unit 2. internal energy and landforms · 11/4/2019 · the relief and landforms that contains are...
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Unit 2. Internal energy and
landforms
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TYPES OF BOUNDARIES AND LANDFORMS
Type of
boundary
Associated
landforms
Type of stress
on the rocks
Type of
deformations
Convergent
(destructive)
Ocean trenches,
mountain ranges,
island arcs
Compressional Rigid and fragile
rocks: reverse
faults, thrusts
Ductile rocks:
folds
Divergent
(constructive)
Ocean ridges,
continental rifts
Tensional Rigid and fragile
rocks: normal
faults
Transform
(passive)
Transform faults Shear Rigid and fragile
rocks: Transform
or tear faults
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• It is the result of forces or stresses taking place in the
rocks. This result is always a change in the rocks shape,
size or relative position.
ROCK DEFORMATION
TYPES OF STRESS
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• There are 3 types:
– Elastic: materials deform but return to their original
size and shape when the stress ends.
– Plastic o ductile: materials deform and do not return
to their original shape and size. It is a frequent
response of rocks in the crust and mantle where they
have surrounding conditions of high pressure and
high temperature.
– Fracture: materials break as a response to the
stress. It is a frequent response of rigid and fragile
rocks in the surface.
TYPES OF DEFORMATION
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FACTORS THAT CONDITION THE TYPE OF ROCK
DEFORMATION
• Rock nature or composition. Example: clay and slate
are naturally ductile.
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Presence of fluids
• Stress length (duración del estrés)
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Faults: they are fractures where the separated blocks of rock have displaced.
FRACTURE DEFORMATIONS: FAULTS (FALLAS).
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PARTES DE UNA FALLA:
1. Bloque levantado. Upthrown block
2. Bloque hundido. Downthrown block
3. Plano de falla: superficie de fractura. Fault plane.
4. Salto de falla: longitud del desplazamiento entre los dos bloques.
Throw
1
4
3
2 5
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¿What type of stresses have
generated these faults?
Classify these faults
A
B
C
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A
B
C
TENSIONAL STRESS
(NORMAL FAULT)
COMPRESSIONAL STRESS
(REVERSE FAULT: FALLA
INVERSA)
SHEAR STRESS = ESFUERZO
DE CIZALLA
(TRANSFORM OR TEAR
FAULT = FALLA DE
DESGARRE)
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Upthrown block = bloque levantado
Downthrown block = bloque hundido
Cabalgamiento
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What type of stress is acting?
PLASTIC DEFORMATIONS:
FOLDS (PLIEGUES).
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Compressional stress
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ANTICLINE: fold that has the oldest materials in its core.
SYNCLINE: fold that has the newest materials in its core
CORE
CORE
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OROGEN ORIGINS (=mountain ranges origin)
1) Subduction limits
2) Continental collision: Alpine-type orogens (continental – continental).
Few magmatism (subduction zone disappears) and a lot of metamorphism
(metamorphic rocks) and deformation (folds and normal faults at the end).
Presence of ophiolites (old ocean litosphere fragments) in the old boundary
between the two continents. Examples: Himalayas and Pyrenees.
3) Intermediate orogens (oceanic plate with orogens – continental). It is like
an Andean-type orogen but in the very edge of the continent an accretion
orogen is formed by the collision with terranes (island arcs that separate from
the oceanic litosphere). Example: The Rocky Mountains (North America).
4) Hot spots: Volcanic archipelagos. Fluid lava and less violent eruptions. Only
the island located above the hot spot is volcanically active. Examples: Canary
Islands or Hawaii archipelago.
• Island arcs (oceanic – oceanic). Volcanic. Viscous
magma and violent eruptions. Examples: Japan,
Indonesia.
• Andean-type orogens (oceanic – continental). Very
long mountain ranges which peaks are volcanos
(extinct or active). High risk of seismic and volcanic
activity. Abundant igneous rocks (from the
solidification of magma) and sedimentary rocks from
marine sediment (from the accretionary prism).
Example: Andes
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The relief and landforms that contains are the result of the balance between the
internal geological processes, that construct them, and the external geological
processes, that model them.
HOW IS THE RELIEF MADE?
1) Internal geological processes (earthquakes, volcanos, mountain ranges,
etc.)
2) External geological processes (weathering, erosion, transport and
sedimentation)
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AMPLIACIÓN
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Indicar qué tipo de deformaciones, elástica,
plástica o por rotura, han sufrido las rocas
de las fotografías.
A
B
C
D
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ESTRATOS
PLEGADOS
FRACTURAS
(diaclasas = joints)
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Estrato 1
Estrato 3
Estrato 2
FRACTURA DEL TERRENO EN LA QUE UN BLOQUE
HA BAJADO RESPECTO A OTRO (FALLA)
What type of fault is it? Which is the downthrown block?
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LÁMINAS DE ROCA PLEGADAS
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Las rocas de la imagen son cuarcitas
plegadas.
¿Cómo se puede explicar que una roca
tan rígida se haya deformado plásticamente?