MemoryMemory

Memory Memory

• Amount of previously learned material Amount of previously learned material that has been retainedthat has been retained

• Involves (1) encoding, (2) storage, and Involves (1) encoding, (2) storage, and (3)retrieval(3)retrieval

• Memory is a net, not a bucketMemory is a net, not a bucket

• Memory = retention Memory = retention

MemoryMemory

• RedintegrationRedintegrationo Assembling a complete memory based on Assembling a complete memory based on

partial cuespartial cueso Essay examEssay exam

• RecallRecallo Repeat what has been previously learned Repeat what has been previously learned

without cueswithout cueso Short-answer testsShort-answer tests

• RecognitionRecognitiono Original content presented and subject Original content presented and subject

identifies whether or not it is correctidentifies whether or not it is correcto Multiple choice and/or true-false tests Multiple choice and/or true-false tests

Standard Model of MemoryStandard Model of Memory

MemoryMemory

• Sensory registersSensory registerso Encoding of information retrieved Encoding of information retrieved

through sensesthrough senses

o Holds information about a stimulus only Holds information about a stimulus only a few seconds at besta few seconds at best

o Iconic (visual) memoryIconic (visual) memoryo Echoic (auditory) memoryEchoic (auditory) memoryo Haptic (cutaneous) memory Haptic (cutaneous) memory

MemoryMemory

• Short-term memory (STM)Short-term memory (STM)o STM takes over when information in STM takes over when information in

sensory memory transferred to sensory memory transferred to consciousness/awareness consciousness/awareness

o Limited capacityLimited capacity

o STM memories easy to access and STM memories easy to access and retrieveretrieve

o Maintenance rehearsal (repetition) Maintenance rehearsal (repetition)

o Elaborative rehearsal (add meaning)Elaborative rehearsal (add meaning)

MemoryMemory

• Short-term memory (con’t)Short-term memory (con’t)o Displacement Displacement

• Short term memory becomes full as Short term memory becomes full as other bits of information enter STM other bits of information enter STM

• New information will push out older New information will push out older informationinformation

1 4 9 1 6 2 5 3 6 4 9 6 4 8 1 4 9 1 6 2 5 3 6 4 9 6 4 8 1 1

1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 81

How is information stored in STM?How is information stored in STM?

1) 1) Primacy effectPrimacy effect – information occurring first is – information occurring first is remembered better than remembered better than

information information occurring later occurring later2) 2) Recency effectRecency effect – information presented last is – information presented last is

sometimes sometimes remembered better remembered better because not as because not as much much time has passedtime has passed

3) 3) Serial position effectSerial position effect – information most likely – information most likely to be to be remembered is what comes first andremembered is what comes first and

and last, while what is most likely to and last, while what is most likely to be forgotten is whatever is crowded be forgotten is whatever is crowded in the middlein the middle

How is information stored in STM?How is information stored in STM?

4) 4) Frequency effectFrequency effect – rehearsal, rehearsal, – rehearsal, rehearsal, rehearsalrehearsal

5) 5) DistinctivenessDistinctiveness – any distinctive – any distinctive information stands out information stands out from from other information around it and other information around it and

is remembered better  is remembered better 

6) 6) AssociationsAssociations – associating/attaching – associating/attaching information information to other to other information information

MemoryMemory

• Long-term memory (LTM)Long-term memory (LTM)o Enduring Enduring o May last a lifetimeMay last a lifetimeo Unlimited capacity?Unlimited capacity?o LTM memories harder to LTM memories harder to

access/retrieveaccess/retrieve

MemoryMemory

• Subcategories of LTM Subcategories of LTM o Declarative memory = Declarative memory = Memories for facts, Memories for facts,

life events, life events, information information about environmentabout environment

• Semantic memory =Semantic memory = Factual knowledge Factual knowledge about world about world (names, dates, #s)(names, dates, #s)

• Episodic memory = Episodic memory = Tied to specific events, Tied to specific events, situations situations (“flashbulb (“flashbulb memories”)memories”)

MemoryMemory

• Subcategories of LTM (con’t)Subcategories of LTM (con’t)o Implicit memory = Implicit memory = Memories expressed in Memories expressed in

behavior behavior but do but do notnot require conscious require conscious recollectionrecollection

• Procedural memory = “How to” knowledge Procedural memory = “How to” knowledge of of procedures or skills (ride a procedures or skills (ride a

bike, tie a shoe, drive a car) bike, tie a shoe, drive a car)

o Prospective memory = Remembering things Prospective memory = Remembering things that that need to be need to be done in the future done in the future (“remembering to remember”)(“remembering to remember”)

ForgettingForgetting

• Passive decayPassive decayo Memory loss associated with lack of useMemory loss associated with lack of useo Can occur in LTMCan occur in LTM

• Encoding failureEncoding failureo Information never consolidated beyond Information never consolidated beyond

initial sensory register stageinitial sensory register stage

ForgettingForgetting

• Retrieval failureRetrieval failureo Difficulty accessing LTMDifficulty accessing LTMo ““Tip of the tongue” phenomenonTip of the tongue” phenomenon

• RepressionRepressiono Unconscious motive to forget an Unconscious motive to forget an

emotionally traumatic memoryemotionally traumatic memoryo Pain/trauma of some experience creates Pain/trauma of some experience creates

a mental block preventing retrieval of a mental block preventing retrieval of that memorythat memory

ForgettingForgetting

• Retrograde amnesiaRetrograde amnesiao Inability to recall memories of the past (Inability to recall memories of the past (The The

Bourne Identity)Bourne Identity)o Can form new LTMCan form new LTM

• Anterograde amnesiaAnterograde amnesiao Inability to form new LTM (Inability to form new LTM (MementoMemento))o New events contained in STM are not New events contained in STM are not

transferred to LTM memorytransferred to LTM memory

ForgettingForgetting

• Causes of amnesiaCauses of amnesiao Damage to hippocampus Damage to hippocampus o Acute stressAcute stresso Neurodegenerative causesNeurodegenerative causes

• Dementia, Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’sDementia, Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s

ForgettingForgetting

MemoryMemory

• Improving memoryImproving memoryo MnemonicsMnemonics

• Adding additional cues for retrievalAdding additional cues for retrieval• Acronyms = PEMDAS, GRE, Roy G. BvAcronyms = PEMDAS, GRE, Roy G. Bv• ““Geography” = Geography” = GGeorge eorge EEagle’s agle’s OOld ld

GGrandmother randmother RRode ode AA PPig ig HHome ome YYesterday esterday

o Eidetic imagesEidetic images• Pairing semantic memories w/visual cuesPairing semantic memories w/visual cues

o Method of loci Method of loci

• Best practices for improving memory?Best practices for improving memory?o Spaced practiceSpaced practiceo Sleeping right after learningSleeping right after learningo Mood congruence Mood congruence o Environmental restructuringEnvironmental restructuring

MemoryMemory