BASIC CONCEPTS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

After you have studied this unit you will …

define key systems terminology and describe their application to information systems;

identify the purpose of an information system;

distinguish between data and information;

describe the process by which data is transformed into information;

differentiate between quantitative and qualitative information;

compare and contrast the major approaches to gathering quantitative data, e.g., surveys, censuses, routine data collection;

define the characteristics of good information.

What is a system?

A set of interrelated components.

A set of objects with relationships between the objects and their attributes.

A set of interrelated components thatfunction together in a meaningful way.

An array of components designed to accomplish a particular objective according to plan.

The Systems Approach Also known as systems thinking

It is a method or framework which helps us to analyze and explore the operation and interactions which exist in the systems around us.

Key features of systems Composed of inter-related parts or sub-

systems;

Systems have synergy. i.e., the whole is more than the sum of parts;

Systems are hierarchical. i.e., parts or sub-systems are made up of smaller parts;

Key features of systems

The parts of the system cannot be altered without affecting other parts;

The sub-systems should work towards the goal of their higher systems and not pursue their own objectives independently and to the detriment of higher objectives;

Key features of systems A system receive inputs at its boundaries from the

environment around it; processes them and sends the transformed outputs past the boundaries out into the environment. This is referred to as the Transformation Process

An information system is …

A set of hardware, software, data, human, and procedural inputs brought together with the objective of providing the right information to theright person at theright time.

Purpose of an information systemProvides information to help us to:

Make decisions

Formulate policies and plans

Monitor the achievement of goals & targets

Distinction between data and information

Data

Facts obtained by observation or research, that are recorded. Also known as raw or basic data. Data frequently comprise records of the day-to-day transactions of an organization.

Information

Data that has been processed, analysed, interpreted and understood by the recipient of the message. It is the user who determines whether a report contains information or just processed data.

A system receive inputs at its boundaries from the environment around it; processes them and sends the transformed outputs past the boundaries out into the environment. This is referred to as the Transformation Process

THE HEALTH SYSTEMTHE HEALTH

SYSTEM

THE TRANSFORMATION PROCESS

Steps in the Transformation Process1

System receives inputs

from theenvironment

at itsboundary

2System processes

inputs to produce outputs

3System produces

outputs and sendspast the boundary

to the environment

4Information on

output (feedback) is compared

with expectation (control)

5Inputs adjusted

based on Feedback

Inputs are …

The resources or factors of production used in the production of an organization’s or system’s output.

Examples of inputs

Raw material, equipment, supplies, facilities, utilities, furniture, training, labour, skills, competencies, technology, procedures, data.

What is a process?

An activity that changes a system in some way.

Examples of processesManufacturing, mining, construction, cultivating, quality checks, sorting, packing, labelling, organizing service delivery, data manipulation

What is an output?A generic term for a tangible good or an intangible service or entity that is the end result of the production/ transformation process.

Examples of outputsFinished goods, services, information

Feedback refers to …The generation of information on the system’s output. If the feedback suggests a deviation from what is expected (the control), the system reacts by attempting to adjust itself.

The environment as it relates to systems

External elements whose changes in attitudes, behaviour or properties affect the state of the system and those external elements that are changed by the system’s behaviour.

Examples of environmental influences

Technology

Population

The environment as it relates to systems

External elements whose changes in attitudes, behaviour or properties affect the state of the system and those external elements that are changed by the system’s behaviour.

Closed and Open SystemsClosed System

One that is isolated from its environment. It is self contained, so that the external environment does not influence functioning of the system, nor does the system influence its environment

Open system

One that interacts with its environment. It receives inputs and influences from the environment and, in turn passes back outputs and influences to the environment. An open system is self-regulating & capable of growth, development & adaptation.

Examples of closed and open systems

Closed System

A rock

Machinery

A watch

Open system

Living organisms

All social organizations

The data transformation cycle

COLLECT DATA INPUTS

•Data in patient records, tally sheets, registers

•Accounting / personnel records

•Market & supply data

•Environmental data

•Management plans, goals, targets

PROCESS•Check quality

•Classify & code

•Store and retrieve

•Abstract

•Aggregate, summarise

•Calculate indicators

•Compare

•Identify trends

PRODUCE INFORMATION OUTPUTS

•Tables & graphs

•Reports

•Forecasts, models

USE INFORMATION

•Monitor, evaluate, adjust

•Plan

•Budget

Quantitative vs. Qualitative information Quantitative information

refers to information in the form of numbers.

When one uses a quantitative approach to collecting and processing data it is assumed that the data lends itself to being manipulated mathematically and that the information produced will objectively and accurately reflect reality.

Qualitative information is information in the form of words, pictures, sounds, visual images or objects.

Quantitative data collection methods

Sample survey –collects data from subjects selected from a larger pool (the target populaton) in order to draw conclusions about the larger pool. Systematically asks people the same questions then records and analyses their answers.

Census - any study of the entire population of a particular set of “objects”. These objects could include the human residents of a country or village, the students at a school, the patients in a hospital ward at a particular point in time or the population of a species of animal found in a particular location.

Routine data collection - data produced as a by-product of routine operations of an organization. The data describes the activity or transaction itself, e.g., immunisation, antenatal examination, environmental inspection and important features of the target of these activities, e.g., patients and clients. Sometimes it captures data on the providers as well.

Qualitative data collection methods

In-depth interview - a dialogue between a skilled interviewer and an interviewee. Its goal is to elicit rich, detailed material that can be used in analysis.

It is conducted with individuals or with a small group. The interviewer does not follow a rigid form but encourages free and open responses. In-depth interviews also encourage capturing of respondents’ perceptions in their own words. This allows the researcher to present the experience from the respondent’s perspective.

Focus group – a type of group interview in which the interviewer asks questions to the group and answers are given in an open discussion among group members. Usually 7-10 persons.

Observation - method by which researchers and other data gatherers gather firsthand data on programmes, processes, or behaviors.

By directly observing behaviours and activities, the researcher can develop an understanding of the context within which they occur. For example, a researcher may "shadow" a professional for a day to understand how he or she works. The environmental health inspector visually observes the physical facilities being inspected and may sometimes observe processes being carried out to determine whether sanitary methods are being followed. Observation also allows the researcher to learn about things the participants or staff may be unaware of or that they are unwilling or unable to discuss in an interview or focus group.

What is a management information system? A system using formalised procedures to provide

management at all levels, in all functions with appropriate information, based on data from both internal and external sources. The information produced by the MIS enables managers to make timely and effective decisions for planning, directing and controlling the activities for which they are responsible.

What is a geographic information system (GIS)? A GIS is a computer system capable of capturing, storing,

analyzing, and displaying geographically referenced information; that is, data identified according to location. The definition of a GIS also includes the procedures, operating personnel, and spatial data that go into the system.

The data used in a GIS describes population characteristics, socioeconomic conditions, and the landscape, and analyzes the spatial relationship of these factors.

In addition to integrating and analyzing data, e.g., health related data, GIS technology promotes data sharing through the use of standard formats and a highly efficient communication tool--the map.

Self review questions1. Define the following: data, information, information

system, management information system, geographic information system.

2. For any organization or part of an organization with which you are familiar, do the following:

a. List 5 items of raw data that are collected;

b. Describe how each item is collected and recorded;

c. Describe the process by which each item of data is transformed into information;

d. Explain the use to which the information outputs are put.

3a. give an example of information not at present

available which you think would be useful to you or an organization.

b. Explain why it would be useful to have this information?

c. How could the information be produced?

d. Why is it not produced at present?

Key points to remember …All system definitions contain the essential elements of

parts and relationships.

Our understanding of how systems function provides us with a method for analysing and exploring the systems around us. This is the Systems Approach

The relevant environment of a system consists of those elements with which it has some meaningful relationship

All systems comprise inputs, processes and outputs

Closed systems have rigid boundaries and do not have any exchanges with their environment

Open systems have a dynamic relationship with their environment which is vital to ensure adaptability

Data are facts that have been recorded;

Information is processed data which is understood by the user;

The value of information comes from its use;

Information may be in quantitative or qualitative form;

Effective use of information is enhanced when different types are used to complement one another;

An information system comprises the hardware, software, data, human, and procedural inputs brought together with the objective of providing the right information to the right person at the right time.

A management information system provides managers at all levels with appropriate information for planning, control and decision-making;

A geographic information system is a special type of computer-based information system that integrates the processes of capturing, storing, analyzing and displaying geographically referenced information through the use of standard formats and a highly efficient communication tool--the map.

Self review questions1. Use the systems approach to explain how any public

health system with which you are familiar functions. 2. List the inputs, processes and outputs of the system

described at (1) .3. Define the following terms and give public health

related examples of each: transformation process, inputs, processes, outputs, feedback, environment

4. Define the following: data, information, information system, management information system, geographic information system.

5. For any organization or part of an organization with which you are familiar, do the following:

a. List 5 items of raw data that are collected;

b. Describe how each item is collected and recorded;

c. Describe the process by which each item of data is transformed into information;

d. Explain the use to which the information outputs are put.

6a. give an example of information not at present

available which you think would be useful to you or an organization.

b. Explain why it would be useful to have this information?

c. How could the information be produced?

d. Why is it not produced at present?

END OF UNIT 1