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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
MACRONUTRIENTS VARIABILITY IN LATERITIC SOIL AND EFFECTS OF ORGANIC AMENDMENT CONTENTS ON MANGO CV HARUMANIS
NURHALIZA BT. MOHAMAD SHAHIDIN
FP 2016 78
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MACRONUTRIENTS VARIABILITY IN LATERITIC SOIL AND EFFECTS
OF ORGANIC AMENDMENT CONTENTS ON MANGO CV HARUMANIS
By
NURHALIZA BT. MOHAMAD SHAHIDIN
Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in
Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science
August 2016
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COPYRIGHT
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photographs and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra Malaysia
unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within the thesis for
non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use of material may
only be made with the express, prior, written permission of Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia
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DEDICATIONS…
This thesis is dedicated to:
My beloved parents
Mohamad Shahidin bin Jafar
and
Faridah binti Othman
Sisters, brother and brothers in law
Nurhazami binti Mohamad Shahidin
Nur Hafizah binti Mohamad Shahidin
Mohamad Syafiq bin Mohamad Shahidin
Shahrizal bin Shahari
Muhammad Ar Maszizi bin Abd Aziz
My lovely nephews
Muhammad Syahmi Harith bin Shahrizal
Muhammad Izar Muqrish bin Ar Maszizi
and last but not least to my late supervisor
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Anuar bin Abdul Rahim
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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfillment of
the requirement for the degree of Master of Science
MACRONUTRIENTS VARIABILITY IN LATERITIC SOIL AND EFFECTS
OF ORGANIC AMENDMENT CONTENTS ON MANGO CV HARUMANIS
By
NURHALIZA BT. MOHAMAD SHAHIDIN
August 2016
Chairman: Roslan Ismail, PhD
Faculty: Agriculture
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the 16 fruits that have been highlighted for the
agricultural development in the Third National Agricultural Policy (NAP3) by
Malaysian Ministry of Agriculture in 1999. Currently, production of Harumanis mango
was unable to cater the increasing demand in local and international markets. Cultivation
of Harumanis mango on marginal soils such as lateritic soils is quite challenging as the
information regarding mango cultivated on lateritic soil is very scarce since this cultivar
is mostly cultivated on soil with pH greater than 7. Application of chemical fertilizer
(CF) in mango cultivation area over the years has worsened the acidity problems of
lateritic soil under humid tropical climate. Application of chicken manure (CM) compost
into lateritic soil could reduce the level of soil acidity and enhances the soil chemical
properties.
Three field experiments have been conducted from January 2014 until June 2015 in
mango cultivation area located at Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) Perlis Campus
(N 06.45427°; E 100.28352°) cultivated with Mangifera indica L. cv. Harumanis (MA
128) aged 5 years old on lateritic soil (Terap Series). Experiment 1 was implemented
with the objectives i) to determine variability of selected soil chemical properties in
vertical and horizontal direction and ii) to evaluate correlation between the selected
chemical properties of lateritic soil. The objective of experiment 2 was to assess temporal
variations in chemical properties of lateritic soil and foliar of mango with respect to plant
phenological stage (PPS) (day of sampling) and slope position. The experiment 3 was
implemented to evaluate the effects of chicken manure (CM) compost application on the
selected soil chemical properties and macronutrients concentration in mango leaf and its
effects on mango yield. All data were analysed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
and means separation were conducted using Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference
(HSD) test (p=0.05) using SAS Ver. 9.3. Pearson’s correlation analysis was also
conducted by SAS Ver. 9.3. Experiment 1 was divided into vertical and horizontal
variability study of the selected soil chemical properties. Soil samples were collected
from nine soil pits at 0-15 cm, 15-30 cm, 30-45 cm and 45-60 cm depth for vertical
variability study. For the horizontal variability study in 0.29 ha study plot, 50 topsoil (0-
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15 cm) samples were obtained by systematic sampling scheme. Results obtained in this
study revealed that soil depth significantly (p≤0.05) affected soil pH, organic carbon (C),
total nitrogen (N), carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratio, available phosphorus (P),
exchangeable potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and aluminium (Al), and cation exchange
capacity (CEC). Significant differences (p≤0.05) were also shown in clay and sand
content by soil depth. Moderate variability indicated by coefficient of variation (CV)
that ranged between 13.74% and 48.19% were found in organic C, total N, available P,
exchangeable K, Ca, Mg and Al and base saturation in horizontal variability study. Soil
organic C, total N and C/N ratio of topsoil in both vertical and horizontal variability
study showed positive correlation greater than 70%. Exchangeable Al was negatively
correlated (r > 40%) with available P, exchangeable K and Ca in horizontal direction.
The experimental design used in experiment 2 was Randomized Complete Block Design
(RCBD) with repeated measurement. Two independent variables in this experiment were
plant phenological stage (PPS) (day of sampling); first flowering (0 day), fruiting
(90 days), flushing (180 days), end of flushing (270 days) and second flowering (360
days); and slope position; upper, middle and lower. A total of 60 topsoil (0-15 cm)
samples and 48 leaf samples were collected. The study results showed that soil pH, total
N, available P, CEC, base saturation and exchangeable bases (K, Ca and Mg) as well as
N, P, K, Ca and Mg content in the leaf were significantly (p≤0.05) affected by single
factor of PPS (day of sampling). Slope position single factor were also significantly
(p≤0.05) affected the exchangeable Ca, Mg and Al, CEC and base saturation as well as
N and K content in the leaf. It was found that leaf N content was the only variable
exhibited significant (p≤0.05) interaction effects between PPS (day of sampling) and
slope position.
The fertilizer treatments in experiment 3 consisted of a uniform rate (3.5 kg tree-1) of
NPK Blue fertilizer (12:12:17:2) in combination with five rates of CM compost (0,
4, 8, 12 and 16 kg tree-1) with five replications which was laid out in Latin Square Design.
Fertilizer was applied in two split application using pocket method in 15 cm depth. Soil
and leaf sampling were conducted on 90, 180 and 270 days after the first fertilization.
Yield parameters data were collected before and after fertilizer treatments, in year 2014
and 2015, respectively. The experiment results revealed that soil pH and exchangeable
K, Ca and Mg in 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm soil depth has increased significantly (p≤0.05)
after nine months of fertilization. However, there was no significant (p>0.05) effects of
the fertilizer treatments in CEC for both soil depths. Significant (p≤0.05) effects were
found in leaf Ca content whereas, N, P, K and Mg content in the leaf and yield parameters
were not significantly (p>0.05) affected by the fertilizer treatments. The greatest
increment in soil pH and exchangeable bases (K, Ca and Mg) was shown by the treatment
of 16 kg tree-1 CM compost combined with 3.5 kg tree-1 CF.
Based on the findings, variability of selected soil chemical properties in vertical and
horizontal direction in the respected area occurs due to the combined effects of
undulating landform, soil management practices (application of fertilizer and pesticides),
clay content and non-uniform availability of soil nutrients. It was found that PPS (day of
sampling) and slope position single factor has resulted in variation of the selected soil
chemical properties and macronutrients content in leaf of Harumanis mango. Application
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of different rates of CM compost combined with CF has significantly (p≤0.05) enhanced
the soil chemical properties in the study area. The recommended rate for increasing soil
pH, exchangeable bases (K, Ca and Mg) and fruit yield on lateritic soil (Terap Series) of
the respected area is combination of 16 kg tree-1 CM compost with 3.5 kg tree-1 CF.
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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia
sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk Ijazah Sarjana Sains
KEPELBAGAIAN MAKRONUTRIEN DALAM TANAH LATERIT DAN
KESAN KANDUNGAN PEMBAIK PULIH ORGANIK TERHADAP MANGGA
CV HARUMANIS
Oleh
NURHALIZA BT. MOHAMAD SHAHIDIN
Ogos 2016
Pengerusi: Roslan Ismail, PhD
Fakulti: Pertanian
Mangga (Mangifera indica L.) merupakan salah satu daripada 16 buah-buahan yang
telah ditonjolkan untuk pembangunan pertanian dalam Dasar Pertanian Negara yang ke-
3 (NAP3) oleh Kementerian Pertanian Malaysia pada tahun 1999. Pada masa kini,
pengeluaran mangga Harumanis tidak dapat menampung permintaan yang semakin
meningkat dalam pasaran tempatan dan antarabangsa. Penanaman mangga Harumanis
di tanah marginal seperti tanah laterit agak mencabar kerana maklumat berkenaan
penanaman mangga di tanah laterit adalah sangat terhad oleh kerana kultivar ini
kebanyakannya ditanam di tanah dengan pH melebihi 7. Aplikasi baja kimia (CF) di
kawasan penanaman mangga sejak sekian lama telah memburukkan lagi masalah
keasidan tanah laterit di bawah iklim tropika yang lembap. Aplikasi kompos tahi ayam
(CM) ke dalam tanah laterit dapat mengurangkan tahap keasidan tanah dan
meningkatkan sifat kimia tanah.
Tiga kajian lapangan telah dijalankan bermula dari Januari 2014 sehingga Jun 2015 di
kawasan penanaman mangga yang terletak di kampus Universiti Teknologi Mara
(UiTM) Perlis (N 06.45427°; E 100.28352°) ditanam dengan Mangifera indica L.
kultivar Harumanis (MA 128) berumur 5 tahun di tanah laterit (Siri Terap). Eksperimen
1 telah dilaksanakan dengan objektif i) untuk menentukan kepelbagaian sifat kimia tanah
yang dipilih dalam arah menegak dan mendatar dan ii) untuk menilai hubungan antara
sifat kimia tanah laterit yang dipilih. Objektif eksperimen ke-2 adalah untuk menilai
kepelbagaian masa terhadap sifat kimia tanah laterit dan daun mangga berdasarkan
peringkat fenologi tumbuhan (PPS) (hari persampelan) dan kedudukan cerun.
Eksperimen 3 telah dijalankan untuk menilai kesan pembaik pulih organik terhadap sifat
kimia tanah yang dipilih dan kepekatan makronutrien dalam daun mangga dan kesannya
terhadap hasil mangga. Kesemua data dianalisis dengan menggunakan Analisis Varians
(ANOVA) dan pemisahan purata dijalankan menggunakan ujian Tukey HSD (p=0.05)
menggunakan SAS versi 9.3. Analisis korelasi Pearson juga telah dijalankan
menggunakan SAS versi 9.3.
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Eksperimen 1 telah dibahagikan kepada kajian kepelbagaian sifat kimia tanah dipilih
secara menegak dan mendatar. Sampel tanah telah dikumpulkan daripada sembilan
lubang tanah pada kedalaman 0-15 sm, 15-30 sm, 30-45 sm dan 45-60 sm untuk kajian
kepelbagaian secara menegak. Bagi kajian kepelbagaian secara mendatar dalam plot
kajian seluas 0.29 hektar, sebanyak 50 sampel tanah atas (0-15 sm) diperolehi secara
skim persampelan sistematik. Keputusan yang diperolehi dalam kajian ini mendedahkan
bahawa kedalaman tanah memberi kesan secara bererti (p≤0.05) terhadap pH tanah,
karbon (C) organik, jumlah nitrogen (N), nisbah karbon kepada nitrogen (C/N), fosforus
(P) tersedia, tukar ganti kalium (K), magnesium (Mg) dan aluminium (Al), dan
keupayaan pertukaran kation (CEC). Kesan secara bererti (p≤0.05) juga ditunjukkan
dalam kandungan tanah liat dan pasir dengan kedalaman tanah. Kepelbagaian sederhana
yang ditunjukkan oleh pekali variasi (CV) yang berada dalam julat antara 13.74% dan
48.19% telah ditemui dalam C organik, jumlah N, P tersedia, tukar ganti K, Ca, Mg dan
Al, dan ketepuan bes dalam kajian kepelbagaian secara mendatar. Organik C, jumlah N
dan nisbah C kepada N tanah atas dalam kajian kepelbagaian secara menegak dan
mendatar menunjukkan korelasi positif melebihi 70%. Tukar ganti Al menunjukkan
korelasi negatif (r > 40%) dengan P tersedia, tukar ganti K dan Ca dalam arah
mendatar.
Reka bentuk eksperimen yang digunakan dalam eksperimen 2 adalah reka bentuk rawak
blok lengkap (RCBD) dengan pengukuran berulang. Dua pemboleh ubah bebas dalam
eksperimen ini adalah PPS (hari persampelan); pembungaan pertama (0 hari), peringkat
berbuah (90 hari), peringkat pembentukan daun baru (180 hari), peringkat akhir
pembentukan daun (270 hari) dan pembungaan kedua (360 hari); dan kedudukan cerun;
atas, tengah dan bawah. Sebanyak 60 sampel tanah atas (0-15 sm) dan 48 sampel daun
telah dikumpul. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa pH tanah, jumlah N, P tersedia, CEC,
ketepuan bes dan tukar ganti bes (K, Ca dan Mg) serta kandungan N, P, K Ca dan Mg
dalam daun terkesan secara bererti (p≤0.05) oleh faktor tunggal PPS (hari persampelan).
Faktor tunggal kedudukan cerun juga memberi kesan secara bererti (p≤0.05) terhadap
tukar ganti Ca, Mg, dan Al, CEC dan ketepuan bes serta kandungan N dan K dalam daun.
Didapati bahawa kandungan N dalam daun merupakan satu-satunya pembolehubah yang
menunjukkan kesan interaksi secara bererti (p≤0.05) antara PPS (hari persampelan) dan
kedudukan cerun.
Rawatan baja dalam eksperimen 3 terdiri daripada kadar baja NPK biru (12:12:17:2)
yang seragam (3.5 kg pokok-1) dengan kombinasi lima kadar kompos tahi ayam (0,
4, 8, 12 dan 16 kg pokok-1) dengan lima replikasi yang disusun dalam reka bentuk Latin
Square. Aplikasi baja adalah secara berasingan iaitu dua aplikasi dengan kaedah poket
pada kedalaman 15 sm. Persampelan tanah dan daun dijalankan pada hari ke 90, 180 dan
270 selepas aplikasi baja yang pertama. Data parameter hasil sebelum dan selepas
rawatan pembajaan pada tahun 2014 dan 2015 telah dikumpulkan. Keputusan
eksperimen menunjukkan bahawa pH tanah dan tukar ganti K, Ca dan Mg pada
kedalaman 0-15 sm dan 15-30 sm telah meningkat secara bererti (p≤0.05) selepas
sembilan bulan pembajaan. Walau bagaimanapun, tiada kesan secara bererti (p>0.05)
rawatan pembajaan dalam CEC untuk dua kedalaman tanah. Kesan secara bererti
(p≤0.05) dijumpai dalam kandungan Ca dalam daun manakala, kandungan N, P, K dan
Mg dalam daun dan parameter hasil tidak dipengaruhi secara bererti (p>0.05) oleh
rawatan pembajaan. Peningkatan terbesar dalam pH tanah dan tukar ganti bes (K, Ca dan
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Mg) ditunjukkan oleh rawatan 16 kg pokok-1 kompos tahi ayam dengan kombinasi 3.5
kg pokok-1 baja kimia.
Berdasarkan dapatan, kepelbagaian sifat kimia tanah yang dipilih dalam arah menegak
dan mendatar dalam kawasan kajian berlaku disebabkan kesan kombinasi bentuk muka
bumi yang beralun, amalan pengurusan tanah (penggunaan baja dan racun perosak),
kandungan tanah liat, dan ketidakseragaman nutrien tanah yang tersedia. Didapati
bahawa faktor tunggal PPS (hari persampelan) dan kedudukan cerun menyebabkan
kepelbagaian dalam sifat kimia tanah dan kandungan makronutrien dalam daun mangga
Harumanis. Aplikasi kompos tahi ayam dengan kadar yang berbeza dengan kombinasi
baja kimia telah meningkatkan sifat kimia tanah secara bererti (p≤0.05) dalam kawasan
kajian. Kadar yang disyorkan untuk meningkatkan pH tanah, tukar ganti bes (K, Ca dan
Mg) dan hasil buah pada tanah laterit di kawasan berkenaan adalah kombinasi 16 kg
pokok-1 kompos tahi ayam dengan 3.5 kg pokok-1 baja kimia.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Alhamdulillah, all praises to Allah s.w.t for the strengths, blessing and His guidance for
me in completing this master thesis. I would never have been able to finish my thesis
without the guidance from the supervisory committee, helpful colleagues and moral
support from my beloved family. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my
advisor, Dr. Roslan bin Ismail for his excellent guidance throughout my research,
patience, advice, knowledge sharing and opportunities which was invaluable to me. I
would also like to thank Dr. Siti Zaharah binti Sakimin, my co-supervisor for her
commitment and guidance throughout my candidature.
Special thanks to my father, Mohamad Shahidin bin Jafar and my colleagues, Siti Salha
and Kang Seong Hun who always willing to help and accompany me especially during
the hard work in the field and for their continuous support. I would also like to thank Mr.
Asri Ruslan for his help especially in statistical analysis. Sincere thanks to all my
colleagues at Department of Land Management for their concern and support.
Many thanks to the laboratory staff at the Department of Land Management, Universiti
Putra Malaysia (UPM) and staff at the farm unit of Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM),
Perlis for their kind cooperation and assistance during the study. I would also like to
acknowledge Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), UiTM and UPM for the financial
assistance.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my beloved parents and family members for their
continuous support and encourage through the good times and bad. This accomplishment
would not have been possible without them. Thank you.
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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been
accepted as fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science. The
members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows:
Roslan bin Ismail, PhD
Senior Lecturer
Faculty of Agriculture
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Chairman)
Siti Zaharah binti Sakimin, PhD
Senior Lecturer
Faculty of Agriculture
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)
__________________________
ROBIAH BINTI YUNUS, PhD
Professor and Dean
School of Graduate Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date:
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Declaration by graduate student
I hereby confirmed that:
this thesis is my original work;
quotations, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced;
this thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any other degree at
any other institutions;
intellectual property from the thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-owned by
Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research)
Rules 2012;
written permission must be obtained from supervisor and the office of Deputy Vice-
Chancellor (Research and Innovation) before thesis is published (in the form of
written, printed or in electronic form) including books, journals, modules,
proceedings, popular writings, seminar papers, manuscripts, posters, reports, lecture
notes, learning modules or any other materials as stated in the Universiti Putra
Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;
there is no plagiarism or data falsification/fabrication in the thesis, and scholarly
integrity is upheld as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate Studies)
Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research)
Rules 2012. The thesis has undergone plagiarism detection software.
Signature: _____________________ Date: __________________
Name and Matric No: Nurhaliza Bt. Mohamad Shahidin (GS37321)
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Declaration by Members of Supervisory Committee
This is to confirm that:
the research conducted and the writing of this thesis was under our supervision;
supervision responsibilities as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate
Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) are adhered to.
Signature: Name of
Chairman of
Supervisory
Committee:
Signature:
Name of
Member of
Supervisory
Committee:
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page ABSTRACT i
ABSTRAK iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii APPROVAL viii
DECLARATION x
LIST OF TABLES xv LIST OF FIGURES xx LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of study 1 1.2 Objectives of study 3
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1 Mangifera indica L. varieties 4 2.2 Ecological requirements 6
2.2.1 Climate 6 2.2.2 Soil 7
2.3 Lateritic soils 7 2.3.1 Lateritic soil series in Peninsular Malaysia 8 2.3.2 Terap Series 9
2.4 Soil and plant nutrients 9 2.4.1 Nitrogen 11 2.4.2 Phosphorus 11 2.4.3 Potassium 12 2.4.4 Calcium 13 2.4.5 Magnesium 13
2.5 Mango fertilization 14 2.6 Nutrients level in mango leaf 14 2.7 Role of organic matter in mango cultivation on lateritic soil 15
3 GENERAL MATERIALS AND METHODS 18 3.1 Study area 18 3.2 Preparation and analyses of soil samples 18 3.3 Leaf tissue sampling and analyses 20 3.4 Data analysis 20 3.5 Quality assurance 21
4 VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL VARIABILITY OF SELECTED
SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES IN LATERITIC SOIL UNDER
MANGO CULTIVATION 22 4.1 Introduction 22 4.2 Materials and methods 23
4.2.1 Site description 23 4.2.2 Agronomic practices 24 4.2.3 Vertical soil sampling 25 4.2.4 Horizontal soil sampling 25
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4.2.5 Soil analyses 28 4.2.6 Statistical analysis 28
4.3 Results and discussion 29 4.3.1 Vertical variability of selected soil properties 29 4.3.2 Horizontal variability of selected soil properties 40
4.4 Conclusion 45
5 TEMPORAL VARIABILITY OF SELECTED CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES IN LATERITIC SOIL AND MANGO LEAF IN
RELATION TO PLANT PHENOLOGICAL STAGE AND
SLOPE POSITION 46 5.1 Introduction 46 5.2 Materials and methods 47
5.2.1 Site description 47 5.2.2 Experimental design and statistical analysis 48 5.2.3 Soil sampling and selected analyses 49 5.2.4 Leaf sampling and selected analyses 49
5.3 Results and discussion 50 5.3.1 Changes of soil chemical properties in relation
to plant phenological stage 50 5.3.2 Changes of leaf nutrients content in relation to
plant phenological stages 57 5.3.3 Changes of soil chemical properties in relation to
slope positions 62 5.3.4 Changes of leaf nutrients content in relation to
slope positions 65 5.4 Conclusion 67
6 EFFECTS OF ORGANIC AMENDMENT ON SOIL CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES, MACRONUTRIENTS CONTENT IN THE LEAF
AND YIELD OF MANGO 68 6.1 Introduction 68 6.2 Materials and methods 69
6.2.1 Study area 69 6.2.2 Experimental design and treatments 71 6.2.3 Soil sampling and selected analyses 71 6.2.4 Leaf sampling and selected analyses 73 6.2.5 Chemical analyses of chicken manure compost 73 6.2.6 Yield parameters 73
6.3 Results and discussion 74 6.3.1 Soil pH 74 6.3.2 Exchangeable base cations and CEC 77 6.3.3 Macronutrients in the leaf 89 6.3.4 Fruit yield 94
6.4 Conclusion 96
7 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 97
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1 Nutrient status and ranges of primary macronutrients concentration in Malaysian soils 10
2.2 Optimum ranges of nutrients level in mango leaf 16
2.3 Classification of nutrients level in mango leaf 16
4.1 Soil pH, organic C, total N, C/N ratio and available P in relation to soil depths (0-15, 15-30, 30-45, and 45-60 cm) (mean ± S.E.), n=9 30
4.2 Exchangeable bases (K, Ca and Mg), CEC and exchangeable Al in
relation to soil depths (0-15, 15-30, 30-45, and 45-60 cm)
(mean ± S.E.), n=9
30
4.3 34
4.4 0-15
Soil textural fractions in relation to soil depth (mean ± S.E.)
Pearson correlation coefficients (r) between soil properties at
cm depth (n=9) 36
4.5
15-30
Pearson correlation coefficients (r) between soil properties at cm depth (n=9) 37
4.6
30-45
Pearson correlation coefficients (r) between soil properties at
cm depth (n=9) 38
4.7
45-60 39
4.8
Pearson correlation coefficients (r) between soil properties at
cm depth (n=9)
Descriptive statistical analysis of the selected soil chemical
properties 41
4.9 Pearson correlation coefficient (r) between the selected soil chemical
properties in topsoil (0-15 cm) (n=50) 42
5.1 Changes of soil chemical properties in relation to plant phenological
stage 51
5.2 Summary of two-way ANOVA results for soil pH, total N, and available P and exchangeable Al in relation to plant phenological
stage slope position 52
5.3 Summary of two-way ANOVA results for exchangeable bases (K, Ca and Mg), CEC and base saturation in relation to plant phenological
stage and slope position 55
30
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5.4 Changes of leaf nutrients content in relation to plant phenological
stages
5.5
Summary of two-way ANOVA results for leaf nutrients content in
relation to plant phenological stage and slope position 59
5.6 Changes of soil chemical properties in relation to slope position 63
5.7 Changes of leaf nutrients content in relation to slope position 67
6.1 Description of fertilizer treatments 72
6.2 Nutrients content of chicken manure compost (mean ± SD) (n=3) 72
A1 Shapiro-Wilk normality test 115
B1 ANOVA table of soil pH in relation to soil depth 116
B2 ANOVA table of soil organic C in relation to soil depth 116
B3 ANOVA table of soil total N in relation to soil depth 116
B4 ANOVA table of soil C/N ratio in relation to soil depth 116
B5 ANOVA table of soil available P in relation to soil depth 117
B6 ANOVA table of soil exch. K in relation to soil depth 117
B7 ANOVA table of soil exch. Ca in relation to soil depth 117
B8 ANOVA table of soil exch. Mg in relation to soil depth 117
B9 ANOVA table of soil CEC in relation to soil depth 118
B10 ANOVA table of soil exch. Al in relation to soil depth 118
B11 ANOVA table of sand fraction in relation to soil depth 118
B12 ANOVA table of silt fraction in relation to soil depth 118
B13 ANOVA table of clay fraction in relation to soil depth 119
B14 ANOVA table of soil pH in relation to slope positions and PPS 119
B15 ANOVA table of soil total N in relation to slope positions and PPS 119
B16 ANOVA table of soil available P in relation to slope positions
and PPS 120
B17 ANOVA table of exch. K in relation to slope positions and PPS 120
58
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B18 ANOVA table of exch. Ca in relation to slope positions and PPS 120
B19 ANOVA table of exch. Mg in relation to slope positions and PPS 121
B20 ANOVA table of exch. Al in relation to slope positions and PPS 121
B21 ANOVA table of CEC in relation to slope positions and PPS 121
B22 ANOVA table of base saturation in relation to slope positions
and PPS 122
B23 ANOVA table of foliar N in relation to slope positions and PPS 122
B24 ANOVA table of foliar P in relation to slope positions and PPS 122
B25 ANOVA table of foliar K in relation to slope positions and PPS 123
B26 ANOVA table of foliar Ca in relation to slope positions and PPS 123
B27 ANOVA table of foliar Mg in relation to slope positions and PPS 123
B28 ANOVA table of soil pH before fertilizer treatment in 0-15 cm 124
B29 ANOVA table of soil pH after fertilizer treatment in 0-15 cm 124
B30 ANOVA table of soil pH in July 2014 at 0-15cm 124
B31 ANOVA table of soil pH in October 2014 at 0-15 cm 124
B32 ANOVA table of soil pH in January 2015 at 0-15 cm 125
B33 ANOVA table of soil pH in April 2015 at 0-15 cm 125
B34 ANOVA table of soil pH in October 2014 at 15-30 cm 125
B35 ANOVA table of soil pH in January 2015 at 15-30 cm 125
B36 ANOVA table of soil pH in April 2015 at 15-30 cm 126
B37 ANOVA table of exch. K before fertilizer treatment in 0-15 cm 126
B38 ANOVA table of exch. K after fertilizer treatment in 0-15 cm 126
B39 ANOVA table of exch. Ca before fertilizer treatment in 0-15 cm 126
B40 ANOVA table of exch. Ca after fertilizer treatment in 0-15 cm 127
B41 ANOVA table of exch. Mg before fertilizer treatment in 0-15 cm 127
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B42 ANOVA table of exch. Mg after fertilizer treatment in 0-15 cm 127
B43 ANOVA table of CEC before fertilizer treatment in 0-15 cm 127
B44 ANOVA table of CEC after fertilizer treatment in 0-15 cm 128
B45 ANOVA table of exch. K in July 2014 at 0-15 cm 128
B46 ANOVA table of exch. K in October 2014 at 0-15 cm 128
B47 ANOVA table of exch. K in January 2015 at 0-15 cm 128
B48 ANOVA table of exch. K in April 2015 at 0-15 cm 129
B49 ANOVA table of exch. Ca in July 2014 at 0-15 cm 129
B50 ANOVA table of exch. Ca in October 2014 at 0-15 cm 129
B51 ANOVA table of exch. Ca in January 2015 at 0-15 cm 129
B52 ANOVA table of exch. Ca in April 2015 at 0-15 cm 130
B53 ANOVA table of exch. Mg in July 2014 at 0-15 cm 130
B54 ANOVA table of exch. Mg in October 2014 at 0-15 cm 130
B55 ANOVA table of exch. Mg in January 2015 at 0-15 cm 130
B56 ANOVA table of exch. Mg in April 2015 at 0-15 cm 131
B57 ANOVA table of CEC in July 2014 at 0-15 cm 131
B58 ANOVA table of CEC in October 2014 at 0-15 cm 131
B59 ANOVA table of CEC in January 2015 at 0-15 cm 131
B60 ANOVA table of CEC in April 2015 at 0-15 cm 132
B61 ANOVA table of exch. K in October 2014 at 15-30 cm 132
B62 ANOVA table of exch. K in January 2015 at 15-30 cm 132
B63 ANOVA table of exch. K in April 2015 at 15-30 cm 132
B64 ANOVA table of exch. Ca in October 2014 at 15-30 cm 133
B65 ANOVA table of exch. Ca in January 2015 at 15-30 cm 133
B66 ANOVA table of exch. Ca in April 2015 at 15-30 cm 133
B67 ANOVA table of exch. Mg in October 2014 at 15-30 cm 133
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B68 ANOVA table of exch. Mg in January 2015 at 15-30 cm 134
B69 ANOVA table of exch. Mg in April 2015 at 15-30 cm 134
B70 ANOVA table of CEC in October 2014 at 15-30 cm 134
B71 ANOVA table of CEC in January 2015 at 15-30 cm 134
B72 ANOVA table of CEC in April 2015 at 15-30 cm 135
B73 ANOVA table of number of harvested fruit tree-1 before treatment 135
B74 ANOVA table of number of harvested fruit tree-1 after treatment 135
B75 ANOVA table of harvested fruit weight tree-1 before treatment 135
B76 ANOVA table of harvested fruit weight tree-1 after treatment 136
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 Varieties of mango cultivated in Malaysia; (a) Harumanis (MA128),
(b) Golek (MA 162), (c) MAHA 65 (MA 165), (d) Masmuda (MA
204), (e) Nam Dok Mai (MA 223) and (f) Chok Anan (MA 224)
5
2.2 Medium size Harumanis mango ranges between 350 g to 500 g 6
2.3 Soil profile of Terap Series 10
3.1 Location of the study area 19
3.2 Study plot cultivated with mango cultivar Harumanis 19
3.3 Leaf position in mango terminal for sampling 21
4.1 Average precipitation and temperature recorded from 1982 to 2014 24
4.2 Soil pit of Terap Series indicate laterite zone starts at 60 cm from
the soil surface 26
4.3 Schematic diagram of vertical soil sampling 26
4.4 Geo-reference sampling points in the study plot 27
5.1 Average monthly temperature and precipitation from 2013 to 2014 48
5.2 Schematic diagram of slope position in the study area 49
6.1 Experimental plot in the field at UiTM Perlis 70
6.2 Mean weather changes from January 2014 until June 2015 70
6.3 Schematic diagram of fertilizer placement 72
6.4 Soil pH before and after treatment in 0-15 cm soil depth 75
6.5 Changes of soil pH in 0-15 cm soil depth 76
6.6 Changes of soil pH in 15-30 cm soil depth 78
6.7 Concentrations of exchangeable K in soil before and after treatment
in 0-15 cm soil depth 78
6.8 Concentrations of exchangeable Ca in soil before and after treatment in 0-15 cm soil depth 80
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6.9 Concentrations of exchangeable Mg in soil before and after
treatment in 0-15 cm soil depth 80
6.10 CEC in soil before and after treatment in 0-15 cm soil depth 82
6.11 Changes of exchangeable K concentrations in 0-15 cm soil depth 83
6.12 Changes of exchangeable Ca concentrations in 0-15 cm soil depth 84
6.13 Changes of exchangeable Mg concentrations in 0-15 cm soil depth 84
6.14 Changes of CEC in 0-15 cm soil depth 86
6.15 Changes of exchangeable K concentrations in 15-30 cm soil depth 86
6.16 Changes of exchangeable Ca concentrations in 15-30 cm soil depth 87
6.17 Changes of exchangeable Mg concentrations in 15-30 cm soil depth 88
6.18 Changes of CEC in 15-30 cm soil depth 88
6.19 Changes in N concentrations in leaf under five fertilizer treatments 90
6.20 Changes in P concentrations in leaf under five fertilizer treatments 90
6.21 Changes in K concentrations in leaf under five fertilizer treatments 92
6.22 Changes in Ca concentrations in leaf under five fertilizer treatments 93
6.23 Changes in Mg concentrations in leaf under five fertilizer treatments 94
6.24 Number of harvested fruit per tree and increment in fruit numbers
between treatments 95
6.25 Harvested fruit weight per tree and increment in fruit weight between
treatments 95
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AA Auto Analyzer
AAS Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
CEC Cation Exchange Capacity
CF Chemical fertilizer
CM Chicken manure
CV Coefficient of Variation
cv. Cultivar
DOA Department of Agriculture
EDA Exploratory Data Analysis
FAMA Federal Agricultural and Marketing Authority
HSD Honestly Significant Difference
ICP-OES Inductive Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer
MOA Ministry of Agriculture
MADA Muda Agricultural and Development Authority
ME Mean error
NAP3 Third National Agricultural Policy
PPS Plant phenological stage
SAS Statistical Analysis Software
SD Standard Deviation
UiTM Universiti Teknologi Mara
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of study
Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the 16 fruits that have been highlighted for the
agricultural development in the Third National Agricultural Policy (NAP3) of Malaysia
(MOA, 1999). Mangifera indica L. cv. Harumanis (MA 128), a premium mango cultivar
is widely cultivated in Perlis and possesses high market demand in both local and
international markets including Japan, Singapore and Hong Kong. This mango cultivar
was introduced in Perlis since early 1980s.
In general, it was estimated that more than 8,000 ha land in Peninsular Malaysia has been
cultivated with various mango cultivar which are mainly in Kedah, Perlis and Perak
(DOA, 2009). As in year 2015, 150 metric tons of Harumanis mango was produced from
60 ha production area by Perlis Department of Agriculture (DOA). However, current
production of Harumanis mango was unable to cater the increasing demand.
Mango can grow on a wide variety of soil types ranging from high pH soils to low pH
soils though it grows best on soil with pH between 5.5 and 6.5. Although mango can
adapt to numerous types of soil, the physical and chemical properties of the respective
soil could resulted in different growth rate and yield production and subsequently
affected the fertilizer requirement. Lateritic soils which are categorized as marginal soil
are commonly used for rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) cultivation. However, due to the
abundance source of lateritic soils in the northern part of Peninsular Malaysia, mango
was also cultivated on this types of soil. The lateritic soil series includes Changlun,
Chuping, Gajah Mati, Jitra, Melaka, Pokok Sena and Terap Series. Each of the soil series
are characterized by different soil depth to the subsoil laterite layer which results in
different soil physical and chemical properties.
Lateritic soils experience nutrients imbalance in which nutrient status was indicated by
low to medium level (Wong, 2009). Due to its poor nature, lateritic soil does not able to
supply sufficient amount of nutrients as for optimum growth of mango. High acidity of
lateritic soil also hinder nutrition uptake which subsequently affected growth rate and
yield. Low organic matter content in lateritic soil has resulted in low level of essential
nutrients needed for crop growth as well as low cation exchange capacity (CEC)
(Kheoruenromne, 1987). Lateritic soils are known to have high level of exchangeable Al
due to its low pH which in turn affected the nutrient uptake and growth of roots and in
certain extent results in occurrence of Al toxicity.
Growth and yield production of mango on lateritic soil was restricted due to the above
mentioned soil properties, thus, making it less suitable for agriculture. Hence, application
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of chemical fertilizer (CF), mainly nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) was
initially carried out for mango cultivation in order to supply macronutrients needed.
However, continuous application of CF without organic amendments in mango
cultivation area in long term could alter the soil physical and chemical properties and
resulted in depletion of beneficial microorganisms’ population within soil as well as
leads to soil acidification. In addition, the acidic soil condition can cause nutrients
imbalance and suppress the availability of nutrients to the crops even though nutrients
are abundant in the soils. Considering the long term consequences of CF usage,
application of CF must be reduced and substituted with other natural resources which
can promotes better soil health as well as to minimize the process of soil acidification
and to ensure efficient nutrient supplies for optimal crop growth. Hence, application of
organic matter amendments into the soil needs to be implemented in order to enhance
the soil physical and chemical properties.
Various sources of organic materials are available for soil amendments such as animal
manure and compost. Animal manures such as cow manure and chicken manure (CM)
are widely used as soil amendments which are proven containing high concentration of
major essential elements and high organic carbon (C) content. Organic amendments are
widely used in agriculture practices and the impacts are globally discussed. Mylavarapu
and Zinati (2009) stated that application of organic fertilizer benefits the soil by
improving the soil physical and chemical properties as it contributes to aggregate
stability, enhancing water holding capacity (Naeini and Cook, 2000), increases soil CEC,
improve soil fertility and supplies mineral nutrients required by the crops (Simpson,
1986). Besides that, application of organic fertilizer also enhances the availability of
nutrients to the crop as resulted from microbial activity (Zinati et al., 2004), which leads
to a better nutrition to the plant and optimum yield production (Mylavarapu and Zinati,
2009).
Mangifera indica L. cv. Harumanis is mostly cultivated on soil with pH greater than 7.
However, cultivation of Harumanis mango has been expanded on marginal soil such as
lateritic soil with low soil pH. Previous research study on mango cv. Harumanis
cultivated on high pH soils have been done by Razi (1992; 1996). However, there is
limited research and scarce information on management practices of Harumanis mango
cultivated on lateritic soils. Therefore, this study was undertaken to study the variability
of macronutrients (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) in soil and mango leaf (N, P, K, Ca and Mg)
under acidic soil condition. Besides that, this study aims to evaluate the effects of
fertilizer management on soil and leaf nutrients concentration as well as yield of
Harumanis mango on lateritic soils.
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1.2 Objectives of study
The main objectives of this study were:
1. To determine variability of selected soil chemical properties in vertical
and horizontal direction and correlation among the chemical
properties in lateritic soil cultivated with Harumanis mango.
2. To determine temporal variability of chemical properties in lateritic
soil and macronutrients concentration in mango leaf based on plant
phenological stages (day of sampling) (flowering, fruiting, flushing
and end of flushing) and slope positions (upper, middle and lower).
3. To evaluate the effects of CM compost application on soil chemical
properties, macronutrients concentration in mango leaf and yield of
Harumanis mango.
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BIODATA OF STUDENT
Nurhaliza binti Mohamad Shahidin was born on June 24, 1988 in Alor Setar, Kedah. She
received her primary education in Sekolah Kebangsaan Seri Banai and completed her
secondary education in Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Jitra in 2005. After that, she
pursues her study at Kedah Matriculation College in science stream in 2006. After
completing her matriculation for a year, she began studying at Universiti Malaysia
Sarawak (UNIMAS). She graduated her first degree in Bachelor of Science (Hons) in
Plant Resource Science and Management (majoring in Plantation) from UNIMAS, in
2010. After graduated her first degree, she joined Universiti Utara Malaysia as a
laboratory assistant and attached with School of Economics, Finance and Banking in
November 2010 until August 2013. Then, she pursues her study in master programme
under Land Resource Management at the Department of Land Management, Faculty of
Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia. She was awarded with Skim Latihan Akademik
Bumiputera (SLAB) Scholarship from Ministry of Higher Education under Universiti
Teknologi Mara (UiTM) Young Lecturer Scheme Programme.
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LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Nurhaliza, M.S., Roslan, I., Siti Zaharah, S., and Hun, K.S. (2015). Temporal changes
of nutrient concentrations in lateritic soil under Harumanis mango cultivation.
Poster. Proceedings of the Soil Science Conference of Malaysia. Putrajaya,
Malaysia. 7-9th April 2015. pp. 172-175.
Nurhaliza, M.S., Roslan, I., Siti Zaharah, S., Elisa, A.A. and Malisa, M.N. (2017).
Variability of selected lateritic soil properties under mango cultivation in the
north region, Peninsular Malaysia. Open Journal of Soil Science (submitted).