ITION L RE INGS Listed belo\v are vorks not included in Gre at Books the Wester n World but relevant tothe idea and topics with which this chapter deal s. These works aredivided into two groups: I. Works by authors represented in this col lec tio n. II. Works byauthors not repres ented in this coll ecti on. For the dat e, pl ace, and other fact s concer ning the publication ofthe wor ks cited, cons ult the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great I d e a s ~ For: The distinctionbetween tyrannyand despotism in terms of the distinction bet vve en slavery and subjection, see SLAVERY a ~ b ; and for the relation of despotism to absolute monarchy, see MONARCHY 4a-4b, 4e( I). Other statements of the justification of benevolent despotis m or of absolute monarchy relative to certain conditions, see DEMOCRACY 4d; GOVERNMENT 2C; MONARCHY 4 e (2). SLAVERY 6c; and for compa risons of domestic and political government vv hi chare relevan; to this justific ation of despotism, see FAMILY 2a; IvfONARCHY 4a, 4e(I); STATE lb . Th e distinction betweendespotism and constitutional government interms of the distinction between subjection and citizenship, see CITIZEN 2b; JUSTICE 9 d ;LA\V 7 b ; LIBERTY Id SLAVERY 6b. The distinction bet\veen governmentbymen and governlnent by la\v, see CONSTITUTION I; LA\V 7a; MONARCHY Ia( I); and for the poli tical significance of this dist inct ion, see CON- STITUTION 7b; DEMOCRACY 4b; GOVERN11ENT Ig(I)-Ig(3); LA\V 7 b ; LIBERTY Id; MON- ARCHY 4e(3). The analogies of despotic and constitutionalrulein the relations of reason and the passions, see LIBERTY 3a-3b; SLAVERY 7 Th e analogies inthe economic order of political tyrannyand despotism, see JUSTICE 8c-8c(I); LABOR sa-sd, 7 f ; SLAVERY 4 a -4 c . Other discussions of imperialism, see DEMOCRACY 7 b ; GOVERNMENT Sb; MONARCHY S-Sb; REVOLUTION 7; SLAVERY 6d; STATE lob; WAR AND PEACE 6a. Th e struggle for pov /er and for liberty as between tyrants or despots and the people they oppress, see LABOR 7c/c(3); LIBERTY 6b-6c; OLIGARCHY 5c; PROGRESS 3 b ; REVOLU- TION 3a-3b, 3c(3), 4a, Sb; SLAVERY c . sifications are entirely verbal and definitions fictions of the mind, or whether things themsel ves belong together in some rea l community based upon an inherent sameness or similari ty. In thechapteron ONE AND MANY thequestion takes the for m of askinghow t\VO more things can be one in any ,vay. Again, both science and common sense seem able to deal \vithan infinitenUlnbe r of individuals by applyingasinglename tothemor apprehending them all under asingleconcept or notion. Bu t it may be as ke d what justifies the denomination of many things by one name. What unity in the thingsverifies the tendency of thought to uni fy them conceptually?Does a real unity exist in things, byvirtue of their beingsomehow one as ,veIl as many, r s result of the many someho\v participating in a one which exists separat ely from them? In the chapters on DEFINITION and SIGN AND SYMBOL the same questi ons are at leastimplicit. In connection with the object of defini tion, one issue is whether \vhatAristotle ca lls t he formulable essence exists as the comIDon nature of many individuals, or whether, as Locke suggests, definitions formulat e only the nominal, no t the real, esse nce s of things. As that andrelated issuesare fac ed,anyonewhoackn o\vl edge s the familiar distinction between proper and common names may bec ome involved in questioning what common or gene ral names signif y and how theyget themeaningsvyi th\vhich they are used in everyday disc ours e. The problem of the sameness of things distinct from one anot her, the problem of theone in themanyor theone and themany, theproblem of essences and common names , are other statements of the prob len1 of the universal and the particular. Attention· to the ,;yards themsel ves confirmsthis. Th e word universal connotesa unity-the one as opposed tothe many, iNTRODUCTION 957 O such specul ative problems as the exist ence of God, . the immortality of the soul, the infinity of time and space, or the limits of human kno rIedge, th e conversation of philos ophers se ems to make contact with the discourse of scientists, the language of poets, and the speech of ordinary men. Th e philos ophers usually begin at least by propounding questions \vhi ch correspond to those ask ed by menwhodo no t professto be philos opher s. Bu t throughout the tradition of western thought, theproblem of the universal,unlikethes eothers, seems to have the character of a profe ssional secret. The various solut ions of theproblem ofthe uni versal are so many esoteric doctrines, each wi th its own sectar ian name. The initiated·can distinguish themselves from the novices by their profic iency in this area; and the outsider wh o overhears the discussion of professionals may be completely left behind, wondering as much about ho,v the questionarose as aboutthe meaning of the conflicting answe rs. No genuine philosophical problem, it seems reasonable to suppose, can be so remote from ques tions intell igible to common sen se. If it is not just a speciousriddle to amuse the experts, the problem of the universal, despite its technica l appearance,should rai seissuesfrom \vhi ch, insorrieformorother, no onecanescape.Whe ther ornot this is so can betested by considering thevarious ways in which the problem occ urs in other chapters under different guises and in differe nt cantexts. Inthe chapteron SAME AND OTHER wefin d the question how two individuals can be the same in some parti cular respect-how in spite of theirseparate exis tence they can share inthe possession of a common nature or attribute. Anyone who clas si fi es things or tries to make definitions may beled to wonder whether clas- Chapter 96: UNIVERSAL A D PARTICULAR SCHILLER Wil liam Tell SHELLEY Pr01net heus Unbound PUSHKIN Bor is Godun ov DICKENS A Ta le Two Cities MAZZINI Fr om the Council to IBSEN n Enemy the People BRYCE Addr ess on Col onial Polic y T. HARDY The Dynas ts L E ~ I N bnpe rial ism the Hig hes t Sta ge C a p i t a l ~ s KELSEN Sozialisnu/S und Staat TROTSKY The Def ens of Terrorisn URE. The Or igi n Tyranny SHOLOKHOV The Sil ent on MARRIOTT Dictatorship and Democracy KOHN Ret ol utions and Dictatorships MERRIAM The New Dem oc ra cy a n d t he N e w Des potism STRAUSS On Tyr a nn y TH E GREAT IDEAS S6 MACHIAVELLI The Dis courses Castru ccio Castracani MU TON The Readie and Easie Way t o E st ab li sh a Free C01nmonwealth DOSTOEVSKY The Possess ed II. MARSILIUS OF PADUA Defenso r Pac is LUTHER Whether Sol die rs Too C an Be SatJed LA BOETIE ~ 4 . n t i D i c t a t o r the Dis cours de la s e r v i ~ tude volon tair e MARLOWE Tan1bu rla ine the Gre at BEN JONSON Sejanus RACINE Britannicus VOLTAIRE Tyranny, Tyrant, in A P h i l o s o p h ~ ical Dictiona 1Y GODWIN n Enquiry Conce rning Politi cal Justice BK IV
