Shanti Niketan:

Ravindranath Tagore established an Educational institution to give practical shape to his

thoughts related to education near Calcutta on December 22, 1901. It was named "Shanti

Niketan”. “The Abode of Peace'. The School has a homely atmosphere where the students &

teachers live together in a very simple manner. He made provision for the study of religious

ideas of Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Islamic, Sikh, Christian and other religious of east & west.

Shanti Niketan was a garden school. Classes were held under the shades of the trees. Subjects

like Indian painting, Indian dancing, music, physical training etc. were taught. Creative work &

literature were encouraged. Poetry & essay writing competitions were held to develop the sense

of discipline, good behaviour, respect for others, orderliness, madesty, cleanliness etc. His

educational concept was focused on idealism.

Tagore felt Shanti Niketan “as the divine humanity working in his mind and compelling him to

practical activities".

11. Tagore and Viswa Bharathi:

Viswa Bharathi, was evolved as an university from Shanti Niketan School. It reflects Indian

philosophical theories. There is no discrimination of place, caste and religions. The universal

brotherhood and the global family concepts are the pillars of the education for this university.

Shanti Niketan was established as a cultural centre with a view to achieve the following aims.

1. To understand Truth' from different angles.

2. To study various cultures and the principles of unity.

3. To have a comparative study of the eastern and western cultures.

4. To bridge the gap between the eastern and western cultures to get these two integrated.

5. To establish equal relationships with teachers and the nature.

6. To strive to develop the universal outlook.

Students belonging to all religions join in this institution. Subjects like sciences, history, arts are

the curricular areas. The study of these subjects enables the learners to make a search for

Truth (Sathyam), Goodness (Shivam) and Beauty (Sundaram). The institution admits the

students of various states and countries. This provides an opportunity for the inculcation of the

Global family concept. The status of the institution has been elevated to a National University.

This university has different branches namely vidy a Bhavan (Research centre), Shiksha

Bhavan (College), Patha Bhavan (School), Kala Niketan (Music and Dance), Vinaya Shiksha

Bhavan (Teacher Education), Shilpi Bhavan (Industrial Training), China Bhavan, Sri Niketan



(Village development), Hindi Bhawan, Centre for Islamic research etc. thus it stands a symbol

for not only Indian Philosophy but also culture.

Conclusion:

Shanti Niketan & Vishwa Bharthi are the reflections of Tagore's spiritual voyage. His own

personality reflected a divine humanity which inspired both his students & teachers. These

institutions are the result of his experiences & experiments with all his life. Even in the absence

of Tagore, his centres of learning remained to prove his achievements as a humanistic

educator.

AUROBINDO GHOSH (1872-1950)

Introduction:

Aurobindo Ghosh was born on August 15, 1872 in Kolkata. He mastered Greek and Latin

languages to study the works of ancient European philosophers, Social engineers and poets.

He also learnt French, German and Italian languages. He roused the nationalist feeling among

Indians through his fairy speeches and three news papers namely - Bande Mataram, Karma

Yogi and Dharm. He was imprisoned for several times because of his political and nationalist

activities. Philosophical Thought:

The philosophical ideas of Aurobirdo mostly taken from his weekly news paper ‘karma yogi' are

summarized below.

1. He was basically an idealist.

2. Yogic practices, sadhana and Brahmacharya are necessary for the promotion and

development of human soul.

3. The main aid of a teacher is the conscience. This conscience has four stages namely

a. Consciousness

b. Mind

c. Intelligence and

d. Knowledge. Education should develop all these stages as much as possible.

4. The principle of growth states that a man can attain the status of a superman by himself by

the virtue of one's own supreme development of mental powers.

5. Growth and development is not a long jump or high jump process. It is always guarded by a

certain principle. The aim of this principle of growth is to achieve all the divine powers through

yoga and meditation.

6. An individual does not possess a physical spirit only. He/She is endowed with higher mental

abilities, Godly intelligence and very high spiritual soul.

7. Real education is that which makes the child free and creative. Thus education is provided in

a free environment.



Educational Thought:

According to Aurobindo Ghosh “Education to be true must not be a machine made fabric but a

true building or living evocation of the powers of mind and spirit of human being”.

Educational Philosophy of Aurobindo:

Aurobindo dedicated his life to society & Education to provide conditions for all men to travel

towards divine perfection and to express the power, the harmony, the beauty and joy of self

realization."

Education according to him is a tool by which one can life “for the divine”, “for the country”, for

ourself and for others. His education is similar to that of the system of yoga.

He says "The time basis of education is the study of mind, infant, adolescent and adult”. The

functions of education is to study the mind of the individual, the people, the country and the

universe. Through the study of human mind, we can change the man and the society. His

ultimate aim is to transform and spiritualized “new man”.

Aims of Education:

1. Physical purity and development: According to him it is the body which performs all religious

functions. So it must be fit and purified. Without physical progress and purity, spiritual

development is not at all possible.

2. Mental development: It means the development of all mental faculties such as memory,

thinking, reasoning, special relationship, imagination, discrimination and generalization.

3. Development of Conscience (Mind): Conscience has four levels according to Aurobindo.

They are:

a) Chitta - The store house of memory

b) Manas - The sixth sense

c) Budhi - The intellect (main instrument of thought)

d) Intuitive perfection of truth All these levels should be developed harmoniously.

Spiritual development: This is actually main aim of Education According to Aurobindo, every

individual has some element of divinity. The teacher should first of all find it out, then nourish it

through yogic exercises and adoption of Brahmacharya.

Curriculum:

The four basic elements in an individual which are the physical, the vital, the mental and the

psychic should be developed and perfected so that he can achieve the most in himself and can

contribute to the society.

The child is not educated as per the desire of the parents or teachers. He is free to achieve this

goal. So, the Aurobindo's system of education laid emphasis on flexible interest used and

environment based curriculum. It should have more scope to adopt new methods easily and it



should give stress on examples rather than content. It should meet the growing needs of the

children in this changing society.

Aurobindo Ghosh has prescribed five principles of Curriculum construction which are

given below:

1. Curriculum should be interesting to the children.

2. It should consist of those subjects and activities which can promote mental and spiritual

development of the children.

3. It should be able to motivate the children for learning.

4.It should be able to activate the creative potentialities of the children.

5. It should be up to date and enriched that it can make the child - a superman.

Methods of Teaching

The following principles should be followed by the teacher in the process of teaching learning

1. Freedom to the child: Free environment should be created for children so that they may gain

more and more knowledge through their owners

2. Mother tongue the medium of instruction: Children should be imparted education on through

their mother tongue. It will increase their grasping capacity and they will learn even the difficult

subjects very easily

3. Principle of interest: Children can be motivated in the class only when education is given to

them according to their specific interests. For this purpose teacher should first study the varied

interests of the pupils

4. Principle of learning by doing: Aurobindo gave very much emphasis on the activities of pupils.

Whatever they learn from books, it should be supplemented by experimentation. Montessori

method of teaching for primary classes and practice of drawing for secondary classes are

suitable methods of teaching.

5. Principle of self Experience: Children should be given total freedom to initiate them to learn

on their own through efforts and experiences. This type of learning is very useful for their future

life. So the activities of the teacher should be very minimum.

6. Principle of group learning: According to him teaching and learning is a co-operative process.

So there must be full Cooperation and co-ordination between teacher and the pupils on one

have and among the pupils on the other.

7. Principle of need of the child: While imparting education, specific needs of the child must be

taken into consideration. These needs can be found out by studying their interests and attitudes.

8. Sensory approach: Senses are the gate ways of knowledge. So senses of children should be

trained properly to acquire knowledge and experience. From this point of view Aurobindo is a



realist.

9. Sympathetic attitude towards children: Almost love and sympathy should be shown by the

teacher towards his pupils both in and outside the class. This will reduce the tension of learning

in the minds of pupils.

10. Education according to the nature of children: Each child has been gifted by nature with

some mental and spiritual potentialities. Always the teacher should try to develop these

potentialities to the maximum extent possible.

The teacher:

The teacher occupies an important place in Aurobindo's education system. He is considered as

a Sacred Trust'.

The qualities of a teacher are to have self-control, absence of superiority and equality of man,

free from egoism, good company.

The teacher should have three instruments i.e. teaching, examples and influence to make his

teaching effective & lively. He should develop close contacts with the students. Knowledge of

psychology is essential for a teacher to understand the child easily.

According to Aurobindo, the teacher is a man helping his brothers, a child leading children, a

light kindling other lights and an awakened soul awakening other souls, at the highest power”.

The role of a teacher is that for a friend, philosopher, guide & helper

Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education:

This centre is the practical implementation of Aurobindo's ideas on education. It was started in

1943 with twenty students in Pondicherry. In 1952, it was inaugurated by the mother as “Sri

Aurobindo International University centre”. But from 1959, it was known as "Sri Aurobindo

International centre of Education”. In this centre, the education starts from Kindergarten till the

end of studies. It provides requirements for the free growth of the child according to nature. The

child has to stay there for a period of ten to fifteen years & may continue to life after the

completion of studies.

The main aim of this institution to make the students conscious of the fundamental rights of the

nation to which they belong and also to know the modes of living of other nations so that they

may respect equally the true spirit of all the countries.

Auroville:

The University of Auroville was started in 1968 near Pondicherry. The aim of this university was

to search for new education in a new society and to humanize the people living there. It has four

zones which represents the important activities of human life, industrial, cultural, residential and



educational. It is a place of never ending education of constant progress in education.

Conclusion:

Thus, Aurobindo's philosophy of education has inspired the humanity to the greatest extent of

being spiritual. He gave importance to all aspects of human being in educational system. The

physical Being (Tapasya of Beauty); The vital Being (Tapasya of Power), The Mental Being

(Tapasya of knowledge) and the Psychic Being (Tapasya of Love). The spiritual transformation

of man was the goal of his spiritual education. The educational process is still going on in his

centres of education. His concept of education is accepted Worldwide and students from abroad

comes to pursue education in his centre of education. Though, Aurobindo is not present, his

principles of education are carried on & on by the generation.

MAHATMA GANDHI (1869-19)

Introduction:

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on 2 October 1869 at Porbandar in Kathiawad. As a

student of school, he was slow, shy and hesitant, however, his observance of truth was real and

continuous. He founded the National Indian congress in 1894.

Gandhiji's educational philosophy took shape through his educational experiences at the

Tolstoy farm at Transval in South Africa. On the Farm he undertook the responsibility of

educating his own sons and other children. For the children he has to devote 8 hours a day for

vocational training and only 2 hours for book learning. The children aged from 6 to 16 were very

happy in "learning by doing” and "learning by co-operation”.

Views of Gandhi on Education:

Gandhiji propounded his views education as follows:

1. Education for a just social order: The ultimate objective of the new education is not only a

balanced and harmonious individual but also a balanced and harmonious society. A just social

order in which there is no unnatural dividing line between the haves and have nots and

everybody is assumed of living wage and right to freedom.

2. Concept of Education: In Gandhiji's words “By education I mean an around drawing out of the

best in child and man body, mind and spirit".

Right education is that which draws out and stimulates, the spiritual, intellectual and Physical

facilities of the children. A proper and harmonious combination of all the three required for

making of the man and constitutes the true economics of education.

3. Education through craft: The uniqueness of this scheme is that education is to be given

“through” village crafts. The end in view is not to be accomplished by merely adding a village

craft to the current syllabus



4. Self supporting aspect: The use of craft all levels and at all stages of education was his

concept of “Bread & Labour”. He wanted to teach children the dignity of labour and to make

them learn to regard it as an integral, art and a means of their intellectual growth and to make

them to realize that it was patriotic to pay for their training through their labour. He wanted to

fulfill the gap between education and life by drawing upon the cultural, social and vocational

potentialities of the students and to make education “life-centered'.

5. Dignity of labour: It is a crime to make education merely literary and to unfit both boys and

girls for manual work in later life.

6. Methods of teaching: Children take in much more and with less labour through ears than

through their eyes.

7.Religious Education: To him religion means truth and Ahimsa or rather truth alone because

truth includes Ahimsa. Ahimsa being the necessary and indispensable means for its discovery.

Gandhiji felt it is essential for a teacher to develop a religious life so that he can influence his

students. He wanted to train the students to develop understanding and appreciation of the

doctrines of other great religions of the World and to bridge the gulf between religious life and

material life.

8. Spiritual training: He made the children to memories and recite hymns and read them from

books on moral training. But that was far from satisfactory.

9. Education and character: Development of personality was more significant than accumulation

of intellectual tools and academic knowledge. Good education is that which draws out and

stimulates the spiritual, intellectual and physical facilities of children. The end of life must be

building up character. What is education without character and what is character without

education eliminating personal purity.

10. The teacher: According to Gandhiji “Education of the heart could only be done through the

living touch of the teacher”. Education is effective if there is a personal touch between the

teacher & the taught. The teachers should develop such character which will help them to elicit

devotion from the students. Gandhiji in his book --My views on Education” says, "One who

cannot take the place of a mother cannot be a teacher" and hence says that he has not used

the word "teacher' in his article but used "Mother-teacher instead of it.

Woe to the teacher, who teaches one thing with the lips carries another in the heart

11. Medium of instruction: Our language is the reflection of ourselves. He gave priority to

mother tongue.

An individual must acquire the ability to speak correctly and effectively his own mother tongue &

to read with comprehension and to write simply and correctly before he can claim precision of

thought or clarity or ideas,



Thus, our language is the reflection of ourselves. Mother tongue was given more attention.

12. Women's Education: Women is considered as the mother of the race by Gandhiji. Woman is

man's helpmate. According to Gandhiji, English education is meant for women and men leads

the materialistic life than women. A proper training must be given to women so that they can

discharge their responsibilities to all. As far Women's education, he was not sure whether it

should be different from men's and when it should begin. But he was not strongly of opinion that

women should have the same facilities as men and even special facilities where ever

necessary.

13. Hand writing: Hand writing is an art. Every letter must be correctly written as an artist draws

his figures.

Gandhiji's educational philosophy is pragmatic due to the following reasons

1. He has an experimental approach towards life. Gandhiji believed that reality is that which can

be verified. He himself calls his auto biography "My experiments with Truth”.

2. Gandhiji advocates like a pragmatist that a child should learn from the real experiments of

life.

3. The project method of the pragmatist and the basic scheme of Gandhiji have many common

points. Like a project, a basic craft is to be a socialized activity involving participation in Social

relationships.

The greatest achievement of Gandhiji according to shri M.S. Patel “Is that he, in his educational

philosophy gives due place to the dominant tendencies of naturalism, idealism and pragmatism

which fuse into a unity give rise to a theory of education which would suit to the rule of the day

and satisfy the loftiest aspirations of the human soul”.

Evolution of Wardha scheme:

The wardha scheme is imbibed with Gandhiji's cordial creed of non violence and idea of co-

operative community in the year 1937. Gandhiji combined the visionary and practical man. He

was a man experimenting with reality. His thoughts evolved and grew with time. He realized with

experience. It has become clear that the scope of Basic education has to be extended. It should

include the education of everybody at every stage of life. Education has to be as broad as life it

self. It has to be adjusted and reoriented with the needs of time and the temper of the emerging

society.

Basic Education:

The term *Basic' means 'Base' which means the foundation upon which the structure rests.

Gandhiji calls his scheme of education as “Basic Education” due to the following reasons.



o It is directly related to the needs and interest of the children of India.

o It is directly related to the basic occupations of the people living in villages.

o Irrespective of caste, creed, colour, sex and religion. This scheme of education gives

emhases on the minimum education to each & every Indian child

o This scheme is meant for common man who is considered as the backbone of our

country.

Principles of Basic Education:

1. Free and Compulsory Education for Seven years:

Education should be free and compulsory from the age of seven to fourteen years. Seven years

course will not only impart elementary education but also secondary education. At the age of 14

the school should be able to produce intelligent citizens. The education should be both manual

and intellectual.

2. Education to centre around some craft:

The education should be producing manual and should centre around some craft. It must have

educational possibilities. Different subjects should be taught. On the whole, the education has to

be imparted through craft.

3. Self supporting basis of the plan:

Gandhiji was fully aware of the financial condition of our society, The people at that time could

not spend even a single penny on education urlof their children. It was the duty of the state to

provide free and compulsory education to all the children. He wanted to make education self

sufficient.

4. The medium of instruction:

Mother tongue according to Gandhiji is not only to become the medium of instruction but also to

occupy the first place in the languages. To force a foreign to be followed means waste of

energy, time and money. In basic system national education is to be imparted through the

mother tongue.

5. The cult of Non violence:

Gandhiji had firm conviction in non violence. All the problems are to be solved nonviolently. Our

arithmetic, our science, our history, have a nonviolent approach and the problems in these

subjects should be solved only by non violence.

6. The ideal of citizenship:

The ideal of citizenship is an important feature of Basic education. The spirit of citizenship

should be inculcated in the child. life:

7. Relationship with

Education should be closely related to life. Everything is to be taught through the principle of

correlation. There are three factors to be correlated namely craft, physical environment and

social environment of the child.



Mahatma Gandhi as a Pluralist:

a.Gandhi as an Idealist: Educational philosophy of Gandhiji has a number of traces of Idealism

in it. He had strong belief in good character, combined development of physique and soul. He

also believed in religious education, individual freedom, universal brotherhood, truth, goodness

and beauty. Because of these virtues he become an idealist.

b. Gandhi as a naturalist: Gandhiji discouraged artificial education. Reading the text books

alone is not education. He wanted natural environment, freedom, self and inculcation of moral

character. Selfeffort is better than external guidance. These ideas have made Gandhiji a

naturalist.

c.Gandhi as a pragmatist: Utility is the main purpose of pragmatisın. Gandhiji aimed at self

reliance through education. He said that learning by doing should be the process of education.

He supported child centered education. Productivity is one of the basic principles of his basic

education. He encouraged the activities that would develop social consciousness. These views

have made him a pragmatist.

d. Gandhi as a humanist: Gandhiji had profound faith in humanism. Decentralised economy was

his slogan for self sufficiency of the villages. He supported liberal attitude in discipline. These

characteristics made him a humanist. Peace and non violence was the Supreme Principle of

Gandhiji.

From the above view points, Gandhiji can be considered as a pluralist.

Conclusion:

Gandhiji's philosophy relating to society and its institutions seen to be centred around his

concept of "human happiness and development; the place of man in society and the relationship

between the two." The concept of truth (God) and non-violence (love) developed in his social

and human ends. He synthesised important philosophies, i.e. Idealism, Naturalism &

Pragmatism to give meaning to education.

Thus, Gandhiji dedicated his whole life for the people of this country and pressurised that

education should be imparted to each & every child irrespective of his case, religion & etc.

Hence, he is considered as the “Father of the Nation”.

JIDDU KRISHNA MURTHY

Introduction:

Jiddu Krishna Murthy was born on 11 May 1893 at Madanapalli of Andhra Pradesh, Anne

Besant adopted him. She recognized the special talents in him and thought that definitely he

would be contributing a lot to the society. After observing the existing problems in the field of

education, he tried to find the solution for them. Philosophy of life:

Jiddu Krishna Murthy thought that there are various miseries in the society like poverty,



hatredness, narrow mindedness, violence, jealousy, crime etc., and these should be eliminated.

Thus the entire World needs renovation. Only after understanding the complexities human

tendencies, the reformation should take place. Human beings should become totally free and

independent. They should be detached from all the bondages. He also opined that education is

essential to achieve this. This eminent philosopher has contributed a new philosophical outlook

to the mankind.

The main principles of his philosophy are as follows.

1. Knowledge is nothing but realization of ones own self.

2. Knowledge can be achieved only through continuous search for truth.

3. Knowledge can be attained by ones own efforts.

4. Search for truth will be possible after getting the mental freedom.

5. Creativity means internal realization. For this there should be freedom.

6. To unfold the mental abilities, priority should be given to concentration.

7. Human beings are world citizens.

8. He realized that all human beings are alike. Caste, religion race, colour, region etc. can not

separate them.

9. No body will become the teachers to anybody. Nobody is the student to any body.

10. Mind has the capacity to think and by utilizing this one can find the truth. Only then the

person can become the intellectual being.

Educational Philosophy:

According to Jiddu Krishna Murthy, education is of two types.

1. Education with the Teacher:

Through education, one will get the livelihood and helps for the technological development. It

helps for gratifying the biological needs and to lead a happy life. For this it is essential to have

the teacher.

2. Education with self effort:

This helps to develop the intellect and mental abilities. People should acquire this with

continuous self efforts and determination. The present schools are confined as centers only to

impart the knowledge related to curricular aspects. They are becoming commercial complexes

to promote high level competition to get the degrees without providing any opportunity for

psychological development of the child.

This is the time to think what education is? Intelligence means the capacity of the individual to

think freely without any fear or restriction. But it is not at all happening now. At present the

students are trained as the replica of teacher's attitudes and thinking. They are caught up in the

opinions of parents and traditions and lost their free thinking capacity. As a result, there is no

independent thinking for them. Jiddu Krishna Murthy is against to these procedures. He opined

that in the educational institutions either the following opportunities should be provided or

created to instill the thinking capabilities among children.

1. There should be an opportunity to the child to think freely on his own.

2. It should not be predetermined or based on moral standards or caught up with the tradition



and customs.

3. Thinking with full freedom without any inhibitions is necessary, It should not be in the context

of traditions or in accordance with the practices already decided or existing. The individual

should develop the capacity to think on his/her own with out any fear. It does not mean that it is

against the procedures or practices of the society.

4.Each and every aspect should not be compared with other, accepted or condemned. All the

circumstances of life should be observed both externally and internally.

5. First of all, we have to look ourselves directly and understand what we are? Accordingly the

individual should do. Krishna Murthy:

Educational aims of Jiddu

The prime aim of education is to prepare the child to think freely without any fear. The

educational aim should be extended with the social context and have the effective educational

system in relation to the changes that place in the society.

1. To develop in the child the mental capacities to face the innumerable problems of life in a

comprehensive manner.

2. Right from the beginning the affectionate attitude should be developed as part of the holistic

personality of the child.

3. The aim of education is to explain the reasons for fear complexes by providing the knowledge

about them and help to come out of the fear.

4. The education should provide the knowledge about the relationship and association with the

nature and other people along with other aspects.

Curriculum: We should fight against the blind befits in the society. Jiddu Krishna Murthy

aspired to prepare the future citizens appropriately to establish a new society. But he did not

specify plan and other details suitable to this aspect.

It is not an easy task to achieve these targets in our country, which is very vast. In this context

the basic education advocated by Gandhi has given direction to some extent. In this scheme

there are self sufficiency, learning by doing, productivity etc., are some of the life realities

involved. But it also has some limitations to put into practice. The present system of education

can be considered as the previous basic education.

Teaching Methods: There is no specific procedure for teaching in this system. To aspire this

both the teacher as well as the student should come out of fear. After observing the student, the

teacher should teach the child, what he has to learn through his own observation about the

world without giving any scope for inhibitions and hesitations. In this environment, the child



should not be afraid of anything. For this it is necessary to have the feeling of security and

protection. In the school, the children should have such assurance. “we will do this, we will do

that nothing happens if we do anything. Nobody will warn us". Such feelings should be

developed among children. Such atmosphere should be created. The children should get such a

climate to act freely. Then only sensitivity, affection, free thinking can be developed among

children. When there is fear, there is no scope to develop love and affection. Only when there is

mutual love, it leads to peace and understanding among the people on the whole.

By nature, there is curiosity and thirst for knowledge among children. Based on these aspects,

they should be encouraged. Then only they will be lively and distracted. Gradually they learn the

other aspects. This makes the teaching learning process easy. Student - Teacher Relationship:

Teaching is not confined only to transforming the knowledge. It is to create a sense of analytical

and critical thinking among children. Teacher is not at all a mechanic. It patience should not be.

The teacher should possess the everlasting and abundance of love. In the process of teaching,

the teacher should encourage the discussions and debates. The teacher should motivate the

students to think on their own critically and with logic and analytical thinking

Discipline: Jiddu Krishna Murthy felt that the discipline can develop among children with the

establishment of congenial atmosphere among them. He gave much importance to individual

freedom. Freedom doesn't mean to act according to one’s own whims and fancies. He also

opined that there is no necessity for institutionalized discipline. According to him, the child

should think freely to establish the truth without having the teacher so that self discipline can be

attained.

The education should lead for removal of the blind beliefs in the society. He aspired that

education should lead to prepare good citizens for the establishment of an ideal society. His

philosophy supported that the schools should mould the new generations to be selfless and

become the centers for developing human beings with values. Rishivally school near

Madanapalli and Ohio institutions can be said to implement the educational principles of Jiddu

Krishna Murthy, which is a new trend in the philosophy of education.

Conclusion: Thus, from the above discussion on the life & philosophy of Jiddu Krishna Murthy, It

is clearly understood that he was the man of great values and determination related to his

struggle for a better and free environment education to children. Education should be given in

free atmosphere where the child can learn to his fullest. His philosophy of education has given a

new direction in the field of education.

Dr. B.R. AMBHKAR

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar (Bheema Rao Ramji Ambedkar) (1891 - 14* April- December 6 1956)

**We need people who can see straight ahead and deep into the problems. Those are the

experts. But we also need peripheral unision and experts are generally not very good at

providing peripheral vision."



Life Sketch:

Amongst the great heroes born in India who served the nation on different fronts, Ambedkar

created an epoch in the history of indian calendar of events. He was born to Ramji Maloji

Sankpal and Bheema Bhai at Mhow. He was the last and 14th child of his parents and a

survived one amongst five. He had 2 sisters Manjula and Tulsi, 2 brothers Balram and

Anantarao elder to him. He was the most loved one in his family. His grandfather Maloji Sankpal

and his father worked in British army. His father retired from his service as subedar when

Ambedkar was 2 years old. He belonged to outcast Mahars (scheduled caste) in Maharastra.

His father had a brother who had renounced the world at an early age. By the time he reached

his 6** year his mother breathed her last. Both his sisters got married before his mother's death

and they both and his aunt Meera bhai looked after Ambedkar. After completion of his basic

schooling at Ratnagiri he has joined school at Sa tara where depressed classes students were

segregated from upper caste students and they were ill treated and humiliated. In his life

Ambedkar was moved by Vivekananda a Hindu monk who proclaimed that "your religion is in

the kitchen and your Gods are in the cooking pots"; this spirit and universal brotherhood has

guided Ambedkar throughout his life. Inspite of all humiliation from teachers and students he

continued his education with the love and affection showered by a Brahmin teacher who shared

his midday meal with Ambedkar and helped him even in academics. They developed a a strong

bond between them.

1. His formative years:

His father moved in search of livelihood to Koregaon and left Ambedkar and his brother to

continue with education. They used to visit their father during vacation; while going to his father

both the brothers experienced an incident with a bullock cart man who ill treated them as

outcastes, untouchables. It has touched his heart; in the deeper layers he felt it like a shadow

from the cradle to grave. Then his father married another lady; this has resulted a step motherly

treatment both at school and home. He tried to run away but fortunately it did not happen in his

life. There he continued with determination with his self education. His father and one social

reformer Brahmin Krishnaji Arjun Keluskar's encouragement whom he met in the park where he

used to study to have a guide and private space to study. Krishnaji also discussed with his

father and planned for his further studies.

He came out successfully at matriculation and his success was lauded by felicitating him at a

function in his place; at that function he spoke a verse. Eastern Thinkers

There is so much good in the worst of us

There is so much bad in the best of us

That it behaves all of us

Not to talk of the rest of us

Though he loved Sanskrit and had a craving to learn Sanskrit at school as an optional; school

authorities did not allow him to take it and ultimately he had to opt for Persian'.



Sometime later he learnt through a private tutor,

Inspite of Sharada Act his father got married. After matriculation from Elphinstone high school,

Bombay, he got married to Rambai at the age of 14.

2. His economic ideology:

He was against imperialism and capitalism. He was influenced by Karl Marx and Buddha's

philosophy. His ideology is a blend of the two. Though basically an idealist in his philosophy he

was not a utopian in thinking about achieving absolute equality, which he felt is impossible and

the functioning democracy. He was in favour of nationalization of land and agriculture where he

was far ahead of his times. He was completely favourable to socialism.

To Ambedkar, protection of life and liberty, by the law and constitution, and even political

freedom, were secondary to social freedom and economic liberation. He said, “But we cannot

forget that people, including the depressed classes, do not live on law and order, what they live

on is bread and butter”.

While speaking of successful functioning of democracy he said, there must not be an oppressed

class or suppressed class. There must not be a class, which has got all the privileges, and a

class, which has got all the burdens to carry. He did not agree with those who place political

freedom first and foremost.

He was particular about the aim of and our ideal of one man, and one value, in all walks of life-

political, economic and social.

3. His political ideology:

He openly disagreed with Gandhian economic ideology related to class structure (high and low,

rich and poor, owners and workers). He feels that democratic society must assure a life of

leisure and culture to each of its citizens. Both Ambedkar and Nehru believed in state's

socialism. Ambedkar backed socialism without dictatorship and with parliamentary democracy.

Basically Ambedkar's political ideology is a socio-economic ideology.

He was not in total agreement with Gandhian “gram raj is Ram raj”. He feels for the hierarchical

heredity structures and topographical caste divisions in the villages. He suggested that social

system should have exclusively separate panchayat and electorate instead of treating them

economically weaker sections, which would lead to political, social and economic freedom. He

said the village system has perpetuated untouchability.

He referred to America where when the president of America, was requested by the people to

stand for the second time for presidentship of America, Washington said, my dear people, you

have forgotten the purpose for which we made this constitution, we do not want a hereditary

ruler or a dictator. Ambedkar felt that this constitution was very necessary in case of India.

4. His social vision:



Right from childhood Ambedkar was influenced by sant Kabir's poem and also he was inspired

by Buddha's secular Eastern Thinkers and rational ideas. They taught that nobody is a

mahatma. It is very difficult even to be a human being let alone to be saint and he did not

believe Gandhi as mahatma.

He felt religious education is very essential in the life of a man. He learnt by heart from his father

recitation on Kabir, Tukaram, Mukteshwar, etc. quite early in his life; he was against the social

evils in Hindu religion. He refers to an incident: while addressing GIP railway depressed class

workmen's conference at Manmad on 12, and 13 Feb. 1938 he said depressed classes are shut

from weaving department in cotton mills both at Bombay and Gujarat. They were made to work

in spinning department as it is a low paid one and more so the other fellow beings did not want

to work with them, but they don't mind working even with Muslims.

He expressed his despair and agony for their fate and said you should not wait and pray to

anybody to overcome the problems, no god and superman will rescue you. It is you who can

abolish on your own. He also felt legislature has to provide food, clothes, shelter, education and

medicine and livelihood to them.

While addressing women he said don't treat yourselves as untouchables; live a clean life. Dress

yourself not as the untouchable ladies. He encouraged depressed classes to take part in politics

and legislature of the country.

He defied untouchability in India, which is permitting exploitation without obligation; it is worse

than slavery, which at least takes care of the slave's better living and provides minimum

facilities. In a way untouchability is a class war. Ambedkar dedicated his book “Who were the

Shudras?" in memory of Jyothiba Phule, who said social democracy is more vital to

independence from foreign rule.

He said in social reform there should be only one standard book of Hindu religion acceptable to

all Hindu's and recognized by all Hindus. All other authoritative books should be penalized.

He expressed his agony towards untouchability to the extent of appealing tom SC's to become

Buddhists as Hinduism is creating such an inequality. In his last years he was very pessimistic

about educated SC's who were more selfish and foolish and he started paying his attention to

the masses and felt that somebody from scheduled castes should come forward to take up the

responsibility from him, which he could no more continue

Further:

In the last decades of his life he was elected to the Constituent Assembly in 1946. On 9

December 1946 the Constituent Assembly was convened. Dr. Rajender Prasad was elected as

chairman and Nehru addressed the Constituent Assembly and proposed the constitution.

Muslim league and Native Indian states representatives boycotted Nehru's speech and entire

proceedings. Mr. Jayakar, supported by Ambedkar adjourned the proceedings until all



representatives attended it.

Ambedkar forcefully delivered a speech in defense of comprehensive representation in the

assembly and Rajender Prasad postponed it for one month. Meanwhile the British government

decided on India's independence. On 15 July 1947 Indian independence bill was approved by

the British parliament.

Cabinet was assumed on 3 August 1947. Nehru who assumed as prime minister has invited

Ambedkar as the law minister and he accepted the assignment.

Dr. Ambedkar's contribution as one of the founding fathers of the constitution is reflected in his

various articles seeking to promote social equality and economic freedom. He chaired the

drafting committee of the Constituent Assembly. Draft constitution was carefully examined by

the Constituent Assembly. Ambedkar had to answer many queries, doubts on the constitution,

which was kept open for public views and criticism. He worked tirelessly to finalize the

constitutional document inspite of his ill health. Soon after he fell ill and he was looked after by a

lady doctor Saraswathi, a Brahmin Sharada Kabir. Ambedkar offered to marry her. After getting

married to her they embraced Buddhism. She was named after marriage as Savitha Ambedkar.

They started participating in Buddhist religious conferences and launched a national campaign

to propagate Buddhism. Buddhism gained momentum from October 1956 and 3 lakh people

joined in this neo-Buddhist movement.

His old Alma mater, the Columbia University invited him on a lecture tour and conferred on him

honorary degree of law. On his return to India he received the honorary degree of Doctor of

Literature (D.Lit) from Osmania University, Hyderabad.

Because of his revolutionary thoughts he could not remain for long in the cabinet as law

minister. He resigned and started an opposition party and participated in the free India elections

in 1952. He inspired youth to take up bodybuilding and sports. He was also keenly interested in

cricket, swimming, hockey and dog breeding. He was a voracious reader, he used to read

books and listen to music. Upper class people criticized his Buddhist movement as anti- Hindu.

In his book.

What have the Hindus done for us? "the Hindus were the target of his attack. He further

suffered a setback in his health and at the age of 65 in 1956 he breathed his last peacefully

during his sleep in Delhi. Nehru, G.B.Pant and Babu Jagjeevan Ram were first to arrive. His

body was flown to Bombay and all the institutions, schools and factories closed in respect of his

memory. Ambedkar's surviving son Yeshwant Rao Ambedkar took over his father's mission as

the editor of the weekly "Janata'.

5. His education:

He has graduated from Elphinstone College in 1912, M.A. Economics from Columbia University,

USA in 1915 and also did his PhD in 1916. He obtained D.Sc degree and was called to the bar

in 1923.



His elder brother stopped his studies and started working to meet Ambedkar's further studies.

When Baroda Maharaja Sayaji Gaekward appealed to the audience to propose a SC candidate

to finance for further studies Krishnaji wrote to Maharaja recommending Ambedkar's name. With

that his financial crisis came to an end.

Inspite of continued discrimination he was be friend of a British professor Muller who guided him

in his graduate (BA) studies.

Sayaji Rao has appointed him to a senior civil service post. Within a short service his father fell

ill and he had to leave for Bombay and by the time he came back home his father was on his

deathbed and breathed his last.

He remained unemployed after resigning his job at Baroda. Incidentally he got the opportunity to

have an interview with Sayaji Rao. Then Maharaja told him about the newspaper advertisement

where they are in need of a candidate to be sent abroad to New York by awarding scholarship

with a bond that after getting back from abroad he has to serve the state of Baroda for 10 years.

He happened to meet a great personality Sri Aurobindo Gosh who entered Baroda service at

that time. He used to study 18 hours a day. He was conferred with Master of Arts degree in

1915 from Columbia University. In 1916 he joined the London School of Economics. He was a

voracious reader; he was the first to enter and last to leave the museum. He spent much time in

reading during his research days. In 1916 he was given "doctorate for his work on India's

National Income" from Columbia University. Nearly after 18 years, that was published and

dedicated to Maharaja Sayaji Rao Gackward. In 1921 he obtained D.Sc. degree for his work on

the problem of rupee" and later on in the next two years 1922 and 1923 he studied law and

became barrister. One of his Parsi friends helped him to practice law.

6. His works:

He wrote a thesis on "Ancient Indian Trade”, (he wrote a research paper entitled "castes of

India") in which he concluded that endogamous and intra-caste matrimony was the most

important cause of perpetuation of the caste system in India.

He lived a very disciplined and economic life and saved his scholarship money also for his

family,

From London School of Economics he earned a doctorate for his monumental work on "The

problem of a rupee"; then after his return to India he was invited to take up finance ministry,

which has resulted in a lot of opposition from the people. These hardships, which he underwent,

made him leave Bombay and felt that these political problems need a political solution.

When he was working at Sydenham College of Bombay as an economics professor he

experienced a lot of opposition.



Raja Kolkar hearing about Ambedkar's interest in reforming youth he financed Ambedkar to

start a monthly journal “Leader of the Dumb": every issue focused on the

problems of the downtrodden, question of liberty, equality and fraternity, eradication of

untouchability and protection of civil rights. He could get good amount there. He spent money

very economically; whatever he is left with was spent for the Dalit and other welfare

programmes.

In recognition of his services the Governor of Bombay nominated him to the upper house of the

legislature. His friends felicitated and gave him a purse, which was also donated by him to the

Dalit organization. In this process of his service to social organization, he could not concentrate

on his legal profession. Then he was appointed as professor of law in Bombay Law College. At

the same time the Simon Commission “go back Simon'. came to India and everybody were

raising slogans

But Ambedkar was not against them as they came to enquire about the socio-economic

conditions of people. He wrote a big report on the condition of downtrodden people, inspite of all

upper class people negating cooperation and accepted membership in the commission. After 10

months he left his law professorship and the government of Bombay report of which many of the

recommendations were implemented. appointed him as a member of committee to enquire into

the welfare of depressed classes. He visited many places like Belganna, Kandach and Nasik

and lead the representation of the depressed classes. And in 1930 the committee has

presented a report of which many of the recommendations were implemented

Then the independent movement was gaining momentum. British government came out with

round table conference with a proposal to work out a constitutional and administrative

framework for India. 89 participants were invited. At the conference Ambedkar announced his

intention to plead for India’s independence. While staying in London he has collected a lot of

books from London. After the round table conference he became a good friend of Gandhi. But

Gandhi was adopting a non-violent path in reşolving social, political and economic issues for

which Ambedkar preferred confromtation. On 27 May 1935 Ambedkar lost his wife Rambai. In

1937 provincial self government was proclaimed. Ambedkar formed a new party for poor

landless and workers; 15-17 candidates of his party came out successfully. Gradually his health

started deteriorating. He could not take up the principal's post in law college. However he

continued with the public activities. Ambedkar was elevated to the Viceroy's Council as a

member, along with Sir. C.P. Ramaswamy Ayyar, Sir Mohd Osman and Sir Sikander Singh, and

was also appointed as labor minister of The Bombay presidency for three years.

He struggled a lot to represent depressed classes in the round table conferences. After failures

and deliberations scheduled castes were promised with a share in future government of the

country.

In 1942 Ambedkar founded an all India scheduled caste's federation, the foremost organ of the



untouchables of India.

He was made minister in the viceroy's executive council.

One of the reports submitted by Ambedkar represented for equal representation for SC's in the

governance of the country at all levels.

7. Ambedkar the architect-of the Constitution of India:

Ambedkar played a significant role in the independence movement, He campaigned against

imperialism and Nazism. He also mobilized SC's against imperialism and Nazism. It was told

that when the drafting of the constitution of India was initiated, Pandit Nehru and Sardar Patel

thought of inviting and consulting Sir Ivor Jennings, who is internationally renowned

constitutional expert at that time. In this regard when they approached Mahatma Gandhi, he

said why they are looking for a foreign expert when the expertise and a rightly deserving person

like Ambedkar was available within the country. He was far ahead of his times in many legal and

constitutional issues facing India.

He underlined the need for women sharing hereditary property -a fundamental right applicable

to any constitution in the world. He also foresaw the right for work, equality of men and women,

equal remuneration for them and protection of civil rights.

During one of the speeches of Ambedkar at the drafting stage of constitution "federation is a

union which is indestructible” he called himself a progressive conservative. He said if you want

to maintain the Hindu system, Hindu culture and Hindu society don't hesitate to repair where it is

necessary i.e. the bill addresses to repair those parts of Hindu society, which are dilapidated.

He is a man who believed in delivering goods than speeches or drafting the constitution. He

said, **We do not want lawyers and experts in the constitution at all"; he said, we want men, a

dedicated band of executives to form a delivery system for the weaker sections.

Ambedkar concluded, “The draft constitution reconcmended the parliamentary system of

executive because they preferred more responsibility for the legislature rather than stability.

Parliament does not govern and it is not intended to govern. A strong executive, tempered and

controlled by constant, vigilant and representative criticism, is the ideal at which the

parliamentary institution aims.

"* His Philosophy and Contribution to Education:

Let us take an insight from his speech broadcast on All India Radio on October 3, 1954 "My

personal philosophy"

. Speech:

Basically we don't find his explicit contribution on basic tenets of philosophy nor much

prescription to education. Eastern Thinkers However we can understand his ideas on education,

which are nothing but he derivations from his social and political philosophy. His whole focus

was on the then even now to some extent the kind of exploitation and subjugation of the social

class.

His philosophy:



He is basically a non-theist and has a lot of apprehensions about Hindu religion and raised

many questions about Hindu religious beliefs and the impact on downtrodden groups, social life

and status. He believed in Kabir. Tukaram and other saints and a staunch believer of Buddha's

philosophy. All these issues related to his ideology are reflected in his life sketch. The reality for

him is not authority. He believed in rational, empirical and sensory knowledge as the true

sources of knowledge. He believed more in human values and also moral and scientific values

in brief.

Metaphysics/Reality - He did not believe in Hindu authority of religion. He believed in Buddha's

philosophy and humanistic ideology as reality

Epistemology - He believed in rational, empirical and sensory knowledge.

Axiology - Moral, scientific and human values.

Ambedkar has witnessed the then Indian social realities and was also subjected to the social

discrimination, which was also reflected in the education system. The structure of Indian society

with the hierarchy of stratification and subjugation of some of the caste groups had lasting

impact on the education. He felt that the pattern of inequalities existing in a society reflects in its

educational practices and institutional structure,

As such no explicit aims of education or implication to education were mentioned by B.R.

Ambedkar; however the basic ideas on education were based on the principles liberty, equality

and fraternity. I. Aims:

- Human liberation from suppression.

- Social and individual aim. Moral aims.

- Development of rationality.

Vocational aim.

1. Human liberation:

To create a sense of new thinking especially in the Indian context and awakening of

downtrodden and depressed classes in education according to him is nothing but the effort of

man to discover him as a free being”. Education alone can enlighten an individual and can work

against the oppressive elements of traditional society,

2. Individual and social aims:

He felt there is a need to have a blend between individual and social aims of education.

Individual is an end in himself. The aim of education is the growth of individual and development

of personality. For him society is not above the individual and individual should be subordinate

to the society which in turn helps in his development.

3. Moral aim:

Moral is an important aim of education; it equates the spirit of love of man by man. “His people's

education society' was to practice humanitarian principles in one's life. His focus was to develop

humanistic and moral values.

4. Development of rationality:



He aimed at developing a rational individual. To quote what Ambedkar said in this context.

"He that will not reason is a bigot

He that cannot reason is a fool.

He that dare not reason is a slave"

5. Vocational aim:

He also stressed the need for vocational education. In his address to Elphinstone College in

Dec. 1952, he advised teachers to teach to meet the challenges of modern world.

2. Curriculum:

He suggested utilitarian curriculum. He was against introducing charka in primary schools,

which may deprive scheduled castes people of their curiosity

He was inspired by the freedom of choice in American university He proposed a dynamic

progressive and scientific curriculum. He also suggested in favor of women. While imparting

education the abilities of women should be taken into consideration. Compulsory and liberal

education was suggested for women. He was also of the view that women should be primarily

trained in home science and peripherally in other subjects also. In a way it is like Rousseau's

philosophy.

3. Teacher:

Teacher plays a vital role, which cannot be substituted by anything else. He felt the teacher

should be truthful. The teacher should be a seeker of knowledge and should have authority on

his area of subject.

In other words broadly his educational contributions can be understood as follows:

1. Universal free compulsory education.

2. Education of the deprived classes.

3. Keen interest in backward communities.

4. Special provisions for deprived classes.

5. Establishment of hostels.

6. Establishment of education society.

7. Educational administration.

8. Economics of education.

9. View on privatization and commercialization of education

1.Universal, free and compulsory education:

B. R. Ambedkar may be considered as the champion of this issue of education, which is

reflected in the constitution. He felt every individual (men/women) should get access to

education as a fundamental right. His own concern was to provide education up to 14 years as

stated in directive principles of state policy and is a key for establishing social justice. It helps to

uplift the children of downtrodden people. He was in favor of enhancing budgetary provisions for

primary education.

2. Education of deprived classes:



He was critical about the anomalies of the then existing education system. He felt that the total

population of the backward communities is more when compared to forward

Hindu and Mohammedans who were getting more facilities.

3. Keen interest on backward communities:

To bring equal progress and status to all those people belonging to different communities. They

should also consider the economically and socially backward communities.

4. Special provision for the deprived classes:

According to his report submitted to the Indian Statutory Commission in 1928 on the status of

depressed classes in Bombay presidency, he demanded that the govt. should do the following:

o Ruler community was hostile to untouchables, so he felt unless the compulsory

education act is abolished and transfer of primary education to the school board is

stopped, the education of depressed classes would receive a setback.

o Unless the primary education is made obligatory and mandatory the progress of

backward section classes cannot be achieved.

o The recommendation of Hunter Commission should be applied to the depressed

classes.

o Entry into public services should be made available to depressed classes.

o There should be special provisions like scholarship and hostels for the depressed

classes for those who cannot afford education.

His tireless work resulted in making special provision for the backward downtrodden people

under articles 45, 46 and 16(3).

Establishment of hostels:

Initially he established two hostels for backward students at Sholapur and Belgaum. He

appealed to the government of Bombay to help the depressed classes' education society to

establish hostels where poor students could be accommodated. 5 hostels were sanctioned by

Bombay government

People's Education Society:

A great contribution of B.R. Ambedkar was the establishment of People's Education Society in

1945 on 8 July for the propagation of higher education among dalits and promote moral,

intellectual and social democracy amongst them.

The main objective is knowledge and compassison:

This society at present runs many colleges in different places like Bombay, Raigad, and

Aurangabad affiliated to various universities of those places

Thus his contribution is laudable and long remembered by every citizenry of India.



MOULANA ABDUL KALAM

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was born on November 11, 1888 in Mecca. His forefather's came

from Herat (a city in Afghanistan) in Babar's days. Azad was a descendent of a lineage of

learned Muslim scholars, or maulanas. His mother was an Arab and the daughter of Sheikh

Mohammad Zaher Watri and his father, Maulana Khairuddin, was a Bengali Muslim of Afghan

origins. Khairuddin left India during the Sepoy Mutiny and proceeded to Mecca and settled

there. He came back to Calcutta with his family in 1890.

Maulana Azad represented a glorious synthesis of cultures, civilizations, thoughts and

philosophies which have powerfully influenced India's history. He was a bridge between the old

and the new. Indeed he was a strikingly outstanding son of the soil.

Mohiuddin Ahmad Abul Kalam Azad was undisputedly a towering figure in the twentieth century

Indian history. Born in 1888 in a family of celebrated religious scholars, he was educated at

home by his father and men of credit in Islamic learning. He was a scholar thoroughly trained in

the traditional Islamic sciences, with great intellectual abilities and eloquence of pen and

speech. He had, in addition, a remarkable openness to modern western knowledge even as he

strongly opposed western rule over India. He was a skilled journalist and ideologue who played

a leading role in the Indian struggle for independence and then in the government of the Indian

Republic, remaining a symbol of Muslims will to co-exist with men of other faiths in modern

India. Maulana Azad was educated by eminent Islamic scholars and divines which in due

course made him one of the greatest scholars in Islamic Theology and Islamic philosophy. His

educational ideas drew their inspiration basically from that source. However, he was equally

appreciative of and conversant with the other aspect of his cultural heritage -- the Indian

heritage and the total modern heritage of the age which cuts across the East - West barriers. It

was this deep influence on his mind that emanated from other sources which was always

reflected prominently in his speeches, writings and actions. This relationship between his

Muslim heritage and his Indian heritage could be found most distinctively pronounced in his

presidential speech at

Ramgarh session of the Indian National Congress. He said “as a Muslim I have a special

identity within the field of religion and culture. But I have another equally deep realization. I am

equally proud of the fact that I am an Indian, an essential part of the indivisible unity of Indian

nationhood, a vital factor in its total make up without which this noble edifice will remain

incomplete”.

While reading Azad's story in his “India wins Freedom” the deepest impression left is of his

sense of defeat at a price which had to be paid for independence, the partition of India. He

would have rather postponed freedom than have this. One by one, the Congress leaders bowed

before the inevitability of partition, but Azad-like Gandhi - could never be reconciled to it. His

final plea, at the meeting of the All India Congress Committee that voted in favour of partition of

Indian on 14th June, 1947 was that if this political defeat had to be accepted, *we should at the



same time try to ensure that our culture was not defeated

Azad was saddened and embittered by the partition, by the fact that his congress leaders had

agreed to it, and especially by the way his fellow Muslims had not followed his lead. After

partition, Muslims in Pakistan continued to slander the man who had aspired to lead all the

Muslims of India into a bright future. Yet, at a huge meeting of Muslims in Lucknow, shortly after

independence, when everyone expected him to condemn Jinnah and the policy that had

resulted in partition, he refused to condemn anyone which was characteristic of his personality.

Instead, as a lion-heartened forward looking leader he said, “what was not to have happened

has happed'. 'We have now to think of the future".

In this spirit Azad threw himself into his work as a leader in independent India. He had joined the

interim Government in January, 1947 as Education Minister, feeling that, in formulating

educational policy, he could contribute to the future form of the country. During his eleven years

as Minister of Education, which continued up until his death in 1958, he preformed a number of

important services for Indian education. In order to reorient and reconstruct the education

system in the context of a changed perspective, he began his task with a detailed enquiry into

the malaise and limitations of the existing educational arrangement by appointing University

Education Commission (1948). aittee for Elementary education (1948) and Secondary

Education Commission (1952-53). He followed it with many fundamental policy decisions and

establishment of educational institutions which provided firm ground for the development of

Indian education system in future. However, his most significant contribution to education in the

post-partition communal violence ridden Indian society has been not in the details of the new

pattern of education that was gradually emerging but in the broad democratic, humane,

balanced vision, which he brought to bear on the entire structure and content of education.

As Education Minister, his speeches often contained numerous references to the importance of

education. He felt that education was the problem of problems for Asia," and that “one of the

surest ways of securing international peace is fundamental education for the peoples of the

world”. He especially emphasized social education', by which he meant the inclusion of a lively

sense of rights and duties of citizenship and the production of an educated mind in the masses

in the absence of literary education. This was to include understanding of social conditions of

the country, health education, economic improvement through crafts, arts, literature, music,

drama, dance, poetry and instruction in universal ethics, including tolerance and mutual

appreciation. Azad was essentially concerned with the basic educational problem of shaping of

hearts and minds of his fellow men and women. He devoted himself to the training of individuals

who will have the qualities of vision, courage, tolerance and integrity, and to the creation,

through them, and for them, of a social order which will be inspired by the ideals of social

justice, co-operation, broad mindedness and rationalism. Repeatedly he affirmed in his

speeches that the central purpose of our Five Year Plans is not the production of material

wealth and resources but the creation of a new mind and a new character for which right

education is more important than the development of agriculture, industry, TRADE, etc.. Azad

never had the opportunity to



formally experience the discipline of modern education. It was out of his deep interest in

learning and enquiry that he acquired fairly good knowledge of Western Philosophy: read

Western history and English literature and was able to comprehend certain principles of popular

science. Despite his informal exposure to modern education one finds in Azad a visionary of

modern educational enterprise who laid a strong foundation of a long term educational and

cultural development in India.

(Even in the traditional educational regime which he experienced during his youth he did not

attend any formal institution. He could have been sent to study at the famous Madrasa Alia in

his city of Calcutta but his father preferred to teach him initially at his own, and later through

some men of letters appointed to teach him a home only. Perhaps, in the reckoning of his father

the condition and educational standards in Madrasa Alia then (1890 onwards) had already

deteriorated. Later, Azad is seen criticizing this traditional educational regime on account of its

curriculum, books and methodology of teaching).

Early in his career as a Minister, as he contemplated shaping the future of India through

educational policy, he thus envisaged the possibilities: 'Today India is free she can have any

kind of mental. mould she pleases. Will it be exclusive or will it be all-inclusive, which has been

characteristic of the Indian culture throughout the ages? In the advancement of nations there is

no greater hindrance than narrow mindedness. It is our dutý, to keep ourselves free from this

disease in the new era of independence'.

‘The tradition in India, he said, had been that every kind of culture, every mode of living was

allowed to flourish and find its own salvation'. He emphasized, 'the acceptance of unity in

diversity has been India's motto throughout the ages. The essence of this principle is a large

and wide hearted toleration in which differences are recognized and given their due. The Indian

genius always recognized that truth has many facets and conflict and hatred arise because

people claim a monopoly of truth and virtue. Azad wished all Indians to appreciate and imbibe

these values which, according to him, should be inculcated through social and general

education and in this endeavor he always underlined the critical role of teachers.

Azad's contribution to education can be studied in two distinct categories.

One may be the study of his general educational ideas as derived from his basic philosophy of

life and the other may be the various educational changes and measures of re-construction

which were attempted during his regime with the object of making education adequately

responsive to the needs and challenges of the national life. There is a significant link between

Azad's educational vision and his educational policy and programmes which is reflected in the

important changes and development in the field of education that took place in the eventful early

few years of the country's independence.

Vision of Education Azad was a strong believer in democracy which he thought will take roots

and benefit the masses if education is democratized. Democratization of education starts from



the perspective of 'achievement orientation'. Azad pinpointed his efforts for the democratization

of education through which he wanted to universalize achievement -- as the basic criterion in

the social selection processes and thereby wanted to break the domination structure of

hierarchical Indian society. For this purpose he emphasized four major programmes.

a) Removal of illiteracy through universalization of elementary education up to secondary

standard and a drive for adult education including education for women;

b) Equalizing educational opportunities in Indian society where 'exploitations on the basis of

class and caste divisions were rampant;

(c) Three language formulae where the state languages and Hindi would be medium of

instruction but English will remain as an important second language; and

d) Sound primary education throughout the country.

Azad viewed, "every individual has a right to an education that will enable him to develop his

faculties and live a full human life. Such education is the birth right of every citizen. A state

cannot claim to have discharged its duty till it has provided for every single individual means to

the acquisition of knowledge and self betterment”. This dream of Azad is likely to be fully

realized now as the historic RTE Act has finally been approved by the Parliament and its

promulgation is going to start soon.

He also held that in independent India, the planning of education at the National level was even

more important than economic or industrial planning. He felt that if educational training was

unable to inculcate right values and ideals, the security and welfare of the state would be in

jeopardy".

Azad geared his educational policies and actions to following main objectives of educationl.

Making of man Character Building Education should help the individual in realizing his immense

potential. The context of education, influence of home and religion and the role of the teacher

should aim at building of the character and the choice and the practice of moral and cultural

values. He stressed the importance of seven values which contributed to the making of man and

his society in pursuit of excellence.

o The quest of truth is the principal aim of education, but one should not impose one's

truth upon others through violence and dogmatism. It comes from openness to different

points of view and through tolerance of belief other than one's own.

o The concept of justice is another aim of education which is related to appreciation of

rights and performance of duties as necessary conditions to the discipline of individual

and the good of society.

o Spread of enlightenment through right type of education, for true civilization and equality

of life.

o Co-operation and unity must be learnt through togetherness and friendship thus laying

the foundation for peace and harmony

o The practice of courtesy and chivalry is a grace of life and enriches its quality.

o The spirit of daring is the most valued asset of youth - society and school should give



scope and encouragement to the flowering of the spirit of pioneering and creativity

o Quality of humility which chastens and sustains the spirit of man and strivings of his

mind.

Education for Democracy: Azad stressed that defences of newly won freedom which has

opened new opportunities had to be built in the minds of free men. This was to be done through

Social Education which was accorded a highest priority in his scheme of educational

reconstruction. He set up a section of Social Education in the Ministry of Education in 1948.

Linking Social Education with Adult Education he emphasized three aspects:

(i) imparting literacy

(ii) inculcating a lively sense of rights and duties of citizenship,

(iii) creating an educated mind in the masses which are deprived of literary education.

Education for Development: Azad enhanced the role of education in national development and

encouraged the growth of science and technology at all levels of education. His vision was to

make India self sufficient in higher technical education to meet all our needs and looked forward

to a day when people from abroad will come to India for higher scientific and technical

education. He expressed these views while inaugurating the IIT Khargpur in August, 1951.

Keeping this in view he reorganized the structure and activities of the AICTE and set up

advanced research centres in science and technology

Education for National Integration and Secularism: One of the cherished objectives of

education should be to promote national unity on the basis of a rich diversity of cultures and

beliefs. He supported this idea and stressed the importance of textbooks and reading material

especially in history, civics, Geography and literature for promoting nationalism and the idea of

unity in diversity. India continues to work on this vision of Azad. Kothari Education Commission

(1964-66) also stressed this aim of education. NPE 1986 and POA 1986 and 1992 reiterated

these objectives of education and envisaged evaluation of textbooks from the point of view of

promotion of secularism and social and national integration.

Internationalism and Global Citizenship: Education has a definite role to play in promoting

world unity and global citizenship. This he expressed at a function of the Indian National

Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO in 1951. He believed that the cult of narrow

nationalism which was inculcated in many societies, conflicted with human progress and human

mind should be liberated from prejudice and ill will based on race, class or nationality. This he

felt demands changing the entire method of teaching of history and geography in schools.

During the Maulana's stewardship of the Ministry of Education, some massive tasks of fact-

finding, stock-taking and national planning in the broad fields of education were carried out,

preparing for some successes in the decades that followed. The work of the Committees and

commissions at various levels of education, notably for secondary and university education; and

for universal elementary education is well-known. New winds of change began to blow. Special

aspects of the problems of education such as the promotion of Gandhian teachings and way of

life, introduction of general education course, Home Science programmes, Institutes of rural



higher education, the training of teachers, development of library services, audio-visual

education, promotion of Hindi and other national languages, scholarship for scheduled castes

and scheduled tribes, education and training of the handicapped, special programmes of

education of women and girls, development of cultural activities, youth welfare and physical

education, reflect the vastness of the range of activities and innovations initiated by the Central

Ministry of Education.

He re-organized the All India Council for Technical Education and saw the establishment of a

host of institutions of education and cultural significance including Kharagpur Institute of Higher

Technology, the University Grants Commission, the Indian Council for Cultural Relations,

Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Indian Council for Social Sciences Research the

India Institute of Science, the National Institute of Basic Education, Central Bureau of Textbook

Research, the National Board of Audiovisual Education, the Hindi Shiksha Samiti, the Board of

Scientific Terminology for Hindi, Sangeet Natak Academy, Lalit Kala Academy and Sahitya

Academy.

Curriculum: Maulana was vividly clear that content and curriculum of education at every level

has to be distinctively different from what it used to be in the colonial era and it should address

to the objectives of education defined by him and outlined above. He repeatedly stressed

following ideas to alter and enrich the content and scope of curriculum:

1). At the elementary level, basic education with its emphasis on learning by doing, should form

the content;

2) At the secondary stage curriculum should be re-oriented as proposed by the Secondary

Education Commission and should be meant for training in diverse skills and aptitudes and

preparation for higher educational pursuits.

3) Educational standards needed to be raised at the university stage and curricula broadened

and enriched

4) Adult literacy and social education programmes should be suitably devised so as to create

awareness and productivity

5) Women's education should receive special attention

6) . The needs of rural areas with emphasis on agriculture and craft should receive attention

7) Physical education, recreation and opportunities for games and sports should form part of

educational programmes at all levels

8) Suitable text books and teaching and learning material be prepared and attention be paid on

the needs of the handicapped learners

9) Research and evaluation should test the effectiveness and guide the development of

curriculum and programmes



10) Extensive reforms in examination system to save learners from stress and strain

11) The curriculum should encourage independent thinking, a sense of judgment and the

process of learning how to learn

12) International co-operation specially under the auspicious of UNESCO should be welcomed

and harnessed for the reform of the curriculum.

Teacher and Teacher preparation: As we know, Azad never attended a formal school. He

acquired his lifelong learning from elders and his mentors whom he chose for himself. Yet, he

understood well the place of teachers in any formal education system and firmly believed that

no reforms in education can be effective without empowering them and no policies can be

implemented successfully without taking them fully on board. He had an instinctive reverence

for teachers. Humble, lowly paid teachers could easily meet him at his residence. Once he

described the role of a teacher in following words : "ultimately all reforms in education depend

upon the quality of our teachers. I have mentioned to you the changes we are seeking to bring

about in elementary, secondary and university education. These changes will not give the

desired results unless there are efficient and devoted teachers to carry them out. Poor wages

and loss of social status have been perhaps the main reasons why there has been a fall in the

quality of teachers in recent years. You are aware that some measures have already been

taken to remedy this state of affairs. While we shall continue with our efforts for improving the

status, service conditions and emoluments of teachers at all levels, I would appeal to them that

they must also develop a spirit of real service and dedication in the cause of the nation

Besides other distinguished characters, in Azad was also hidden an ideal teacher. People felt,

when he talked of certain values and standards, that he not only knew what he was talking

about but was preaching what he had practiced in his life. This, asserts Saiyidain, is one of the

most essential qualities of a true teacher, in any sense of the word. Hypocrisy is at a severe

discount in the teachers domain. Respect must enter into the basic relationship between the

teacher and his community of learners in order to create a receptive frame of mind, and

hypocrisy can never co-exist with genuine respect. This accounts for the respect in which Azad

was held not only by his friends and admirers but also by his opponents.

From the beginning of accepting the ministerial responsibility, Azad tried to attend to almost all

issues in education. He felt deeply concerned about the quality of education imparted in

educational institutions and the contribution that teachers can make in this regard. "He also

believed that such a contribution can best be made by those who are systematically groomed as

teachers. At the opening of the Central Institute of Education at Delhi on 19th December, 1947

he thus stressed the need and significance of training of teachers for improving the quality of

education. If we are not able to make arrangement for the primary education of thirty million of

our children in the age group six-eleven years all our nation building schemes will, ipso facto,

become valueless. The only way out, therefore, is to try to lift millions of these children from the

depth of neglect and ignorance immediately. The quest is how best to solve this problem. The



greatest hurdle facing us is lack of trained teachers. Instead of postponing our schemes for want

of trained teachers, we should mobilize as teachers all the educated persons available and at

the same time carry on the training of teachers with the greatest possible speed, so that trained

teachers can be made available in sufficient number in the shortest possible time. The Central

and Provincial Governments while preparing the Five Year Plans, have to keep in view the

recommendations of the CABE Committee(1944) given in the post-war educational

development Plan for establishment of new teacher training institutes. Such institutions have

already been opened and are still being opened in different parts of the country. bili (However,

even after this attempt the number of training institutions remained abysmally low and could not

provide trained teachers as per requirement. Due to continued apathy of some state

governments the situation continues to be same even today in some parts of the country which

has led to large scale appointment of untrained teachers in schools. It is hoped that RTE Act will

ultimately act as a catalyst in this direction).

Referring to the roe that was charted for CIE, Azad said, 'while this institute will turn out

teachers who will be “Model teachers” for provinces, but over and above this, the institute will be

a research centre for solving new educational problems of the country and will be a beacon of

light for the teacher training institutes of the country. Challenges: The Constitution of India

visualizes a national system of education supported by national policies and appropriate organs

of consultation and coordination, but by and large the task of implementing policies depends

upon the efforts and resources of the States. Maulana Azad's towering personality and political

status helped national planning, but could not ensure the actual implementation of national

policies by the States. Hopes ran high and efforts were not lacking, but the euphoria of that time

came up against stubborn realities. Neither sufficient material resources nor a strong enough

political will emerged to surmount those realities. Towards the end of his life, Maulana Azad

made a sad confession to a meeting of the Central Advisory Board of Education in 1958;

*You would all remember that we have faced one difficulty after another since the first day of

independence. When I assumed charge of Education in 1947, I immediately saw that there

would be no solution of our educational problems without the fullest co-operation of the Centre

and Provinces. Education was, no doubt, a provincial subject, but it was my considered opinion

that this distinction could be maintained only when our educational targets have been achieved.

Until such time, the Central Government, should openly recognize that though education is a

provincial subject, it must SHARE the responsibility with the provincial government, if we are to

meet the challenge of the time.

(I appointed a committee under the chairmanship of the late B.G Kher, then Chief Minister of

Bombay, who prepared a scheme for the introduction of universal elementary and free

education in sixteen years provided the centre undertakes to meet at least thirty per cent of the

expenses. I regret to say that we have not been able to give effect to this scheme. India is a

democracy where the Cabinet has joint responsibility. I am, therefore, equally responsible with

my colleagues for our failure in implementing the proposals of the Kher Committee).

One of our difficulties has been that some of my colleagues regarded education to be a purely



provincial subject and did not, therefore, think it necessary that the Central Government should

provide adequate FUNDS for it. Even when the Planning Commission was set up, the situation

did not at first change. When the first draft of the First Plan was made, education was almost

completely ignored. There seemed to be a general view that we should take up only subjects

which would give quick returns. Since they held that education could not do this, education was

left out of this first draft. It was for Azad's charismatic influence that education was later given

due place in the Five Year Plan and as a result many developments took place in this field with

the support of the Central Government. At the time of independence of teacher training

institutions were providing trained teaches to schools. Those included Basic Teacher Training

Institutes, training teachers for basic schools, normal schools producing teachers for modern

primary schools and teacher training colleges preparing teachers for high schools. Due to

persistent emphasis of Azad a number of these institutions was gradually increasing but the

pace of expansion in their number was very slow. As a result proportion of untrained teachers in

schools continued to remain quite high. For example, the proportion of untrained teachers in

primary schools in 1949-50 was 41.4 which came down to 41.2% in 1950-51 and to 38.8% in

195556. Similarly in secondary schools their proportion in 1949-50 i.e. 46.4% which remained

almost the same (46.7%) in 1950-51 and came down to 41.5% in 1955-56. One important

reason was fast expansion in enrolments during first plan period sand enhanced demand for

opening schools and induction of additional teachers in these schools. For example in 1950-51

there were 209671 primary schools with 5.38 lakh teachers which rose to 278135 schools with

6.91 lakh teachers. The number of upper primary/middle schools in 1950- 51 was 13596 with

0.86 lakh teachers which went upto 21730 middle schools with 1.51 lakh teachers in 1955-56.

The number of training schools during this period however went up from 782 to 930 and training

colleges from 53 to 107 only. Azad wanted to follow a different model of teacher training and

their retraining for basic schools which was a model for primary schools during his days. He

wanted the training programme for basic schools should split into two parts, both proceeding

simultaneously, one concentrating on quality education which can grow only slowly and the

other on those basic skills, like organized community living, craft work etc. on the job training. In

the 1st Five Year Plan he also emphasized that most teachers need retraining for the purposes

of educational reorganization in the country, while at the same time expansion in teacher

training facilities should receive high priority. Limited budgetary allocation in the Plan for

education in general and for teacher education in particular constrained the implementation of

both the proposals to any degree of satisfaction

Though Azad blamed the mechanisms of the state, “the legacy of the governmental procedures'

and 'the inertia of the machine', for the lack of accomplishment in educational matters. Yet he

succeeded in registering notable achievement in almost every domain of education which set

the tone and direction of educational development in the country in the days to come. He

observed in his speech in 1958 that the progress which has been achieved in spite of these

difficulties can be measured by the fact that when I assumed charge, the Central budget for

education was only about Rs. 2 crores and is today considerably more than Rs. 30 crores. It is

not only the financial allocation which has been increased, but there has been expansion in all

types of activities.



Criticism

During his life and in contemporary times, Maulana Azad has beencriticised for not doing

enough to prevent the partition of India although he was committed to united India till his last

attempt. He was condemned by the advocates of Pakistan, especially Muslim League. Legacy

and influence

Azad is remembered as amongst the leading Indian nationalists of his time. His firm belief in

Hindu-Muslim unity earned him the respect of the Hindu community and he still remains one of

the most important symbols of communal harmony in modern India. His work for education and

social upliftment in India made him an important influence in guiding India's economic and social

development. Abulkalam Azad tomb

The Ministry of Minority Affairs of the central Government of India set up the Maulana Azad

Education Foundation in 1989 on the occasion of his birth centenary to promote education

amongst educationally backward sections of the Society (30) The Ministry also provides the

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad National Fellowship, an integrated five-year fellowship in the form of

financial assistance to students from minority communities to pursue higher studies such as M.

Phil and PhD.

unit 2 indian education

Documents