united nations environment programme environment for ... mountain report... · any opinion of the...

United Nations Environment Programme

Environment for Development

Dinaric Arc and Balkans Environment Outlook

DABEO

Proposal on the Geographic Extent of the Balkans/Dinaric Arc Region for

the DABEO Reporting Process

D A B E O Dinaric Arc and Balkans Environment Outlook

Geographic Extent Proposal

1

Disclaimer

The designation of geographical entities in this report do not imply the expression of

any opinion of the United Nations Organization, the United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) or any other partner of the Environment and Security Initiative

concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or

concerning the delimitations of its frontiers or boundaries. For the purpose of this report

the acronym FYROM has been used to refer to the Former Yugoslav Republic of

Macedonia.

The views expressed in this report are the sole responsibility of the author and can

under no condition be regarded as reflecting the position of the United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP), the involved Division of Early Warning and

Assessment (UNEP/DEWA) office for Europe in Geneva, and the Regional Office for

Europe in Vienna (UNEP/ROE).

The partial or total reproduction of the contents is authorized provided the source is

fully acknowledged.

Citation: Dinaric Arc and Balkans Environment Outlook (DABEO). Proposal on the

Geographic Extent of the Balkans/Dinaric Arc Region for the DABEO Reporting

Process. UNEP/DEWA/GRID, 2010, Geneva.

This proposal was prepared in 2009 and 2010 by UNEP/DEWA/GRID∼Europe and

UNEP/ROE/Vienna.

Author: Dusan Djordjevic, consultant, UNEP/DEWA/GRID∼Europe.

Maps prepared and modified by: UNEP/DEWA/GRID∼Europe.


2

Contents

The Balkan Peninsula ...................................................................................... 3

Geology .............................................................................................................. 8

The Dinaric Alps ............................................................................................................. 11

The Pindus Mountains .................................................................................................. 12

The Balkan Mountains ................................................................................................... 13

The Rilo-Rhodope Mountains ...................................................................................... 13

Hydrology ....................................................................................................... 14

Climate ............................................................................................................. 16

Biodiversity ..................................................................................................... 18

Ecoregions ....................................................................................................... 20

The Illyrian deciduous forests ..................................................................................... 21

The Dinaric Mountain mixed forests .......................................................................... 22

The Pindus Mountains mixed forests......................................................................... 22

The Balkan mixed forests .............................................................................................. 23

The Rhodope Montane mixed forests ........................................................................ 23

Geographic Extent Proposal ........................................................................ 24

The Ecoregion Delineation Approach ........................................................................ 24

The Mountain Area Delineation Approach .............................................................. 26

Bibliography .................................................................................................... 29


3

The Balkan Peninsula

While it is today easy to understand what constitutes the Balkan Peninsula in

political terms, the unique geographical definition remains a matter of debate in

scientific circles. In view of modern political division of states, the Balkan

Peninsula as a region can be defined by the territorial boundaries of Albania,

Bulgaria, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Former Yugoslav Republic of

Macedonia (FYROM), Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia, Greece and the

western part of Turkey. However, due to cultural, socio-economic or

geographical differences, countries that are often omitted from the working

definitions are Romania, Turkey and often even Greece (Andonovski et al. 2006).

The northern boundaries of the Balkan Peninsula separating it from the Central

European region are not clearly defined geographically. For these reasons,

various definitions can be found in the literature and are subject to change

depending on the objectives of the source.

The purpose of this paper is to propose a definition of the geographic extent of

the Balkans and Dinaric Arc for the DABEO reporting process. A working

definition is required that will attempt to provide a delineation in terms of

physical geography and ecoregions, rather than the existing political boundaries.

The Balkan Peninsula is often described as a triangular piece of land which

extends from the rest of the Central Europe in the north into the Mediterranean

Sea in the south. Thus, clear demarcation of what physically constitutes the

Balkan Peninsula is already made distinct by the Adriatic Sea in the west, the

Ionian and the Aegean Seas in the south, and the Black Sea in the east.

The eastern boundary of the Balkan Peninsula is one point that might lead to

debate. Often the eastern boundary is considered to follow the Bosphorus Strait.

In this view, the western part of Turkey would be included in the definition of

the Balkans (Griffiths et al. 2004). However, for the purpose of this study the

eastern boundary shall be demarcated along the political boundaries of the

westernmost part of Turkey with Bulgaria and Greece. The reason for this

should be considered partly in terms of the cultural specificities of the region,

and partly because the DABEO study’s objective is to pay greater attention to the

geographical and biological specificity of the region, with a focus on mountain

areas as a natural reserve of the unique attributes of the Balkan/Dinaric region.


4

Figure 1. The Balkan Peninsula (Socha – Krka – Sava Rivers used as the northern delineation)

Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Balkan_topo_en.jpg

Modified by: UNEP/DEWA/GRID~Europe 2009

The eastern boundary follows the coast of the Black Sea to the northeast. The

furthest northeastern point of the Balkan Peninsula cannot be clearly demarcated

and definitions often vary. While some definitions take the political boundary of

Bulgaria with Romania to be the line of division, others may include part of

southeastern Romania, following the course of the Danube River until the point

where it forms its delta into the Black Sea (Reed et al. 2004). Romania is in

geographic and climatic character much closer to Central Europe than to the

Balkans. The mountains of Romania belong to the wider Carpathian Mountains

region. Therefore, for the purpose of this study, the working definition of the

Balkan Peninsula should consider the political boundary between Bulgaria and

Romania to be the line of demarcation. This particular area shared by

northeastern Bulgaria and southeastern Romania is called Dobruja. Due to the


5

distinctive geophysical and biological features of this region, it should be given

special attention in the process of geographic extent demarcation.

The northern boundary of the Balkan Peninsula with Central Europe is not

clearly defined by any mountain ranges or great bodies of water. The northern

political boundaries of the Balkan countries encompass southern parts of the

great Pannonian Plane extending toward Central Europe. In the absence of any

more significant physical boundary, the Danube River is usually taken as the

division line (Griffiths et al. 2004). Indeed, the line of flow of the Danube offers

an appropriate demarcation between the mountainous southern regions so

characteristic of the Balkans from the northern plane regions of Central Europe.

The Iron Gate, a gorge of the Danube River, is not only a natural boundary

between Romania in north and Serbia in south, but according to the EEA and the

WWF it also presents a clear separation between the Carpathian Mountains

ecoregion and the Balkan Mountains ecoregion. This division is based on the

Digital Map of European Ecological Regions which was developed by the EEA

and was harmonized with the Ecological Regions of WWF (EEA 2005, Ruffini et

al. 2006).

However, in the most recent work done on the delineation of the Carpathian

Mountains region, as a support to the Carpathian Convention implementation

process, some adjustments have been adopted in regard to this division. In view

of the national experts of Serbia, and based on the criteria of geological and

biological diversity (Ruffini et al. 2006), the entire territory of the Djerdap

National Park is also to be included in the Carpathian Mountains region. In

order to secure one integral territory, Serbia’s national proposal concerns

territory stretching from the municipality of Golubac to the hydroelectric power

plant Djerdap I, includes the entire territory of the Djerdap National Park with

some extensions, totaling 732 km2 of surface. Statistical units that are this way

included in the Carpathians region are municipalities of Golubac, Majdanpek

and Kladovo (Ruffini et al. 2006).

In conclusion, the Carpathians Environment Outlook adopted the Timok River

Valley as the southernmost border of the Carpathian region, and as the natural

division line between the Carpathian and the Stara Planina (Balkan) Mountains

(UNEP 2007).


6

The line of northern division continues following the flow of the Sava River,

which divides the Pannonian and Peri-Pannonian regions of Croatia in the north

from the slopes of the Dinaric Arc in the south and southwest (Andonovski et al.

2006). In the upstream flow the Sava and Krka Rivers provide a near division of

the territory of Slovenia into the northern region of the Julian Alps and the

Pannonian planes and the southern region of the Dinaric plateaus (Perko 2004).

Again, the clear division of the Julian Alps from the Dinaric Alps is the potential

cause of debate. The extreme northwestern boundary of the Balkan Peninsula

may either follow the political boundary between Slovenia and Italy, or the flow

of the Socha River. Building on previous extensive attempts to introduce

regionalization schemes in Slovenia, Perko (1998) introduced a new

regionalization of Slovenia based on an analysis of rock, surface relief, climate,

vegetation, and land use using the Geographic Information System. His

methodology divides Slovenia into “four macro-regions, nine sub-macro-regions,

and 49 mezzo-regions” (Perko 1998). The four macro-regions are namely the

Alpine macroregion, Mediterranean macro-region, Dinaric macro-region, and the

Pannonian macro-region.

Figure 2. Macroregions division in Slovenia using Drago Perko methodology. Source: Geographic

Institute AM ZRC SAZU, 1998. Modifyed by UNEP/DEWA/GRID~Europe.


7

At the extreme northwestern end of the Dinaric macro-region, the plateau-like

mezzo-region is split by the deeply cut Socha Valley. At the extreme northern

end of the Dinaric macro-region, Ljubljansko barje (Ljubljana Moor) stretches

northward to the Ljubljana Gate (Ljubljanska vrata) and is the southernmost part

of the vast “Ljubljanska kotlina” (Ljubljana Basin), which north of the Ljubljana

Gate belongs to the Alpine macro-region (Perko 1998). These proposed divisions

based on sound methodology could prove to be a good starting point for the

delineation of the Dinaric Arc and geographic area to be considered in the

DABEO reporting process.

These boundaries outline a territory of an approximate surface of 500’000 km2.

The great diversity of landscapes, flora and fauna of the region as defined above

owe their evolution to the complex and specific physical geography of the

region, and to the special location of a transition zone for biota (Krystufek et al.

2004).


8

Geology

From its recent geological past, the Balkan Peninsula owes its topographic

configuration to the Alpine orogenic activity that culminated in the mid-Tertiary

period. Physiographically, the Balkans can be viewed as the part of the Alpine

Mountains region, and one of the four major physiographic regions of Europe

extending from the Betic Cordillera of southern Spain to the Caucasus

Mountains. Another recent event in geological terms that greatly influenced the

features of the Balkans was the Messinian Salinity Crisis (5.7- 5.4 Ma.), when the

loss of inflow of sea water from the Atlantic led to formation of shallow super-

saline basins, causing erosion of river valleys and caves and a change in the

ecology (Ager 1980, Robertson et al. 1984, Grove et al. 2003, Reed et al 2004).

Many areas in the Balkans are still tectonically active and are known for severe

earthquake events and frequent landslides. The Balkan Peninsula is

geotectonically divided into external and internal zones. The external zone is

spread along the Adriatic and Ionian coasts, and bounded by the Dinarides-

Hellenides Mountain range. It is characterized by Alpine orogenesis and a

relatively simple geotectonic structure comprising sedimentary sequences. The

internal zone (to the east of the external zone) was affected by older orogenic

movements and is characterized by a complex geotectonic structure.

Metamorphic massifs, plutonic and volcanic intrusions, and opholite structure

areas dominate this zone (Ager 1980, Moores et al. 1997, Griffiths et al. 2004,

Skoulikidis 2009).

Distinguishing a mountain environment from a non-mountain environment is

based on criteria developed by geographers aiming to establish environmental

gradients. The criteria developed by UNEP/WCMC, for example, are based on

combinations of altitude and slopes to determine what constitutes a mountain.

Seven defined classes of mountains are determined as first class above 4500

meters, second class from 3500m to 4500m, and third class from 2500m to 3500m.

Mountains of fourth class are those with elevations from 1500m to 2500m and a

slope of 2° and more, while class three mountains have altitudes from 1000m to

1500m and a slope of 5° and more, or a local elevation range of more than 300

meters within a radius of 7 km. The sixth class of mountains is defined by

elevations from 300 to 1000 meters and a local elevation range of more than 300

meters within a radius of 7 km. The most recently added seventh class of

mountain environment considers isolated inner basins and plateaus less than 25


9

km2 in extent that are surrounded by mountains, but do not themselves meet

criteria of the previous six (UNEP/WCMC, 2002).

This global delineation does not include areas at altitudes below 300m. However,

in some areas along the coasts of the Adriatic and Ionian Seas, there are

mountains that extend down to sea level. This implies that, as in the case of

European mountains, delineation should be based on a combination of altitude

and topography (NORDREGIO 2004).

Figure 3. Mountains of Europe, using UNEP-WCMC 2000 global delineation

Source: NORDREGIO 2004


10

Defined in this way, the mountainous environment covers about 27% of the

Earth’s surface. The Balkan Peninsula can then correctly be considered as a

mountainous region, given that approximately 70% of the delineated territory is

characterized by high relief and long mountain chains (Reed et al. 2004). High

mountain chains rise from a narrow coast and at times almost directly from the

sea throughout the entire length of the Adriatic, the Ionian and the Aegean Seas.

The highest point of the Balkan Peninsula is the Rila Mountain with Mousala

Peak at 2926 meters belonging to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain Ranges in

Bulgaria. Other countries of the region also have peaks between 2500 and 3000

meters, apart from Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina in the lower region of the

Dinaric Alps with highest points of 1830m and 2386m respectively (Reed et al.

2004). Table 1. Percentage of Mountain Area of the Balkan Countries as Defined by

UNEP-WCMC Methodology and National Criteria

Mountain Area

UNEP-WCMC

(km2)

% of

National

Territory

Mountain Area

National Def.

(km2)

% of

National

Territory

Albania 20,604 71.7 15,000 60

Bosnia&Herzegovina 38,112 74.5 N/A

Bulgaria 44,730 40.3 44,000 40

Croatia 16,578 29.3 21,000 38

FYROM 21,530 83.7 N/A

Slovenia 13,534 66.8 9,500 47

Serbia&Montenegro 54,890 53.7 N/A

Greece 72,898 55.2 79,000 60

Source: Cooperation for the Protection, 2006

A view of the general character of the Balkan Peninsula Mountains may lead to

the conclusion that relief varies between west and east. While the mountains of

the western area are comprised of the Dinaric Alps and the Pindus Mountains

which rise very steeply from the coastal area, the eastern mountain ranges of the

Balkan Mountains and the Rhodope Mountains have rather gentle slopes. Each

of these mountains is of different sedimentary composition and has a different

tectonic history. Metamorphic, magmatic and sedimentary rocks like granite,

marble, blueschist and sandstone are all found here with local variations, while

in Slovenia alone 50 different types of rocks can be found (Mrsic 1997).

However, unlike the others, the Dinaric Alps are dominated by carbonate rocks

(Ager 1980, Robertson et al. 1984, Griffiths et al. 2004).


11

The Dinaric Alps

The Dinaric Alps are a dominating feature of the Balkan Peninsula. They stretch

from northwest from the River Sava in Slovenia to southeast throughout Croatia,

Bosnia, Serbia and Montenegro to Albania, covering a territory of nearly 100’000

km2. Although the Dinaric range seems to extend into the ranges of the Pindus

Mountains in Greece, a clear delineation between the two can be made at the

Scutari-Pec line in northern Albania, which is taken as the southern ending point

of the Dinaric Alps (Ager 1980, Reed et al. 2004). From this point there is evident

a great difference in geology of the Pindus Mountains where volcanic and

metamorphic rocks dominate. The Dinaric Mountains are a series of nearly

parallel ridges, plateaus and depressions, dissected by steep-sided valleys (Perko

2004, Andonovski et al. 2006, Tvrtkovic et al. 2006). The northern part of the

system is lower and the highest mountains are in the southern part, with the

highest peak Maja Jezerce at 2694 meters in Albania.

The dominant rock type of this mountain range is Cretaceous limestone, while

Triassic sediments of sandstones and shells are common in the northwestern

karst region. The term karst is used to describe a geological landscape that

develops wherever limestone formations, or other carbonate rocks, dominate the

region and spread over extensive areas. Due to their solubility, these rock

formations develop high permeability along fractures and faults, with the

formation of sinkholes, chasms, underground streams and caves, thus leading to

creation of karstic aquifers which contain large amounts of groundwater

(Tvrtkovic et al. 2006). They also support unique ecosystems very rich in

biodiversity. The process of dissolving of limestone by rainwater creates

characteristic landscapes of small depressions called “dolina”, and larger basins

called “polje”. The poljes and dolines support soil formation in this otherwise

dry, barren landscape to the extent that poljes can sustain dense forests, while

dolines greatly contribute to regional biodiversity (Kruckeberg 2004, Tvrtkovic

2006). This truly unique karst ecosystem covers a large continuous region of the

Dinaric Alps, starting from southern Slovenia and continuing through middle

and southeastern Croatia, southwestern Bosnia, all of Herzegovina, southern

Montenegro and western Albania. Isolated karst islands also appear in western

Serbia and FYROM, containing some typical Dinaric species within them.


12

North of Albania, these mountain chains of the Dinaric Alps characterized by

karst can be divided into three regions. The northern karst includes the Velebit

Mountains (Vaganski Peak at 1757m), the central karst extends south of the Una

River, with parallel ranges like Biokovo separated by poljes (Cincer Peak at

2008m), and the southern karst which is a high plateau south of the Neretva

River, with the highest point being Durmitor Peak at 2522m, characterized by

Jurassic limestone. The further ranges in Albania are more complex with a large

share of Triassic limestone, Paleozoic rocks beneath, and intrusions of igneous

and metamorphic rocks. The northern Albanian Alps are the most rugged

mountains in the region with glaciated limestone summits rising above 2400m.

Further south are the Murdita Mountain, a glaciated plateau of igneous and

metamorphic rock rising above 2100m (Andonovski et al. 2006).

The eastern region of the Dinaric Alps is a high plateau of Tertiary deposits,

gabbros and granites, extending to the south of the Vrbas River in Bosnia. Here

ridges of the Dinaric Mountains are aligned from northwest to southeast, with

the highest peak Cemernica/Paripovac of 1631m near the Bosnian city of

Sarajevo. Further to the southeast, the Dinaric Mountains form a platform of

Paleozoic schist, with remnants of Jurassic and Triassic limestone extending into

the western part of the Rhodope Mountains. This high platform with extensive

mountains of Shar Planina (Turcin 2748m), Kopaonik, Mokra Gora, Koprivnik

Planina (2522 m) and Zljeb Gora (2403 m), to name a few, are shared between

Serbia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and Albania. The

Shara Mountain extend further south to Albania, where their relief becomes a

gentler form of Tertiary sandstone and flysch rising again to the heights of the

Grammos Mountains, with the highest peak Grammos of 2524m on the border

between Albania and Greece (Andonovski et al. 2006).

The Pindus Mountains

Further south the Pindus Mountains stretch along the Ionian and Aegean Sea

coasts, starting from the southern part of Albania and southwest of FYROM, and

continuing to south to the Peloponnesus, and further to the islands of Crete and

Rhodes. These mountains are made of volcanic and metamorphic rock, and are

characterized by complex folding of upper rocks over basal rocks on a large scale

and similar to the Jura Mountains in the European Alps, while the ranges of the

islands are composed mainly of Triassic and Mesozoic carbonate rocks. The


13

maximum elevation of this mountain range is the peak of Smolikas at 2637

meters (Grove et al. 2003, McNeill 2003, Reed 2004).

The Balkan Mountains

The Stara Planina Mountains or the Balkan Mountains are one dominant feature

of the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula, formed at the same period as the

Carpathian Mountains. This mountain range begins at the Iron Gate, a gorge of

the Danube River, the point where the Carpathians end. The mountain range

extends southward from this point with its ridges acting as a natural boundary

between Serbia and Bulgaria, where the highest peak Midzor reaches 2169

meters. The mountain range stretches from west to east across the entire

territory of Bulgaria to the Black Sea. The highest peak in this part is Botev (2376

meters); these higher areas are mostly of igneous rock. The rest of the western

and central mountain range is between 1000 and 1800 meters in altitude and

formed of Paleozoic schist and igneous rock at its core, with a layer of Jurassic

and Cretaceous limestone. The eastern part is lower and broad as it approaches

the Black Sea, with sedimentary rocks predominating here (Ager 1980,

Andonovski et al. 2006).

The Rilo-Rhodope Mountains

The Rilo-Rhodope Mountains massif further to the south follows nearly the same

direction as the Balkan Mountains. However, they are of quite different geology

due to their Alpine orogeny, more similar to the southeastern region of the

Dinaric Alps, and nearly connect with them in the territories of FYROM and

Serbia (Ager 1980, Reed et al. 2004). They begin from the northern Sredna Gora

just south of the Stara Mountain, and form a plateau composed of the same schist

and igneous rock, rising up to 1606m at Bogdan peak. Further south the ranges

are folded and partially covered by flysch and Mesozoic rock (Andonovski et al.

2006). The boundary with Turkey follows these mountain ranges which

gradually descend towards the east, only to reappear again to the southeast by

the Black Sea, where they form a low mountain area of Strandja rising to no more

than 500 meters (Andonovski et al. 2006). The highest areas of Rila and Pirin

contain more than 100 peaks above 2500 meters and have an alpine character


14

with evidence of glaciations. The highest alpine peaks here are Mousala (2926

meters) and Vihren (2915 meters).

An outstandingly large number of caves and cave systems is another

characteristic feature of the Balkan Peninsula, with the most renowned cave

systems of the karstic region of the Dinaric Alps. Caves, cave systems, deep

valleys and underground streams owe their formation to the dissolution and

erosion of soft bedrock. The most famous of these are Postojnska Jama and the

World Heritage Site of Skocjanske Jame. Numerous habitats are found in caves,

of which terrestrial, freshwater and brackish (transient between seawater and

freshwater) water habitats can be distinguished, hosting a large number of

endemic species of flora and fauna (Kruckeberg 2004, Reed et al. 2004, Tvrtkovic

et al. 2006).

Hydrology

The relatively young geology of the Peninsula predetermines its highly

fragmented hydrographic networks. Small and medium-sized mountainous

rivers dominate the area and run through steep and narrow valleys. These rivers

are characterized by flash flow and sediment regimes. There are also a few low-

gradient rivers crossing the Balkans and forming extensive flood and deltaic

plains. Seven river basins in the Balkans are trans-boundary. The total

catchment area of fifteen rivers equals 182637 km2. The major river system of the

region is formed by the Danube and its tributaries: the Drava, the Tisza, the Sava,

the Morava, the Isker, the Sereth and the Pruth. Among the main rivers, the

Kamchia enters the Black Sea, while all others flow into the Mediterranean.

Eight rivers flowing into the Aegean Sea are the Evros, the Nestos, the Strymon,

the Axios, the Aliakmon, the Pinios, the Sperchios and the Evrotas; three flowing

into the Adriatic Sea are the Neretva, the Drin and the Aoos; and three into the

Ionian Sea are the Arachthos, Acheloos and Alfeios. The majority of Balkan

rivers form deltaic plains, while some of them form natural lakes and lagoons.

Almost all of these wetlands are of international importance (Skoulikidis 2009).

Physiogeographic and hydrochemical conditions of lakes vary significantly and

can be classified into three main zones. Most of the Balkan lakes are of tectonic

origin and include the ancient lakes Ohrid (Albania-FYROM), Prespa (FYROM-

Greece-Albania) and Ioannina (Greece) formed in the late Tertiary. The largest,

Lake Ohrid, was formed through rifting, while Lakes Prespa and Ioannina

formed as a result of karstic processes. Prespa and Ionannina are desolation


15

basins that have undergone continuous subsidence since their formation. More

recent subsiding basins include Lake Dojran (FYROM-Greece), Kastorias

(Greece) and the World Heritage Plitvice National Park system of lakes (Croatia)

(Albrecht et al. 2008).

Figure 4. Transboundary river basins of the Balkans.

Source: UNEP/DEWA/GRID~Europe 2009

Skadar/Shkoder Lake situated on the border between Montenegro and Albania

in the southern part of the Dinaric Alps is the largest lake on the Balkan

Peninsula in terms of water surface. Its drainage area is about 5500 km2 and it

drains to the southeast through the Buna-Bojana River to the Adriatic.

Skadar/Shkoder Lake features a complex freshwater ecosystem, associated with

wetlands, floodplains and karstic features. Skadar/Shkoder Lake is the largest

karstic lake in Europe formed relatively recently in a shallow subsiding tectonic

depression within limestone from the Dinaric chain. The west side of the lake

takes the form of a limestone wall or dune, which resulted from the Dinarides

orogenic activity. This limestone wall separates the Skadar/Shkoder Lake,

which is below the sea level, from the Adriatic Sea (Ager 1980, Reed et al. 2004).

It is considered that Skadar/Shkoder Lake is linked by way of a large trans-

boundary karstic groundwater aquifer through the Drin River Basin, to Lake


16

Ohrid and Lake Prespa, two other karstic lakes of the Balkan Peninsula. Due to

its low elevation, southern location and shallow water, Lake Shkoder has high

water temperatures, causing high rates of organic decomposition, and because

the lake never freezes, it is a prime winter location for birds (World Bank 2008).

Ohrid Lake shared between Albania and FYROM, Prespa Lake shared between

Albania, FYROM and Greece, and Mikri Prespa Lake shared between Albania

and Greece are the lakes of the Balkan Peninsula which are classified as the

European lake group called “Dessaretes”. Maliq Lake once located in Albania

also belonged to this group of lakes, but was drained after the World War II. Not

taking into account the transcontinental Caspian Lake, Lake Ohrid is the only

European ancient lake (Albrecht et al. 2008). With a surface are of 358 km2 and

212 endemic species, this is one of the lakes with the highest biodiversity in the

world. Ohrid and Prespa Lakes are bounded by the crystalline mountains of

Mokra Gora (1500m) on the west and the Baba Mountains (2600m) on the east.

The bedrock of the Galicica Mountains (2250m) separating the two lakes is made

of karstic carbonates of high water permeability, allowing for the lakes to be

connected, whereas Prespa Lake lies 150m higher than Ohrid Lake. Both lakes

are graben type lakes and have probably formed due to the collapse of the large

karstic fields “poljes” (Stankovic 1960, Albrecht et al. 2008).

Climate

Diversity of climate is a well-known characteristic of the wider Mediterranean

region, including the Balkan Peninsula. However, there are not many regions in

the world that reveal such large temperature contrasts and climate diversity as

the Balkans (Griffiths et al. 2004).

Altitudinal gradients, mountainous relief and the influence of the Mediterranean

and Black Seas generate a wide range of climatic conditions in the Balkan

Peninsula. Serving as a barrier between the Mediterranean and European parts

of the region, the Balkan Mountains prevent the access of warm air masses to the

north. The major part of the region falls within the temperate zone (35-48 N),

while the southern part (30-35 N) enjoys a typical Mediterranean climate.

Distinct bi-modal seasonality and strong north-south and east-west gradients are

the main climatic features of this region (Skoulikidis 2009). The regional climate

is dominated by polar air masses, while tropical air may also enter the region at

times of polar front depressions (Furlan 1977, Reed et al. 2004).


17

The mountainous character of the Balkans imposes extreme variability on the

climate of the peninsula, resulting in sharp transitions and associated variability

in vegetation types. Temperature contrasts are especially present in the western

Balkans, where the Dinaric Alps rise steeply from the narrow coastal region. The

temperature contrast is most notable in winter when coastal regions remain

protected from influxes of cold polar air from the north. There are three main

climate zones in the Balkans. First, a Mediterranean climate with mild, wet

winters and hot, dry summers is typical for the coastal regions and islands.

Precipitation occurs when western winds move south in winter, while summer

droughts occur when air masses from the dry belt move north. Mountain

regions have an Alpine climate, with strong altitudinal shifts in precipitation and

temperature. The northern lowlands, which are isolated from the influence of

the Mediterranean, but are open to Central and Eastern Europe, have a

continental climate (Furlan 1977, Reed et al. 2004).

The Dinaric Mountains have three types of climate. In the northern karst region,

a transitional climate is present, while a Mediterranean climate typifies the

central parts and continues to Albania. The eastern ridges of the Dinaric

Mountains are characterized by a continental climate. The Balkan Mountains

also have a continental climate, while the Rhodope Mountains have a modified

continental climate (Andonovski et al. 2006).

The karstic regions of the Dinaric Mountains experience cold winters and great

amounts of precipitation. High mountain ranges also have a great influence on

distribution of rainfall, as they prevent humid air and rainfall from penetrating

inland. Although barren land with a shortage of surface water, the region of

Crkvice in Montenegro at about 1050 meters has the highest level of precipitation

in Europe of more than 4600 mm annually. All other mountain ranges of the

Balkans experience most precipitation in the summer, while winters tend to be

dry with snow in the higher altitudes. The northern lowlands, which are isolated

from the influence of the Mediterranean, but are open to Central and Eastern

Europe, have a continental climate. Winters are frosty and snowy in this part of

the region, while summers are hot and dry with highest precipitation rates in

May and June. The presence of mountains thus predetermines the high climatic

variability, ranging from typical Mediterranean to continental (Reed et al. 2004,

Andonovski et al. 2006).


18

Biodiversity

The Balkan Peninsula is today recognized as one of Europe’s “hot spots” of

biodiversity and a region of global importance in regard to conservation efforts.

In part, this feature of the Balkans is due to diversity of topography in

combination with influences of both Mediterranean and continental climates.

However, this exceptional biodiversity and endemism of cave and ancient lake

environments, high terrestrial and river biodiversity is in part also due to its

historic role of a glacial refuge for plant and animal species, and also its location

at the crossroads for floral and faunal exchange between Central Europe on one

side and Asia Minor on the other (Griffiths et al. 2004).

High diversity and endemism of flora and fauna is most of all a remarkable

feature of the Dinaric Arc, but in the case of the Balkan Peninsula this feature

continues throughout the interior of the land, as well as other mountains of the

Balkans. Caves, lakes, river deltas and some 34 wetlands all present an

important reserve of amphibian species and ornithological stations for great

numbers of birds. The number of endemic species accounts for more than 10% of

the total flora population in some areas of the Dinaric Mountains. Up to date,

6530 native plant species are known to exist in the Balkans. Certain taxa have a

very restricted distribution range, as in case of the Velebit Mountain range, and

are included as threatened species in the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened

Plants (Eastwood 2004, Krystufek et al. 2004).

High faunal diversity is mostly in regard to birds, with some distinct species like

capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), peregrine falcon

(Falco peregrinus), and kestrel (Falco tinnunculus). However, large carnivores

and herbivores still maintain populations of a significant size in these

mountainous areas. These are namely brown bear (Ursus arctos), lynx (Lynx

lynx), wolf (Canis lupus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red deer (Cervus

elaphus) and chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra). (WWF 2009)

While many plant and animal species are of global or European conservation

importance, a large number of them are critically endangered or extinct. Only in

Albania alone, the rate of species loss over the past 50 years has been one of the

highest in Europe. The Balkans region accounts for a number of Important Bird

Areas (IBA) and threatened Species of European Concern. The main threat to

some species and cause of more rapid extinction of other species is direct and

indirect human influence on the habitats (UNEP Vienna ISCC 2006).


19

Anthropogenic pressures may come in the form of poaching, wildlife trade,

farming and overgrazing, and uncontrolled collection of medicinal plants. While

most endangered species are currently given legal protection status, they are not

always effective unless their habitats are protected and whole ecosystems are

prevented from being damaged by anthropogenic activities. Protection of natural

ecosystems in the region was mainly secured in planned large-scale protected

areas. Large-scale protected areas are the Sutjeska (17350 ha) in Bosnia and

Herzegovina; Mavrovo (73088 ha), Galicica (22750 ha) and Pelister (12500 ha) in

FYROM; Durmitor (32000 ha) in Montenegro; as well as Djerdap (63608 ha),

Fruska Gora (25393 ha), Stara Planina (39000 ha), Tara (19175 ha) and Kopaonik

(11810 ha) in Serbia. (UNEP Vienna ISCC 2006, UNEP/GRID 2007)

Table 2. Number of Species Threatened

Birds Mammals Reptiles Fish Amphibian Tree Plant

Albania 6 2 4 27 2 0 0

Bosnia&Herzegovina 6 8 2 28 1 1 1

Bulgaria 12 13 2 13 0 0 0

Croatia 11 7 2 42 2 1 1

Greece 10 9 2 8 0 0 0

FYROM 10 11 5 50 5 2 11

Montenegro 9 6 2 20 1 0 0

Serbia 10 8 0 8 0 0 1

Slovenia 3 7 1 25 2 0 0

Source: World Resources Institute-The Environmental Information Portal 2009

A comprehensive and integrated study of biodiversity of the Balkan Peninsula

has never been carried out, apart from studies undertaken at the national level,

which may not necessarily be compatible with each other. Thus, patterns and

processes which influence and bring about such high level of biodiversity in the

region as a whole are poorly documented and understood.


20

Ecoregions

Essentially, biodiversity of a region is determined by climate, geology and the

evolutionary history. Intertwined influences of these characteristics lead to

formation of what scientists today refer to as “ecoregions” (Dinerstein et al.

2001). Today there are 142 terrestrial, 53 freshwater and 43 marine ecoregions

recognized across the globe (WWF 2009).

The territory of the Balkan Peninsula in this analysis occupies as many as ten

discrete ecoregions. This study of DABEO delineates the territorial extent which

excludes from the research the narrow areas of influence of five ecoregions,

namely the Pannonian mixed forest ecoregion, the Pontic steppe ecoregion of the

Danube River delta, the East European forest steppe ecoregion of the Dobruja

region, the Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests ecoregion of the northwestern

Turkey, and the Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests

ecoregion.

Figure 5. Digital map of European ecological regions DMEER. Source: EEA 2000


21

The ecoregions which are the focus of this study are: 1) the Illyrian deciduous

forests ecoregion of the western Balkans; 2) the Dinaric Mountains mixed forests

ecoregion; 3) the Pindus Mountains mixed forests ecoregion; 4) the Balkan mixed

forests ecoregion; and 5) the Rhodope Montane mixed forests ecoregion.

The Illyrian deciduous forests

The Illyrian deciduous forests extend all along the coastal ranges of the Dinaric

Alps, from the Julian Alps in Slovenia to the northern Ionian coast between

Albania and Greece. They are primarily composed of coastal sub-Mediterranean

and meso-supra-Mediterranean downy oak forests with small units of meso-

Mediterranean Holm oak forests. Average annual rainfall is from 1500 to 2000

mm, but can exceed 3000 mm as in case of the Velebit Mountains in Dalmatia. In

winter snowfall is present as temperatures go well below zero, while summer

brings moderate average temperatures between 15°C and 20°C. Two forest

zones characterize this region of wide altitudinal range. The conifer zone is

present at the higher altitude between 1200m and 2500m, while a mixed

broadleaf zone covers lower elevations and coastal lowlands. The dominant tree

species of the mountain conifer forests are spruce (Picea abies), silver fir (Abies

alba), and black pine (Pinus nigra). Mixed fir, spruce and beech (Fagus sylvatica)

forests frequently appear all along the higher elevations and the more

continental east-facing slopes. (WWF(c) 2009)

Medium and lower altitudes are mostly populated by broadleaf beech and mixed

oak forests, while deciduous oak species display high diversity. Evergreen trees

of Holm oak and Aleppo pine, and maquis shrubs become predominant at the

lower altitudes and near the coast. (WWF(c) 2009)

This ecoregion is characterized by a very high endemism of flora, with its most

restricted distribution range in the Velebit Mountains, and a very high diversity

of bird species with large mammals also significantly present. The most

exceptional is the diversity of fauna in karst systems and related aquatic habitats

(Tvrtkovic et al. 2006).


22

The Dinaric Mountain mixed forests

The Dinaric Mountain mixed forests ecoregion encompasses the northwest-

southeast Balkan mountain ranges, from the eastern Alps to the northern

Albanian massifs. The wide altitudinal range of this ecoregion results in two

major forest zones: a coniferous zone, which characterizes the highest elevations

(average altitudinal range of 1200 to 2500 m), and a mixed broadleaf zone that

occurs at the medium elevations and lowlands. It also includes the lowland-

colline sub-continental meadow steppes and dry grassland vegetation, and

lowland-colline lime oak forests of Eastern Europe. These forests are among the

largest and most continuous tracts of forested habitat remaining for large

carnivores in Europe. The flora has a relatively high endemism rate, of about 10%

of total population, with many relict and restricted range species. Faunal

diversity is high, and a number of IBAs (Important Bird Areas) and threatened

SPECs (Species of European Concern) are included in this region (WWF (b)

2009).

The Pindus Mountains mixed forests

The Pindus Mountains mixed forests ecoregion forests are at higher elevations of

1200m to 2500m and are composed of conifer species, with mixed broadleaf

species at lower elevations. Juniper woodlands (Juniperus foetidissima) usually

define a timberline in high mountain areas of certain massifs. The dominant

canopy tree species of the mountain conifer forests are the Pallas pine (Pinus

nigra pallasiana), the endemic Greek fir (Abies cephalonica) and the hybrid

Balkan fir (Abies borisii-regis). Two rare and endemic pine species (Pinus

heldreichii and P. peuce) occur on certain mountain massifs. Climatically, the

ecoregion is characterized by an average annual rainfall of 1200 mm, but in

certain high altitudes this can be higher than 2000 mm. Snow frequently falls

during winter and minimum average temperatures are below freezing. This

region of Mediterranean forests has a very high rate of endemism second only to

the tropical Andes worldwide, with a rate of endemism of 35% within a total

mountain flora of about 4000 species. A large number of endemic and restricted

range plant species are threatened with extinction. Brown bear (Ursus arctos),

wolf (Canis lupus), and jackal (Canis aureus) populations persist in these

mountains. (WWF (d) 2009)


23

The Balkan mixed forests

The Balkan mixed forests ecoregion covers much of Bulgaria and bordering

countries. The vegetation of this ecoregion is closer to the one of Central Europe

and is characterized by Mediterranean-subcontinental thermophilous bitter oak

forests and sub-Mediterranean and meso-supra-Mediterranean downy oak

forests. Mixed oak forests are characteristic, with Quercus frainetto as the

dominant tree species. Oak forests are interspersed with pine, silver fir (Abies

alba) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) forests, woodland pastures, shrubbery

and grasslands. High valleys and sheltered slopes feature forests dominated by

beech (Fagus sylvatica) and hornbeam (Carpinus orientalis and Carpinus

betulus). (WWF(a) 2009)

The Rhodope Montane mixed forests

The Rhodope Montane mixed forests ecoregion is composed of the Balkan

Mountains and Rhodope Mountains region. Mixed deciduous forests (Fagus

sylvatica, Carpinus orientalis, Carpinus betulus, Quercus spp.) grow on

mountain slopes while the higher elevations are dominated by conifers (Abies

alba, Picea albies, Pinus nigra). On the highest peaks, forests are replaced by

heaths and alpine grasslands. It is estimated that the flora of the region includes

about 3000 vascular plant species. Many are endemics from the Pleistocene

glaciation, as the region served as a refuge for species that never re-established

themselves to the north. The position of the ecoregion at the crossroads of several

floristic elements (European, Alpine and Mediterranean) also enhances floristic

diversity. Several of Europe’s threatened fauna species are found here such as

the otter (Lutra lutra), pine marten (Martes martes), imperial eagle (Aquila

heliaca), cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus) and ferruginous duck (Aytha

nyroca) (WWF(e) 2009).


24


The foregoing description of the distinctive geographic features of the Balkan

Peninsula implies at least two sound approaches to defining geographic extent

that would be most appropriate for the DABEO reporting process. Both the

ecoregion delineation approach and the mountain area delineation approach

have their strengths and weaknesses. Most importantly, both these approaches

provide a possibility to use readily available data in the initial process of

mapping of the entire area concerned.

The Ecoregion Delineation Approach

Out of ten discrete ecoregions present in the Balkan Peninsula, only five

ecoregions have been described. These five ecoregions are the ones that truly

capture what is unique about the Balkan Peninsula in terms of geology, climate

and biota. The ecoregions are defined by a large team of experts, making their

decisions on the basis of updated data of European climate, topography and

botany. One of the outcomes of this process was the development of the Digital

Map of European Ecological Regions (DMEER), with the objective to show the

extent of areas with relatively homogeneous ecological conditions where

comparisons and assessments of different expressions of biodiversity would be

meaningful (EEA 2000).

The DMEER maps are based on information sources of the potential vegetation

map of natural vegetation of Europe (Bonn et al. 1994), which is a final result of

an international project having the objective to generate such a map at a scale of

1:2,5 million (Ruffini et al. 2006), and topographic and climate data of the

European land (Bunce 1995) as are presented in the map of European land

classification. To understand patterns of ecology and to derive an ecological

gradient, a cluster analysis model was used to place similar samples into clusters,

which are arranged in a hierarchical tree-like structure called a dendrogram.

These clusters or classes of sorting objects represent different ecological regions,

and depending on their position on the dendrogram, or the level of aggregation,

they represent homogenous sub-ecological regions, inside the primary ecological

regions. (EEA 2000). In the final stage of the production of the Digital Map of

European Ecological Regions (DMEER), biology and geography experts

interactively decided, based on the intermediate maps, which level of the


25

dendogram would best reflect the ecological characteristics of the corresponding

locations. In search of common ground for the lines and units for the DMEER,

EEA and WWF agreed on the resulting methodology and acceptance of WWF

ecological units for the DMEER (EEA 2005, Ruffini et al. 2006).

This approach captures the distinctive features of the Balkans environment, and

it also provides a certain level of flexibility for the geographic extent definition,

as it does not rely on rigid criteria for delineation.

Figure 6. The Balkan Peninsula ecoregions.

Source: EEA 2000 Modified by: UNEP/DEWA/GRID~Europe

Another advantage of this approach is the ability to recognize and exclude areas

which are not characteristic of the Balkans region. For example, this would be

the case with the Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests ecoregion of the northwestern

Turkey, and with the East European forest steppe ecoregion of the Dobruja


26

region. The region of Dobruja is shared by Romania and Bulgaria and it

possesses unique features, as it exemplifies a biological crossroad with influences

on local flora and fauna from the north, east and south. The geology of this

region dates from an older period than the rest of the surrounding land. It is

characterized by Precambrian schists and metamorphosed sandstones, and

covered by fossiliferous Silurian limestone (Ager 1980, Reed et al. 2004). The

physical geography of the region is typified by steppe and hills, with average

altitude of 200 to 300 meters above the sea level. Even though Dobruja occupies

the furthest north-east part of the Balkan Peninsula, due to its physical and

biological characteristics it falls into the East European forest steppe ecoregion

category. Therefore, in order to truly capture the distinguishing features of the

Balkan Peninsula, this region should not be a part of the DABEO reporting

process.

On the other hand, this flexibility might prove to be a weakness for the reporting

process as it encompasses a large territory to be assessed.

The Mountain Area Delineation Approach

One of the focus areas of the DABEO reporting process is to be the high

mountain region of the Balkan Peninsula. The second proposed approach would

indeed make it possible to focus solely on the mountainous areas, and a rigid

definition (UNEP-WCMC 2002) of what constitutes a mountain territory could be

applied. However, in this case as well, there may need to be a certain level of

flexibility agreed upon.

The previously elaborated UNEP-WCMC definition of the mountain area has

been further developed and somewhat altered in order to be applied in the

process of determination and mapping of the mountains of Europe. The process

was built upon previously conducted work of UNEP-WCMC on global mapping

of mountain areas (Kapos et al. 2000). The maps are created by the use of the

GTOPO30 Digital Elevation Model (DEM), which is derived from satellite images

(Schuler et al. 2004). GTOPO30 works with a horizontal grid spacing of 30 arc

seconds (approximately 1 kilometer), and digital elevation models are also

available in 3km and 9 km resolutions (EEA 2004). This model combined with

the established criteria for low elevations (from 300m to 999m) makes what is

today widely accepted as a useful tool for scientists and decision-makers (Schuler

et al. 2004).


27

Figure 7. Mountain regions of the Balkan Peninsula

Sources: GTOPO30 from U.S. Geological Survey 1996, UNEP-WCMC 2000, UNCS 2009

However, the global mountain delineation based on altitude and slope does not

include areas at altitudes below 300 m. In the process of making the map of

European mountains, exceptions were made in situations where mountains

along the coasts extended down to sea level. Here it was decided that the

delineation should be based on a combination of altitude and topography

(Schuler et al. 2004). Below 300m, the objective is to identify areas with strong

local contrasts in the relief, such as Scottish and Norwegian fjords and

Mediterranean coastal mountain areas. Selecting areas according to the standard

deviation of elevations in close proximity to each is the best approach to include

these types of landscapes. For each point of the Digital Elevation Model, the


28

standard deviation with the 8 cardinal points surrounding it was calculated. If

this standard deviation is 50 meters or greater, the landscape is sufficiently rough

to be considered as mountainous, despite the low altitude (Schuler et al. 2004).

This will prove to be the case with the mountain ranges of the Balkans as well, in

the coastal areas along the Adriatic Sea (one example is Lovcen in Montenegro),

and along the Albanian and Greek coasts of the Ionian and the Aegean Seas.

Also, in the process of delineation of European mountains, isolated mountainous

areas of less than five km2 were not considered. On the other hand, non-

mountainous areas within mountain massifs were included. This was done in

order to create more continuous areas (Schuler et al. 2004).

In order to define a fully contiguous geographic extent for the DABEO reporting

process supplementing the one presented in figure 6, an extension of the area via

use of municipal boundaries could be utilized. In the case of Europe, the

mountain area was approximated to municipal boundaries. First, an assessment

was made of the proportion of each municipality falling into the mountain

delineation, derived from the analysis based on the above-mentioned criteria. To

be considered as mountainous, a municipality had to have at least 50% of its area

within the area delimited as mountainous (Schuler et al. 2004). In the case of the

Dinaric Arc and Balkans, this methodology could also be used, or could be

further discussed by the relevant actors. This approximation would also

facilitate allocation of administrative resources and indicate relevant local actors

in the DABEO reporting process.

Finally, the proposed geographic extent for the DABEO study could also be

based on a combination of the two approaches, or simply put, on an overlay of

the criteria defining the mountainous region and the ecoregion delimitation.


29

Bibliography

Ager, D. V. (1980). Geology of Europe. Mcgraw Hill Book Co Ltd.

Albrecht, C., & Wilke, T. (2008). Ancient Lake Ohrid: biodiversity and evolution.

Hydrobiologia, 615(1), 103-140.

Andonovski, V., & Pop-Stojanov, D. (2006). Cooperation for the Protection and

Sustainable Development of Mountain Regions in South Eastern Europe:

Assessment of Baseline, Needs and Opportunities. Balkan Foundation for

Sustainable Development.

Bunce, R. G. H., Metzger, M. J., Jongman, R. H. G., Brandt, J., Blust, G., Elena-

Rossello, R., et al. (2008). A standardized procedure for surveillance and

monitoring European habitats and provision of spatial data. Landscape

Ecology, 23(1), 11-25.

Bunce, R. (1995). A European land Classification. Institute of Terrestrial Ecology,

Merlewood.

Cooper, A., McCann, T., & Bunce, R. G. H. (2006). The influence of sampling

intensity on vegetation classification and the implications for

environmental management. Environmental conservation, 33(2), 118-127.

Danielopol, D. L., Griebler, C., Gunatilaka, A., & Notenboom, J. (2003). Present

state and future prospects for groundwater ecosystems. Environmental

conservation, 30(2), 104-130.

Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E., Burgess, N., Powell, G., Underwood, E. C.,

D’Amico, J., et al. (2001). Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of

life on earth. BioScience, 51(11), 933-938.

Eastwood, W. (2004). East Mediterranean Vegetation and Climate Change. In

Balkan Biodiversity. Pattern and process in the European Hotspot. (pp. 9-22).

Dordrecht: Kluwer.

EEA - Data - Digital elevation model of Europe. (n.d.). . Retrieved October 19,

2009, from

http://dataservice.eea.europa.eu/dataservice/metadetails.asp?id=650.


30

EEA - Data - Digital map of european ecological regions. (n.d.). . Retrieved

October 19, 2009, from

http://dataservice.eea.europa.eu/dataservice/metadetails.asp?id=192.

Griffiths, H. I., Kryštufek, B., & Reed, J. M. (2004). Balkan biodiversity (p. 357).

Springer.

Grove, A. T., & Rackham, O. (2003). The nature of Mediterranean Europe (p. 384).

Yale University Press.

IUCN. (1995). The mountains of Central and Eastern Europe. English. Gland,

Switzerland: IUCN.

Jongman, R. H. G., Bunce, R. G. H., Metzger, M. J., Mücher, C. A., Howard, D. C.,

& Mateus, V. L. (2006). Objectives and Applications of a Statistical

Environmental Stratification of Europe. Landscape Ecology, 21(3), 409-419.

Kruckeberg, A. R. (2004). Geology and Plant Life: The Effects of Landforms and Rock

Types on Plants. University of Washington Press.

Kryštufek, B., & Reed, J. M. (2004). Pattern and Process in Balkan Biodiversity: an

overview. In Balkan Biodiversity. Pattern and process in the European Hotspot.

(pp. 1-8). Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Matvejev, S., & Puncer, I. (1961). Map of Biomes. Landscapes of Yugoslavia and

their protection. Natural History Museum in Belgrade, 36.

McNeill, J. R. (2003). The Mountains of the Mediterranean World (p. 448). Cambridge

University Press.

Metzger, M., Bunce, R., Leemans, R., & Viner, D. (2008). Projected environmental

shifts under climate change: European trends and regional impacts.

Environmental conservation - Foundation for Environmental Conservation,

35(1), 64-75.

Metzger, M. J., Bunce, R. G. H., Jongman, R. H. G., Mucher, C. A., & Watkins, J.

W. (2005). A climatic stratification of the environment of Europe. Global

Ecology and Biogeography, 14(6), 549-563.

Moores, E. M., & Fairbridge, R. W. (1997). Encyclopedia of European and Asian

regional geology (p. 804). Springer.


31

Mrsic, N. (1997). Biotic diversity in Slovenia (p. 129 p). Ljubljana: Government of

Slovenia.

Mucher, C., Hennekens, S., Bunce, R., Schaminee, J., & Schaepman, M. (2009).

Modelling the spatial distribution of Natura 2000 habitats across Europe.

Landscape and Urban Planning, 92(2), 148-159.

Neuhäuslová, Z., & Bohn, U. (1993). Vegetation Map of Europe: Current State.

Folia Geobotanica & Phytotaxonomica, 28(2), 211-214.

Perko, D. (2004). Slovenia at the Junction of Major European Geographical Units.

Association of the Geographical Societies of Slovenia: Založba ZRC.

Perko, D. (1998). Regionalization of Slovenia. Geografski institut Antona Melika

ZRC SAZU.

Price, M. F., & Butt, N. (2000). Forests in Sustainable Mountain Development: A State

of Knowledge Report for 2000: Task Force on Forests in Sustainable Mountain

Development (Har/Map.). CABI.

Reed, J. M., Kryštufek, B., & Eastwood, W. (2004). Physical geography of the

Balkans and nomenclature of place names.

In Balkan Biodiversity. Pattern and process in the European Hotspot. (pp. 9-

22). Dordrecht: Kluwer.

Regato, P. (2001). The Mediterranean forests. A new conservation strategy. WWF.

Robertson, A., & Dixon, J. (1984). Introduction: aspects of the geological

evolution of the Eastern Mediterranean. Geological Society, London, Special

Publications, 17, 1-74.

Ruffini, F. V., Streifender, T., & Eiselt, B. (2006). Implementing an international

mountain convention - An approach for the delimitation of the Carpathian

Conventionarea. European Academy Bolzano.

Schuler, M., Stucki, E., Roque, O., & Perlik, M. (2004). Mountain Areas in Europe :

Analysis of mountain areas in EU member states, acceding and other European

countries.

Sket, B. (1999). The nature of biodiversity in hypogean waters and how it is

endangered. Biodiversity and Conservation, 8(10), 1319-1338.


32

Skoulikidis, N. (2009). The environmental state of rivers in the Balkans-A review

within the DPSIR framework. Science of The Total Environment, 407(8),

2501-2516.

Stankovic, S. (1960). The Balkan Lake Ohrid and its living world. Monographiae

biologicae ; vol.9. The Hague :: Junk.

The World Bank. (2008). Lake Skadar-Shkoder Integrated Ecosystem

Management Project. West Balkans Country Management Unit.

Tvrtkovic, N., & Veen, P. (2006). The Dinaric Alps Rare Habitats and Species: A

Nature Conservation Project in Croatia . Hrvatski prirodoslovni muzej

Zagreb (CNHM) and Royal Dutch Society for Nature Conservation

(KNNV) .

Tykot, R. H. (1998). A geological companion to Greece and the Aegean.

Geoarchaeology, 13(4), 419-420.

UNDP. (2007). Environmental Policy in South-Eastern Europe. UNDP.

UNEP Vienna. (2009). Potential for the establishment of the sub-regional network

of mountain protected areas in the Balkans and the Dinaric Arc. UNEP

Vienna ISCC.

UNEP Vienna ISCC . (2006). Enhancing Trans-boundary Biodiversity Management in

South Eastern Europe.

UNEP/GRID-Arendal. (2007). Balkan Vital Graphics. Environment without

Borders.

UNEP-WCMC. (2002). Mountain Watch: environmental change and sustainable

development in mountains. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring

Centre.

WWF. (2009). WWF - Science - Ecoregions. Retrieved October 20, 2009, from

http://www.worldwildlife.org/science/ecoregions/item1847.html.

WWFa. (2009). Terrestrial Ecoregions -- Balkan mixed forests (PA0404). Retrieved

October 19, 2009, from

http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/pa/pa040

4_full.html.


33

WWFb. (2009). Terrestrial Ecoregions -- Dinaric Mountains mixed forests

(PA0418). Retrieved October 19, 2009, from


8_full.html.

WWFc. (2009). Terrestrial Ecoregions -- Illyrian deciduous forests (PA1210).

Retrieved October 19, 2009, from


0_full.html.

WWFd. (2009). Terrestrial Ecoregions -- Pindus Mountains mixed forests

(PA1217). Retrieved October 19, 2009, from


7_full.html.

WWFe. (2009). Terrestrial Ecoregions -- Rodope montane mixed forests (PA0435).

Retrieved October 19, 2009, from


5_full.html.

united nations environment programme environment for ... mountain report... · any opinion of the...

Documents