UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

ABOLFATH MORADI

FP 2012 60

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION PRACTICES ON SOIL PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES IN A

NON-TERRACED OIL PALM PLANTATION

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EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT SOIL AND WATER

CONSERVATION PRACTICES ON SOIL

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES IN A

NON-TERRACED OIL PALM PLANTATION

ABOLFATH MORADI

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

2012

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EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

PRACTICES ON SOIL PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES IN A

NON-TERRACED OIL PALM PLANTATION

By

ABOLFATH MORADI

Thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia,

in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

April 2012

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DEDICATION

Dedicated to allah

my parents

wife

and

my lovely son “Kooshan”

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Abstract of thesis presented to the senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment

of the requirements of the degree for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

PRACTICES ON SOIL PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES IN A

NON-TERRACED OIL PALM PLANTATION

By

ABOLFATH MORADI

April 2012

Chairman: Christopher Teh Boon Sung, PhD

Faculty: Agriculture

Malaysia is the one of the two largest palm oil producers in the world and hence

produces a huge amount of oil palm residues every year. Utilization of these residues

as mulch and silt pitting are common practices used to conserve soil nutrients and

water on non-terraced sloping lands and to improve soil physical and chemical

properties linked to soil fertility. Therefore, a 3-year field experiment was set up to

compare the effects of soil mulching with three different oil palm residues i.e. pruned

oil palm fronds were considered as control, oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) and

Eco-mat (ECO) which is a carpet like material made from EFB; and silt pitting on

the soil physical and chemical properties and water conservation on a non-terraced

oil palm plantation. EFB (37.5 t ha-1

y-1

) and ECO sheets were applied annually on

the soil surface as a single layer and pruned oil palm fronds (24 fronds per palm per

year) were continually loaded in frond heaps. The silt pits were constructed by

digging a trench along the hill contour, so that each one had a dimension of 4.0, 1.0,

and 0.5 m in length, width, and depth, respectively. Soil samples from 0-0.15, 0.15-

0.30 and 0.30-0.45 m depths were collected every three months for the first two years

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from each treatment plot and analyzed for organic C, total N, available P,

exchangeable- K, Ca and Mg, pH, CEC, aggregate size distribution and aggregate

stability. Soil bulk density, total porosity, water retention at different soil suctions,

available water content and pore size distribution were also determined for 0-0.15

and 0.15-0.30 m soil depths. Soil water content up to 0.75 m depth was also

measured daily. Frond No. 17 of the palms contributed to each plot was sampled

every six months and analyzed for N, P, K, Ca and Mg. In the third year,

decomposition and nutrient release patterns of the EFB, Eco-mat, pruned oil palm

fronds and its components (leaflets and rachis) were also evaluated. Results showed

that various oil palm residues had almost different patterns of decomposition and

nutrient releases. EFB increased soil organic C, aggregate stability, mean weight

diameter of soil aggregate, soil available water content, relative proportion of soil

mesopores, pH, N, exchangeable K, Ca and Mg and improved oil palm leaf N, P, K,

and Mg levels significantly. However, soil bulk density, total porosity, water

retention at saturation and permanent wilting point, soil CEC and leaf Ca

concentration were not affected by the soil conservation practices significantly. The

effects of ECO and silt pitting on soil properties and oil palm nutrition were

statistically the same and not different from control. Soil water content was also

increased as a result of EFB mulching and silt pitting practices. However, silt pitting

was not as effective as EFB in increasing water content in the topsoil. Therefore,

utilization of the EFB as mulch is recommended for the purpose of increasing soil

physical and chemical properties and water conservation in non-terraced oil palm

plantations.

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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia

sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah

KESAN BEBERAPA AMALAN PEMULIHARAAN TANAH DAN AIR

KEATAS SIFAT-SIFAT FIZIK DAN KIMIA TANAH DI LADANG KELAPA

SAWIT YANG TIDAK DITERES

Oleh

ABOLFATH MORADI

April 2012

Pengerusi: Christopher Teh Boon Sung, PhD

Fakulti: Pertanian

Malaysia adalah satu daripada dua pengeluar terbesar minyak kelapa sawit di dunia.

Maka, Malaysia menghasilkan sejumlah besar sisa-sisa kelapa sawit setiap tahun.

Penggunaan sisa-sisa ini sebagai sungkupan dan perangkap kelodak adalah amalan

yang biasa digunakan untuk memulihara nutrien tanah dan air pada tanah bercerun

yang tidak diteres dan untuk memperbaiki sifat-sifat fizik dan kimia tanah yang

berkaitan dengan kesuburan tanah. Oleh itu, satu kajian ladang selama tiga tahun

telah dijalankan untuk membandingkan kesan empat amalan pemuliharaan tanah dan

air ke atas sifat-sifat fizikal dan kimia tanah dan pemuliharaan air ke atas ladang

kelapa sawit yang tidak diteres. Tiga daripada amalan pemuliharaan tersebut adalah

daripada sisa kelapa sawit: cantasan pelepah kelapa sawit (diambil sebagai kawalan),

tandan kelapa sawit kosong (EFB) dan Ecomat (ECO) (sejenis karpet yang diperbuat

daripada EFB). Amalan pemuliharan tanah dan air keempat adalah perangkap

kelodak. Aplikasi EFB (37.5 tan hektar-1

tahun-1

) dan kepingan-kepingan ECO dibuat

setiap tahun ke atas permukaan tanah dengan satu lapisan dan cantasan pelepah

kelapa sawit (24 pelepah per pokok per tahun) ditimbunkan setiap bulan. Perangkap

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kelodak dibina dengan menggali lubang di sepanjang kontur bukit, dimana setiap

satu mempunyai ukuran 4.0, 1.0 dan 0.5 m untuk panjang, lebar dan kedalaman

masing-masing. Sampel tanah dari kedalaman 0-0.15, 0.15-0.30 dan 0.30-0.45 m

diambil setiap tiga bulan untuk dua tahun yang pertama daripada setiap plot rawatan

dan dianalisis untuk organik C, jumlah N, P tersedia, kation pertukaran K, Ca dan

Mg, serta pH, CEC, taburan saiz agregat dan kestabilan agregat. Ketumpatan pukal

tanah, jumlah keliangan, sifat pegangan air tanah, kandungan air tersedia dan taburan

liang saiz juga ditentukan untuk kedalaman tanah 0-0.15 dan 0.15-0.30 m.

Kandungan air tanah hingga kedalaman tanah 0.75 m juga diukur setiap hari. Pelepah

sawit no. 17 pada setiap plot disampel setiap enam bulan dan dianalisis untuk N, P,

K, Ca dan Mg. Dalam tahun ketiga, corak kadar pereputan dan pembebasan nutrien

oleh EFB, ECO, cantasan pelepah kelapa sawit dan komponennya (bahagian daun

dan tulang belakang yang menyokong struktur daun) juga dinilai. Keputusan

menunjukkan setiap jenis sisa kelapa sawit mempunyai pola pereputan dan

pembebasan nutrien yang agak berbeza. EFB meningkatkan organik C tanah,

kestabilan agregat, pengagregatan, kandungan tanah air tersedia, relatif nisbah liang

meso tanah, pH, N, kation pertukaran K, Ca dan Mg, serta memperbaiki tahap N, P,

K dan Mg daun kelapa sawit dengan nyata. Walau bagaimanapun, ketumpatan pukal

tanah, jumlah keliangan, takat air tanah tepu dan takat layu tetap, CEC tanah dan

kepekatan Ca daun tidak dipengaruhi oleh amalan pemuliharan tanah dengan nyata.

Kesan ECO dan perangkap kelodak ke atas sifat-sifat tanah dan nutrien kelapa sawit

secara statistiknya adalah sama dan tidak berbeza daripada kawalan. Kandungan air

tanah juga meningkat akibat daripada EFB dan perangkap kelodak. Walau

bagaimanapun, perangkap kelodak tidak berkesan seperti EFB dalam meningkatkan

kandungan air dalam tanah lapisan atas. Oleh itu, penggunaan EFB sebagai

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sungkupan adalah dicadangkan untuk tujuan meningkatkan sifat-sifat fizikal dan

kimia tanah dan pemuliharaan air dalam ladang kelapa sawit yang tidak diteres.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I wish to express my utmost thank and gratitude to Almighty

Allah SWT for his blessings and giving me the ability and capacity to complete this

dissertation.

I wish also to express my most sincere gratitude and deepest appreciation to my

supervisor, Dr. Christopher Teh Boon Sung, for his kindness, continuous support,

fruitful advice and invaluable guidance, and for encouraging and inspiring me during

the period of this study.

I am also very grateful to other members of my supervisory committee, Associate

Professor Dr. Ahmad Husni Mohd Hanif and Associate Professor Dr. Che Fauziah

Ishak for their kindness, support, constructive comments, very helpful suggestions

and insights which contributed to many aspects of this study and improved the

quality of this dissertation.

I would like to thank Associate Professor Dr. Anuar Abd. Rahim who always

supported me statistically, Professor Wan Sulaiman Wan Harun for his fruitful

comments and discussion, Professor Dr. Mohd Khanif Yusop and Associate

Professor Dr Radziah Othman for their helpful recommendations.

I would like to thank all the lecturers in UPM who taught me a lot of things which

improved my knowledge to conduct this study.

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I would also like to thank Mr. Goh Kah Joo from Applied Agriculture Research

(AAR) Sdn. Bhd. for providing the place and required materials, his valuable advice

and comments, and his colleagues, Madam Petronella Gerald Ah Tung, Mr. Subra

and his field workers at Balau Estate for their cooperation in this study.

This research is funded by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation,

Malaysia (Project No.05-01-04-SF0632). I am grateful and highly appreciated to this

Ministry for its financial support to this study.

I would like to thank the laboratory and supporting staff at the Dept. of Land

Resource Management, Universiti Putra Malaysia for their help throughout my

doctoral study.

I would also like to thank my friends, Ali shahriary, Hadi Memarian, Khirun Nisa

Kamarudin, Jane Anak Iba and Hassan Mokhtarpour for their help during this study.

My high appreciation goes to Universiti Putra Malaysia and Agricultural Research,

Education and Extension Organization of Iran as these organizations gave me an

opportunity to do my PhD in Malaysia.

I would also like to thank my brothers and sister who always encouraged and

supported me. Without their emotional and financial support, it would be impossible

for me to finish this study.

Last but not least, I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my beloved parents, wife

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and lovely son “Kooshan” for their endless encouragements, patience and sacrifices

who helped me finish this study.

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APROVAL

I certify that a Thesis Examination Committee has met on 17 April 2012 to conduct

the final examination of Abolfath Moradi on his thesis entitled "Effects of different

soil and water conservation practices on soil physical and chemical properties in a

non-terraced oil palm plantation" in accordance with the Universities and University

Colleges Act 1971 and the Constitution of the Universiti Putra Malaysia [P.U.(A)

106] 15 March 1998. The Committee recommends that the student be awarded the

Doctor of Philosophy.

Members of the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows:

Mohd Khanif Yusop, PhD

Professor

Faculty of Agriculture

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Chairman)

Shamsuddin Jusop, PhD

Professor

Faculty of Agriculture

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Internal Examiner)

Hamdan Jol, PhD

Associate Professor

Faculty of Agriculture

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Internal Examiner)

MD. RAFIQUL ISLAM, PhD

Professor Department of Soil Science Bangladesh Agricultural University Bangladesh (External Examiner)

SEOW HENG FONG, PhD

Professor and Deputy Dean

School Of Graduate Studies

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date:

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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been

accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows:

Christopher Teh Boon Sung, PhD Faculty of Agriculture

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Chairman)

Ahmad Husni Mohd Hanif, PhD

Associate Professor

Faculty of Agriculture

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Member)

Che Fauziah Ishak, PhD

Associate Professor

Faculty of Agriculture

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Member)

________________________________

BUJANG BIN KIM HUAT, PhD

Professor and Dean

School of Graduate Studies

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date:

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DECLARATION

I declare that the thesis is my original work except for quotations and citations which

have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously, and is

not concurrently, submitted for any other degree at University Putra Malaysia or at

any other institution.

ABOLFATH MORADI

Date: 9/5/2012

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page DEDICATION iii

ABSTRACT iv

ABSTRAK vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix

APPROVAL xii

DECLARATION xiv

LIST OF TABLES xvii

LIST OF FIGURES xix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxii

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7 2.1 Surface runoff and soil erosion in oil palm plantations 7

2.2 Soil and water conservation practices 8

2.2.1 Terracing 8 2.2.2 Mulch 9 2.2.3 Silt pitting 50

3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 59

3.1 Site description and experimental design 59

3.2 Sampling and sample preparation 65

3.2.1 Mulch 65

3.2.2 Soil 66

3.2.3 Plant 67

3.3 Soil chemical and physical analyses 68

3.4 Mulch and plant chemical analyses 73

3.5 Decomposition of mulching materials 74

3.5.1 Nutrients release by oil palm residue mulches 76

3.6 Statistical analysis 77

4 RESULTS 79

4.1 Characteristics of oil palm residues 79

4.2 Decomposition of oil palm residues 82

4.3 Changes in nutrient concentrations of oil palm residues during

decomposition

84

4.4 Nutrients release during oil palm residues decomposition 88

4.4.1 Carbon (C) release 88

4.4.2 Nitrogen (N) release 89

4.4.3 C/N ratio 91

4.4.4 Phosphorous (P) release 93

4.4.5 Potassium (K) release 94

4.4.6 Calcium (Ca) release 95

4.4.7 Magnesium (Mg) release 96

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4.5 Changes in soil properties due to soil and water conservation practices 97

4.5.1 Soil chemical properties 97

4.5.2 Soil physical properties 113

4.6 Effects of soil and water conservation practices soil water content 122

4.7 Effects of soil and water conservation practices on oil palm leaf

nutrient contents

126

4.7.1 Leaf N level 127

4.7.2 Leaf K and Mg levels 128

4.7.3 Leaf P level 130

5 DISCUSSION 131 5.1 Characteristics of oil palm residue mulches 131

5.2 Decomposition of oil palm residue mulches 132

5.3 Soil chemical properties 142

5.4 Soil physical properties 153

5.5 Soil water content 161

5.6 Oil palm leaf nutrients 165

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE

RESEARCH

168

6.1 Conclusion 168

6.2 Recommendations for future research 171

REFERENCES 172

BIODATA OF STUDENT 192 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

193