UNIT 5: THE INDIVIDUAL COMMUNICATOR

UNIT OBJECTIVESAt the end of this unit, you should be able to:• define perception and describe the three stages in

the perception process;• explain how selected factors influence perception;• define self-concept, self-awareness, self-esteem,

and self-disclosure;• explain theories relating to the self; and • discuss guidelines and strategies towards

developing and enhancing aspects of the self in communication.

SUB-TOPICS

THE PERCEPTION PROCESS• Factors that Influence an Individual’s Perception• Critical Perception Strategies• General Strategies for Reducing Uncertainty in

Perception• Specific Strategies for Increasing Awareness in

PerceptionADDRESSING INDIVIDUAL NEEDS, MOTIVES,

AND DRIVES• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Drives• McClelland’s Motive Clusters

IMAGES OF THE SELF

• Self-concept

• Self-Awareness

• Self-esteem

• Self-disclosure

• ‘perception’ means making sense of our environment to see how it relates to us.

• In speech communication, it refers to the process of examining how and why messages may differ in relation to one’s communication needs.

The process of making sense of our environment may be divided into three main stages or sub-processes:

• Sensory input is received

• Input is organised

• Input is interpreted and/or evaluated

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PERCEPTION

• Implicit personality theory– culture-specific system of rules that tells us which

characteristics go with other related characteristics e.g. the halo effect

• Self-fulfilling prophecy– prediction or belief that comes true because it was

acted as if it were true• Pygmalion effect

– a widely known effect of the self-fulfilling prophecy• Perceptual accentuation

– we see what we expect to see and what we want to see

Factors (cont’d…)

• Primacy-recency– the first impression is likely to be the most important

• Consistency– strong tendency to maintain balance among

perceptions

• Stereotyping– shortcut in perception leading to a fixed impression of

a group of people

• Attribution– process of discovering why people behave in certain

ways

CRITICAL PERCEPTION STRATEGIES

Communication is a complex process:• people attempt to find out more about each other

both consciously and unconsciously• each person involved learns more about the

other• relationships becomes more and more

meaningful• people learn to reduce uncertainty about each

other through the use of a variety of strategies• passive, active, and interactive strategies

PERCEPTION STRATEGIES

• Passive Strategies– observing someone without that person being aware of it E.g. at a

birthday party.• Active Strategies

– active seeking of information about other people without actually interacting with them, including asking mutual friends and acquaintances

– Some people also manipulate the environment in which the subject performs e.g. student teaching situations, employment interviews, theatrical auditions, etc.

• Interactive Strategies– involve direct contact with people – promote interaction between you and the people you are interested in,

and the asking of appropriate questions– to maximise the reduction of uncertainty, people self-disclose and this

encourages further interaction.

Increasing Awareness in Perception

• Look for a variety of cues- the more perceptual cues pointing to the same

conclusions the better• Formulate hypothesis

– think specific things about the people you are interested in

– seek information that will confirm your ideas and hunches

• Delay conclusions– Examine a variety of cues before drawing conclusions

• Avoid mind reading– a person's motives, values, and needs are not open

to outside inspection, so we can only make certain assumptions

• Check your perceptions– Check own perceptions as well as other people's

perceptions about you; the two basic forms of perception checking are:

• Describe tentatively what you think is happening e.g. "You sound upset with my plans for the evening…"

• Ask for confirmation e.g. "Would you rather watch TV?"

Addressing Individual Needs, Motives, and Drives

• Motivational appeals:• appeals to human needs, desires, and

wants…are the most powerful means of persuasion you possess" (Devito, 1999: 397).

• speech communication:– basically an exercise in persuasion – to get people to listen to what we have to say– to listen to what others have to say

Needs, Motives, and Drives (Cont’d…)

• Motive is the power behind persuasion • To become a better communicator, you must:

– be aware of and understand human motives and related drives, desires, and wants

– develop your strengths and change undesirable attitudes and behaviours

• Two systems of classification to group together individual needs and motives ie. Maslow (1970) and McClelland (1972)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Drives

(1970) Maslow (1970):• a classic approach in the study of human

motives • major impact on consumer studies in

marketing and sales and on the field of communication studies

• Categories of needs and desires drive people to think, act, and respond in certain innate or 'built in' ways

Maslow’s Hierarchy (Cont’d…)

• Physiological Needs: food, water, air, sleep, and sex (basic bodily requirements)

• Safety: security, stability, protection from harm, shelter, clothes, structure, orderliness, predictability, freedom from fear and chaos

• Love and Belonging: devotion and warmth, affection with lovers, spouses, children, parents and close friends, feeling a sense of belonging to social groups, acceptance and approval

Maslow’s Hierarchy (Cont’d…)

• Esteem: self-esteem based on achievements and accomplishments, mastery, competence, confidence, freedom and independence, recognition by others, prestige and status

• Self-actualisation: self-fulfilment, knowing and understanding, realising individual potential and actualising capabilities, being true to the essential self and satisfying love for the aesthetic

Maslow’s Hierarchy (Cont’d…)

• Important points to observe about Maslow's taxonomy:– interrelates biological drives and social

motives – a hierarchy of prepotency i.e. lower level

needs must be satisfied in whole or in party before higher level desires can be addressed or realised

McClelland’s Motive Clusters

McClelland’s Motive Clusters (1972) – three primary motives:

a) Affiliation Motives – desire to belong to a group and to be liked and accepted

– companionship– conformity– deference/dependence– sympathy/generosity– loyalty– tradition– reverence/worship– sexual attraction

McClelland’s Motive Clusters (Cont’d…)

b) Achievement Motives – desire for success, adventure, creativity, and personal enjoyment – acquisition/saving– success/display– pride– prestige– adventure/change– perseverance– creativity– curiosity– personal enjoyment

McClelland’s Motive Clusters (Cont’d…)

c) Power Motives – desire to influence others – aggression– authority/dominance– defence– fear– autonomy/independence

McClelland’s Motive Clusters (Cont’d…)

Important points to note about McClelland's Motive Types:

• Some motives are innate while others are acquired or learned from the environment in which human beings develop

• Some motives would seem to contradict each other e.g. fear versus adventure; generosity vs. aggression, but we must understand that the clusters are based on observations of human behaviour which often contains elements of contradictory impulses

Motivational Appeals…an example

Developing and Using an Integrated Set of Motivational Appeals• General Purpose:To persuade and/or to actuate

• Specific Purpose:To persuade fellow students at the Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication UPM to pursue a flexible M.A. in English Language programme

• Central Claim:For many students, the M.A. (English Language Studies) is the one of the best degrees at the postgraduate level.

• Using Motivational Appeals:

– Appeal to creativity: The MA in English programme allows the entrant with a BA or a Bed degree to build a programme suited to your individual needs and desires

Motivational Appeals…an example (Cont’d…)

– Appeal to adventure: Break away from the masses and do something unique towards restructuring your life

– Appeal to curiosity: Explore subject areas and courses of instruction as deeply as you wish

– Appeal to success: Get a feeling of achievement from designing and completing your very own programme

– Appeal to acquisition/saving: get the degree and enjoy excellent employment opportunities that come with attractive salary packages and perks e.g. as lecturers in higher learning institutions, corporate public relations officers, personnel managers etc.

In-class Task

What kind of motivational appeals will you use to address each of the following groups of people/audiences? Work in groups to prepare a short speech.

1. A group of students protesting recent increases in the university student intake and the resultant shortage of facilities

2. Women at a seminar on equal employment opportunities

3. A meeting of Malaysian primary and secondary school teachers seeking better salaries for services rendered

4. A meeting of undergraduates from the Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication concerned about the employment prospects of graduates in language studies